THE  LIBRARY 

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DICTIONARY 


T 


OP 


THE  HOLY  BIBLE, 


FOR  GENERAL  USE 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES; 


WITH 


ENGRAVINGS,  MAPS,  AND  TABLES, 


PUBLISHED   BY  THE 
AMERICAN   TRACT    SOCIETY, 

NEW    YORK:    150    NASSAU-STREET. 


ENTERED  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by  the  AMERICAN  TRACT 
SOCIETY,  in  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New 
York. 


LOAN  STACK 
SIFT 


PREFACE. 


THIS  work  is  based  on  "  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible,  for 
the  use  of  Schools  and  Young  Persons,  by  Edward  Robinson, 
D.  D.,"  issued  in  1833,  by  Messrs.  Crocker  and  Brewster,  Boston. 
The  use  of  the  copy-right  of  that  volume  having  been  procured 
from  the  publishers,  about  two-thirds  of  it  are  embodied  m  these 
pages,  constituting  about  one-third  of  the  whole:  but  without  any 
participation  or  responsibility  on  the  part  of  Dr.  Robinson.  His 
own  later  biblical  works,  including  his  Researches  in  Palestine, 
afford  invaluable  aids  to  the  Bible  student,  which  have  been  freely 
used  in  the  preparation  of  the  present  volume.  Much  aid  has 
also  been  drawn  from  the  Bible  Dictionaries  of  Rev.  John  Brown 
of  Haddington,  and  Professor  Eadie  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
church,  Scotland ;  Bost,  of  Switzerland  ;  Kitto,  and  other  sources  ; 
while  the  accuracy  of  all  that  has  been  inserted  has  been  studi 
ously  tested,  in  every  case  as  far  as  possible,  by  a  comparison 
with  the  only  infallible  standard,  the  inspired  word  itself. 

The  aim  of  this  work  and  the  principles  on  which  it  has  been 
prepared,  cannot  be  better  expressed  than  in  the  language  of 
Dr.  Robinson  in  1833,  in  his  preface  to  the  work  on  which  it  is 
based. 

"  In  the  present  work,"  he  says,  "  the  Editor  has  aimed  to  give 
only  the  results  of  his  previous  investigations  ;  and  to  present  them 
in  such  a  form  as  may  ue  attractive  and  useful  to  the  very  large 
class  of  young  persona  and  others,  who  may  be  supposed  to  take 
an  interest  in  this  species  of  knowledge.  There  are  doubtless 
thousands  of  such  persons,  especially  females,  to  whom  the  infor 
mation  contained  in  this  small  volume  would  be  in  a  high  decree 

135 


PREFACE. 

interesting  and  instructive ;  but  who,  nevertheless,  would  never 
think  of  seeking  for  it  in  the  larger  and  more  learned  volumes  in 
which  it  is  usually  contained. 

"  It  has  everywhere  been  my  endeavor,  not  to  omit  any  re 
sults,  or  any  information,  which  might  be  useful  to  the  classes  of 
readers  for  whom  this  volume  is  more  particularly  designed.  The 
processes  of  induction  and  reasoning,  the  allusions  to  the  original 
Hebrew  and  Greek  of  the  Scriptures,  have  of  course  been  passed 
by;  and  also  all  the  references  to  sources  and  authorities,  except-, 
ing  to  the  Bible  itself.  These  last  I  have  endeavored  to  render 
full  and  correct. 

"If  I  may  be  permitted  to  advise  in  respect  to  the  mode  of 
using  this  little  volume,  I  would  strongly  recommend  that  it  be 
read  and  studied  chiefly  as  a  companion  of  the  Bible,  and  always 
with  the  Bible  in  the  hand  ;  and  that  every  reference  to  the  sacred 
volume  be  immediately  looked  out,  and  the  passages,  or  the  sense 
of  them,  faithfully  impressed  upon  the  memory.  In  this  way,  not 
only  will  a  great  amount  of  biblical  knowledge  be  acquired  by 
degrees,  but  the  mind  of  the  learner,  by  thus  comparing  the  state 
ments  of  facts  with  the  authorities  on  which  they  rest,  is  ever 
gaining  discipline  and  strength,  and  learning  to  '  prove  all  things, 
and  hold  fast  that  which  is  good.7 

"That,  through  this  little  work  the  Editor  may  be  useful  in 
his  day  and  generation  to  his  youthful  friends,  by  enlarging  and 
facilitating  their  acquaintance  with  that  HOLY  BOOK  in  which 
alone  are  contained  the  words  of  eternal  life,  and  treasures  of 
wisdom  that  will  never  fail,  is  his  sincere  and  fervent  prayer." 
NEW  YORK,  1859. 


DICTIONARY 


OP 


THE  HOLY  BIBLE. 


A,  the  first  letter  in  almost  all  alpha 
bets.  In  Hebrew,  it  is  called  aleph;  in 
Greek,  alpha,  the  last  letter  in  the  Greek 
alphabet  being  omega.  Both  the  He 
brews  and  Greeks  used  their  letters  as 
numerals ;  and  hence  A  (akph  or  alpha) 
denoted  one,  or  the  first.  So  our  Lord  says, 
"I  am  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginning 
and  the  end,  the  first  and  the  last ;"  thus 
declaring  his  eternity,  and  that  he  is  the 
cause  and  end  of  all  things,  Rev.  1 : 8, 
11 ;  21 :  6  ;  22 : 13.  Compare  Isa.  44 :  6  ; 
48  : 12  ;  Col.  1 : 15-18. 

AAR'OX,  the  son  of  Amram  and  Joch- 
ebed,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  brother 
of  Moses  and  Miriam,  Ex.  6  :  20 ;  born 
about  the  j^ear  A.  M.  2430;  B.C.  1574.  He 
was  three  years  older  than  Moses,  Ex. 
7:7;  and  was  the  spokesman  and  assist 
ant  of  the  latter  in  bringing  Israel  out 
of  Egypt,  Ex.  4  : 16.  His  wife  was  Eli- 
sheba,  daughter  of  Amminadab  ;  and  his 
sons,  Nadab,  Abihu,  Eleazar,  and  Itha- 
mar.  He  was  83  years  old  when  God 
summoned  him  to  join  Moses  in  the  des 
ert  near  Horeb.  Cooperating  with  his 
brother  in  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  Ex. 
4-16,  he  held  up  his  hands  in  the  bat 
tle  with  Amalek,  Ex.  17  ;  and  ascended 
mount  Sinai  with  him  to  see  the  glory  of 
God,  Ex.  24:1,2,  9-11. 

Aaron's  chief  distinction  consisted  in 
the  choice  of  him  and  his  male  posterity 
for  the  priesthood.  He  was  consecrated 
the  first  high-priest  by  God's  directions, 
Ex.  28,  29 ;  Lev.  8 ;  and  was  afterwards 
confirmed  in  his  office  by  the  destruction 
of  Korah  and  his  company,  by  the  stay 
ing  of  the  plague  at  his  intercession,  and 
by  the  budding  of  his  rod,  Num.  16,  17.  i 


He  was  faithful  and  self-sacrificing  in  the 
duties  of  his  office,  and  meekly  "held  his 
peace ' '  when  his  sons  Nadab  and  Abihu 
were  slain,  Lev.  10 : 1-3.  Yet  he  fell 
sometimes  into  grievous  sins:  he  made 
the  golden  calf  at  Sinai,  Ex.  32  ;  he  join 
ed  Miriam  in  sedition  against  Moses, 
Num.  12 ;  and  with  Moses  disobeyed  God 
at  Kadesh,  Num.  20 :  8-12.  God,  there 
fore,  did  not  permit  him  to  enter  the 
promised  land;  but  he  died  on  mount 
Hor,  in  Edom,  in  the  fortieth  year  after 
leaving  Egypt,  at  the  age  of  about  123 
years,  Num.  20:22-29;  33:39.  In 
Deut.  10 : 6,  he  is  said  to  have  died  at 
Mosera,  which  was  probably  the  station 
in  the  valley  west  of  mount  Hor,  whence 
he  ascended  into  the  mount.  The  Arabs 
still  pretend  to  show  his  tomb  on  the 
mount,  and  highly  venerate  it.  In  his 
office  as  high-priest,  Aaron  was  an  emi 
nent  type  of  Christ,  being  "called  of 
God,"  and  anointed;  bearing  the  names 
of  the  tribes  on  his  breast ;  communicat 
ing  God's  will  by  Urim  and  Thummim  ; 
entering  the  Most  Holy  place  on  the  Day 
of  Atonement, ' '  not  without  blood ;' '  and 
interceding  for  and  blessing  the  people 
of  God.  See  PRIEST. 

AAR'ONITES,  descendants  of  Aaron 
the  high-priest,  so  called  1  Chr.  12  :  27  ; 
27  : 17.  Thirteen  cities  were  assigned  to 
them,  in  Judah  and  Benjamin,  Josh. 
21 :  13-19  ;  1  Chr.  6  :  57-60. 

AB,  father,  found  in  many  compound 
Hebrew  proper  names  :  as  Abner,  father 
of  light ;  Absalom,  father  of  peace. 

AB.  The  fifth  month  of  the  sacred, 
and  the  eleventh  of  the  civil  year  among 
the  Jews.  It  began,  according  to  the 
5 


ABA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


latest  authorities,  with  the  new  moon 
c.  August.  It  was  a  sad  month  in  the 
o  ewish  calendar.  On  its  first  day,  a  fast 
was  observed  for  the  death  of  Aaron, 
Num.  33  :  38 ;  and  on  its  ninth,  another 
was  held  in  memory  of  the  divine  edicts 
waich  excluded  so  many  that  came  out 
<x?  Lgypt  from  entering  the  promised 


land  ;  and  also,  of  the  overthrow  ci  the 
first  and  second  temple.     See  MONTH 

ABAD'DON,  or  APOL'LYON.  The  for 
mer  name  is  Hebrew,  and  the  latter 
Greek,  and  both  signify  the  destroyer, 
Rev.  9  : 11.  He  is  called  the  "angel  cl 
the  abyss,"  that  is,  the  angel  of  death, 
or  the  destroying  angei. 


RIVER  ABANA.  NOW  BARADA,  AND  DAMASCUS. 


AB'ANA,  and  PHAR'PAR,  rivers  of  Da 
mascus,  2  Kin.  5  : 12.  The  Abana,  (or, 
as  in  the  margin,  Amana,)  was  undoubt 
edly  the  present  Barada,  the  Chrysor- 
rhoas  of  the  Greeks.  It  is  a  clear,  cold, 
and  swift  mountain  stream,  rising  in 
Anti-Lebanon,  north-east  of  Hermon, 
flowing  south-east  into  the  plain,  and 
near  Damascus  turning  eastward,  skirt 
ing  the  northern  wall  of  the  city,  and 
terminating  20  miles  east  in  one  of  three 
large  lakes.  It  is  a  perennial  river,  and 
so  copious,  that  though  no  less  than  nine 
or  ten  branches  or  canals  are  drawn  off 
from  it  to  irrigate  the  plain  and  supply 
the  city  and  the  villages  around  it,  the 
stream  is  a  large  one  to  the  end. 

The  only  other  independent  river  of 
any  size  in  the  territory  of  Damascus  is 
the  Awaj,  which  crosses  the  plain  south  of 
Damascus,  and  enters  the  southernmost 
of  the  three  lakes  above  referred  to.  This 
is  supposed  to  be  the  Pharpar  of  the  Bi 
ble.  As  these  rivers  of  Damascus  were 
never  dry,  but  made  the  region  they  wa 
tered  like  the  garden  of  Eden  for  fertil 


ity  and  beauty,  Naaman  might  well  con 
trast  them  with  most  of  ' '  the  waters  of 
Israel,"  which  dry  up  under  the  summer 
sun.  See  AMANA. 

AB'ARIM,  mountains  east  of  the  Dead 
sea  and  the  lower  Jordan,  "over  against 
Jericho,"  within  the  territory  of  Moab 
and  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  It  is  impossi 
ble  to  define  exactly  their  extent.  The 
mountains  Nebo,  Pisgah,  and  Peor  were 
in  the  Abarim,  Num.  27  : 12  ;  33:47,  48  ; 
Deut.  32:49;  34:1.  Ije-abarim,  Num. 
21 : 11,  seems  to  denote  the  southern  part 
of  the  same  chain. 

AB'BA,  a  Syriac  word  signifying  father. 
When  the  Jews  came  to  speak  Greek, 
this  word  may  have  been  retained  from 
their  ancient  language,  as  being  easier 
to  pronounce,  especially  for  children, 
than  the  Greek  pater.  It  expresses  the 
peculiar  tenderness,  familiarity,  and  con 
fidence  of  the  love  between  parent  and 
child,  Mark  14: 36  ;  Rom.  8:15  ;  Gal.  4:6. 

ABED'NEGO,  servant  ofNcgo;  a  Chal- 
dee  name  given  to  Azariah,  one  of  the 
three  captive  young  princes  of  Judah, 


ABE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABI 


who  were  Daniel's  companions  at  the 
court  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  Dan.  1 :  7. 
Their  virtue,  wisdom,  and  piety  secured 
their  promotion  at  court,  Dan.  1 :  3-19  ; 
2  : 17,  49 ;  and  their  steadfastness  in  wit 
nessing  for  God  among  idolaters,  with 
their  deliverance  from  the  fiery  furnace 
by  the  Angel- Jehovah,  led  many  to  ac 
knowledge  the  true  God,  and  rendered 
these  pious  youth  for  ever  illustrious  as 
monuments  of  the  excellence  and  safety 
of  faith  in  Him,  Dan.  3  ;  Heb.  11 :  34. 
bee  FURNACE. 

A' BEL,  the  second  son  of  Adam  and 
Eve.  He  became  a  shepherd,  and  offered 
to  God  a  sacrifice  from  his  flocks,  at  the 
same  time  that  Cain  his  brother  offered 
of  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  God  had  re 
spect  to  Abel' s  sacrifice,  and  not  to  Cain' s ; 
hence  Cain  in  anger  killed  Abel,  Gen. 
4.  It  was  ' '  by  faith' '  that  Abel  offered 
a  more  acceptable  sacrifice  than  Cain  ; 
that  is,  his  heart  was  right  towards  God, 
and  he  worshipped  Him  in  trustful  obe 
dience  to  the  divine  directions.  His  of 
fering,  made  by  the  shedding  of  blood, 
was  that  of  a  penitent  sinner  confiding 
in  the  atonement  ordained  of  God  ;  and 
it  was  accepted,  ' '  God  testifying  of  his 
gifts,"  probably  by  fire  from  heaven  ; 
' '  by  which  he  obtained  witness  that  he 
was  righteous,"  that  is,  justified,  Heb. 
11:4.  "  The  blood  of  Abel ' '  called  from 
the  ground  for  vengeance,  Gen.  4 :  10 ; 
but  the  blood  of  Christ  claims  forgive 
ness  and  salvation  for  his  people,  Heb. 
12 : 24  ;  1  John  1 :  7. 

ABEL  is  also  a  prefix  in  the  names  of 
several  towns.  In  such  cases  it  signifies 
a  grassy  place  or  meadow. 

ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH,  meadow  of 
the  house  of  Maachah;  a  town  in  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali,  north  of  lake  Merom.  It 
was  besieged  in  the  rebellion  of  Sheba,  2 
Sam.  20  : 13-22 ;  eighty  years  afterwards 
it  was  taken  by  Ben-hadad,  1  Kin.  15:20, 
and  again,  after  200  years,  by  Tiglath- 
pileser,  2  Kin.  15:29.  It  is  called  Abel- 
maim  in  2  Chr.  16 : 4.  Compare  1  Kin. 
15:20.  Also  simply  Abel,  2  Sam.  20:18. 

ABEL-CAEMA'IM,  meadow  of  vineyards  ; 
a  village  of  the  Ammonites,  six  miles 
from  Rabbath-Ammon ;  in  the  history  of 
Jephthah  it  is  called  "the  plain  of  the 
vineyards,"  Judg.  11 :  33. 

ABEL-MEHO'LAH,  or  ABEL-MEA,  a 
town  of  Issachar,  near  the  Jordan,  ten 
miles  south  of  Beth-shean.  Near  this 
place  Gideon  defeated  the  Midianites, 


Judg.  7  :  22 ;  and  here  Elisha  was  born, 
1  Kin.  19:16. 

ABEL-MIZEA'IM,  meadow  of  the  Egyp 
tians;  so  called  from  the  seven  days'  lam 
entation  of  Joseph  and  his  company,  on 
bringing  up  the  body  of  Jacob  from  Egypt 
for  burial,  Gen.  50:10,  11.  It  lay  in" the 
plain  of  Jericho,  between  that  city  and 
the  Jordan. 

ABEL-SHIT'TIM,  in  the  plains  of  Mo- 
ab,  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  near  mount 
Peor.  It  was  one  of  the  last  encamp 
ments  of  Israel  before  the  death  of  Mo 
ses,  Num.  33  : 49  ;  called  also  Shittim, 
Josh.  2  : 1.  Here  the  Israelites  Avcre  en 
ticed  by  the  women  of  Moab  and  Mid- 
ian  into  imcleanness  and  the  idolatry  of 
Baal-peor,  and  24,000  died  of  the  plague, 
Num.  25. 

ABIA,  in  the  NewTestament  the  same 
as  ABU  AH  in  the  Old  Testament,  which 
see. 

ABI  AH,  second  son  of  Samuel,  who 
appointed  his  brother  and  him  judges  in 
Israel.  Their  corruption  and  injustice 
were  the  pretext  upon  which  the  people 
demanded  a  king,  1  Sam.  8 : 1-5. 

ABI'ATHAR,  son  of  Ahimelech,  and 
tenth  high-priest  of  the  Jews.  When 
Saul  sent  his  emissaries  to  Nob,  to  de 
stroy  all  the  priests  there,  Abiathar,  who 
was  young,  fled  to  David  in  the  wilder 
ness,  1  Sam.  22  : 11-23,  with  whom  he 
continued  in  the  character  of  priest,  1 
Sam.  23  :  9  ;  30  :  7.  Being  confirmed  in 
the  high-priesthood  on  David's  accession, 
to  the  throne,  he  aided  in  bringing  up 
the  ark  to  Jerusalem,  1  Chr.  15: 11,  12, 
and  adhered  to  David  during  the  rebel 
lion  of  Absalom,  2  Sam.  15 :  35,  but  after 
wards  was  led  to  follow  Adoriijah,  thus 
strangely  betraying  his  royal  friend  in 
his  old  age.  Solomon  succeeding  to  the 
throne,  degraded  him  from  the  priest 
hood,  and  sent  him  to  Anathoth,  1  Kin. 
2 : 26,  27  ;  thus  fulfilling  the  prediction 
made  to  Eli  150  years  before,  1  Sam. 
2 : 27-36.  Saul,  it  would  appear,  had 
transferred  the  dignity  of  the  high-priest 
hood  from  the  line  of  Ithamar,  to  which 
Eli  belonged,  to  that  of  Eleazar,  by  con 
ferring  the  office  upon  Zadok.  Thus 
there  were,  at  the  same  time,  two  high- 
priests  in  Israel ;  Abiathar  with  David, 
and  Zadok  with  Saul.  This  double  priest 
hood  continued  from  the  death  of  Ahim 
elech  till  the  reign  of  Solomon,  after 
which  the  office  was  held  by  Zadok  and 
his  race  alone. 


AB1 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABI 


A  difficulty  arises  from  the  circum 
stance  that,  in  1  Kin.  2 : 27,  Abiathar  is 
said  to  be  deprived  of  the  priest's  office 
by  Solomon  ;  while  in  2  Sam.  8  : 17  ;  1 
Chr.  18  : 1C  ;  24 : 3,  6,  31,  Ahimelech  the 
son  of  Abiathar  is  said  to  be  high-priest 
along  with  Zadok.  The  most  probable 
solution  is,  that  both  father  and  son  each 
bore  the  two  names  Ahimelech  and  Abi 
athar,  as  was  not  at  all  unusual  among 
the  Jews.  See  under  ABIGAIL.  In  this 
way  also  we  may  remove  the  difficulty 
arising  from  Mark  2 : 26,  where  Abiathar 
is  said  to  have  given  David  the  show- 
bread,  in  allusion  to  1  Sam.  21  : 1-6, 
where  it  is  Ahimelech. 

A'BIB,  the  first  month  of  the  ecclesi 
astical  year  of  the  Hebrews ;  afterwards 
called  Nisan.  It  answered  nearly  to  our 
April.  Abib  signifies  green  ears  of  grain, 
or  fresh  fruits.  It  was  so  named,  be 
cause  grain,  particularly  barley,  was  in 
car  at  that  time.  Cn  the  tenth  of  this 
month  the  passover-lamb  was  set  apart ; 
it  was  killed  on  the  fourteenth  towards 
sunset,  and  eaten  the  same  evening  after 
the  fifteenth  day  had  begun.  The  seven 
days  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  twenty- 
first  inclusive,  were  "the  feast  of  unleav 
ened  bread,"  closing  with  a  solemn  con 
vocation,  Ex.  12,  13. 

ABIE'ZER,  great-grandson  of  Manas- 
seh,  Num.  20  :  29,  30,  and  founder  of  the 
family  to  which  Gideon  belonged,  Josh. 
17  :  2  ;  Judg.  6  :  34 ;  8  :  2.  In  this  last 
verse,  ' '  the  vintage  of  Abiezer ' '  means 
the  first  rout  of  the  Midianites  by  the  300, 
mostly  Abiezrites ;  and  ' '  the  gleaning  of 
the  grapes  of  Ephraim ' '  means  the  cap 
ture  of  Oreb  and  Zecb,  and  other  fruits  of 
the  victory,  gathered  by  the  Ephraimites. 

AB'IGAIL,  I.,  formerly  the  wife  of  Na- 
bal  of  Carmel,  and  afterwards  of  David. 
Upon  receiving  information  of  Nabal's 
ingratitude  to  David,  1  Sam.  25 : 14,  she 
loaded  several  asses  with  provisions,  and 
attended  l>y  some  of  her  domestics  went 
out  to  meet  him.  Her  manners  and  con 
versation  gained  for  her  his  esteem,  and 
us  soon  as  the  days  of  mourning  for  Na- 
bal's  death,  which  happened  soon  after 
wards,  were  over,  he  made  her  his  wife. 
The  issue  of  the  marriage  was,  as  some 
critics  suppose,  two  sons,  Chileab  and 
Daniel,  2  Sam.  3  :  3  ;  1  Chr.  3:1;  but  it 
is  most  probable  that  these  names  were 
borne  by  one  person. 

II.  A  sister  of  David,  and  mother  of 
Arnasa,  1  Chr.  2  : 16,  17. 


AB'IHAIL,  the  wife  of  Rehoboam,  king 
of Judah,  2 Chr.  11 : 18  ;  the  "daughter  " 
—that  is  here,  the  descendant— of  Eliab, 
David's  brother. 

ABI'HU,  the  second  son  of  Aaron,  con 
secrated  to  the  priesthood  with  his  three 
brethren,  Exod.  28  :  21 ;  but  consumed 
shortly  after  by  fire  from  the  Lord,  with 
Nadab  his  brother,  for  burning  incense 
with  common  fire  instead  of  that  kept 
perpetually  on  the  altar  of  burnt-offer 
ing,  Lev.  10  : 1-2  ;  16  : 12  ;  Num.  16  :  46. 
As  this  is  immediately  followed  by  the 
prohibition  of  wine  to  the  priests  when 
ministering  in  the  tabernacle,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  Nadab  and  Abihu  were 
intoxicated  when  thus  transgressing. 
Their  death  is  a  solemn  warning  not  to 
presume  to  worship  God  except  with  in-- 
cense  kindled  at  the  one  altar  which 
Christ  hath  sanctified,  Heb.  10:10-14. 
It  is  a  dangerous  thing,  in  the  service  of 
God,  to  decline  from  his  own  institutions. 
We  have  to  do  with  a  God  who  is  wise 
to  prescribe  his  own  worship,  just  to  re 
quire  what  he  has  prescribed,  and  pow 
erful  to  avenge  what  he  has  not  pre 
scribed. 

ABI' J AH,  I. ,  called,  in  Luke  1 : 5,  Abia ; 
founder  of  a  family  among  the  posterity 
of  Aaron.  When  David  divided  the 
priests  into  twenty-four  courses,  to  per 
form  the  temple-service  in  turn,  the 
eighth  class  was  called  after  him,  1  Chr. 
24  : 10.  To  this  class  or  course  Zacharias 
belonged. 

II.  Son  of  Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of 
Israel.  He  died  young,  and  much  be 
loved  and  lamented,  for  in  him  there 
was  found  some  good  thing  towards  the 
Lord,  1  Kin.  14  : 1-18. 

HI.  Son  of  Rehoboam,  the  first  king 
of  Judah  ;  called,  in  1  Kin.  15:1,  Abijarn. 
He  came  to  the  throne  A.  M.  3046,  and 
reigned  only  three  years.  In  war  with 
Jeroboam  he  gained  a  signal  victory,  2 
Chr.  13  ;  yet  he  followed  the  evil  example 
of  his  father.  His  mother  Maachah,  or 
Michaiah,  wras  probably  the  $w??c?-daugh- 
ter  of  Absalom,  1  Kin.  15 :  2  ;  2  Chr. 
11:20;  13:2. 

IV.  The  mother  of  king  Hezekiah,  2 
Chr.  29  : 1. 

ABILE'NE,  the  name  of  a  district  of 
country  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  Anti- 
Lebanon,  from  twelve  to  twenty  miles 
north-wrest  of  Damascus,  towards  Heli- 
opolis,  or  Baalbek;  so  called  from  the 
city  ABILA,  and  also  called  Abilene  of 


ABI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABO 


Lysanias,  to  distinguish  it  from  others. 
This  territory,  in  the  fifteenth  year  of 
Tiberius  emperor  of  Rome,  was  governed 
as  a  tetrarchate  by  a  certain  Lysanias, 
Luke  3:1. 

ABIM'ELECH,  I. ,  king  of  Gerar  of  the 
Philistines,  who  took  Sarah  into  his  ha 
rem  ;  but  being  warned  of  God  in  a 
dream,  he  restored  her  to  Abraham,  and 
gave  him  1,000  pieces  of  silver  as  a  "  cov 
ering  of  the  eyes"  for  Sarah,  that  is,  as 
an  atoning  present,  and  to  be  a  testimo 
ny  of  her  innocence  in  the  eyes  of  all. 
He  afterwards  made  a  league  with  Abra 
ham,  Gen.  20. 

II.  Another  king  of  Gerar,  probably 
son  of   the    former,  and  contemporary 
with  Isaac.     He  rebuked  Isaac  for  dis 
simulation  in   regard  to  Rebekah,  and 
afterwards  made  a  new  league  with  him 
at  Bcersheba,  Gen.  26. 

III.  A  son  of  Gideon  by  a  concubine, 
made  himself  king  of  Shcchem  after  his 
father's  death,  and  slew  his  father's  sev 
enty  sons  on  one  stone,  only  Jotham  the 
youngest  being  left.     Jotham  reproach 
ed  the  Shechemites  for  their  conduct,  in 
his  celebrated  fable  of  the  trees.     Three 
years  afterwards,  they  rose  against  Abim- 
elech ;  he  defeated  them,  and  destroyed 
their  city,  but  as  he  was  attacking  The- 
bez,  a  woman  threw  down  a  piece  of  a 
millstone  on  his  head,  which  so  injured 
him,  that  he  called  to  his  armor-bearer 
to  slay  him,  Judg.  9. 

ABIN'ADAB,  the  same  as  Aminadab, 
b  and  m  being  often  interchanged  in 
Hebrew.  I.  A  son  of  Jesse,  one  of  the 
three  who  followed  Saul  in  the  war  with 
the  Philistines,  1  Sam.  16  :  8  ;  17  : 13. 

II.  A  son  of  Saul,  slain  in  the  battle 
at  Gilboa,  1  Sam.  31  :  2. 

III.  A  Levite  of  Kirjath-jearim,   in 
whose  house  the  ark  of  God,  when  re 
stored  by  the  Philistines,  remained  sev 
enty  years,  1  Sam.  7:1;  1  Chr.  13  : 7. 

ABI'RAM,  a  prince  of  Reuben,  who 
with  Korah,  Dathan,  etc.,  conspired  to 
overthrow  the  authority  of  Moses  and 
Aaron  in  the  wilderness,  Num.  16. 

AB'ISHAG,  a  beautiful  virgin  of  Shu- 
nem,  in  Issachar,  chosen  to  marry  David 
in  his  old  age  and  cherish  him.  After 
his  death,  Adonijah  sought  her  hand  to 
promote  his  treasonable  aspirations,  and 
was  punished  by  death,  1  Kin.  1,  2. 

ABISH'AI,  a  son  of  Zeruiah,  David's 
sister,  brother  of  Joab  and  Asahel,  one 
of  the  bravest  of  David's  mighty  men, 
1* 


1  Chr.  2  : 16,  and  always  faithful  to  hif 
royal  uncle.     He  went  with  him  alone 
to  the  tent  of  Saul,  1  Sam.  26  :  7-11 ;  and 
was  a  leader  in  the  war  with  Ish-hosheth, 

2  Sam.  2  : 18,  24,  in  the  war  with  the 
Edomites,  1  Chr.  18 : 12,  13,  and  with 
the    Syrians   and    Ammonites,    2  Sam. 
10  : 10.    In  a  battle  with  the  Philistines, 
he  rescued  David,  and  slew  Ishbi-benob 
the  giant,  2  Sam.  21 : 16,  17.     He  lift- 
ed  up  his  spear  against  three  hundred, 
and  slew  them,  2  Sam.  23  : 18  ;  and  was 
with  David  in  the  affairs  of  Shimei,  Ab 
salom,  and  Sheba,  2  Sam.  16  : 9  ;  18  :  2 ; 
20:6,  7. 

ABISH'UA,  son  of  Phinehas,  and 
fourth  high-priest,  1  Chr.  6 : 50.  He  was 
probably  a  contemporary  of  Eglon  and 
Ehud,  Judg.  3. 

AB'NER,  the  son  of  Ncr,  Saul's  uncle, 
and  the  general  of  his  armies,  1  Sam. 
14  :  50.  For  seven  years  after  Saul's 
death,  he  supported  Ish-bosheth  ;  but 
being  reproved  by  him  for  his  conduct 
towards  Rizpah,  he  undertook  to  unite 
the  whole  kingdom  under  David.  He 
was,  however,  treacherously  slain  by 
Joab,  either  to  revenge  the  death  of 
Asahel,  Joab's  brother,  whom  Abncr  had 
formerly  killed,  or  more  probably  from 
jealousy.  David  abhorred  this  perfid 
ious  act,  and  composed  an  elegy  on  his 
death,  2  Sam.  2  :  8  ;  3  :  33.  He  also 
charged  Solomon  to  punish  the  crime  of 
Joab  with  death,  1  Kin.  2  : 5,  6. 

ABOMINATION,  a  term  applied  in 
Scripture  to  objects  of  great  detestation. 
|  Idols  and  their  worship  were  so  named, 
because  they  robbed  God  of  his  honor, 
I  while  the  rites  themselves  were  impure 
I  and  cruel,  Dent.  7  : 25,  26  ;  12  :  31.  The 
term  was  used  respecting  the  Hebrews  in 
Egypt,  Gen.  43  :  32,  Ex.  8 :  26,  either 
because  they  ate  and  sacrificed  animals 
held  sacred  by  the  Egyptians,  or  be 
cause  they  did  not  observe  those  cere 
monies  in  eating  which  made  a  part  of 
the  religion  of  Egypt ;  and  in  Gen.  46 : 34, 
because  they  were  "  wandering  shep 
herds,"  a  raee  of  whom  had  grievously 
oppressed  Egypt. 

The  ABOMINATION  OF  DESOLATION  fore 
told  by  Daniel,  9  :  27,  denotes,  probably, 
the  image  of  Jupiter,  erected  in  the  tem 
ple  of  Jerusalem  by  command  of  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes,  2  Mac.  6  :  2  ;  1  Mac.  6 :  7. 
But  by  the  Abomination  of  Desolation 
spoken  of  by  our  Lord,  Matt.  24 :  15 ; 
Mark  13  : 14,  and  foretold  as  about  to  be 


ABR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ABR 


seen  at  Jerusalem  during  the  last  siege 
of  that  city  by  the  Romans  under  Titus, 
is  probably  meant  the  Roman  army, 
whose  standards  had  the  images  of  their 
gods  and  emperors  upon  them,  and  were 


worshipped  in  the  precincts  of  the  tem 
ple  when  that  and  the  city  were  taken. 
Luke  21:20.  See  ARMOR. 

A'BRAM,  high  father,  afterwards  named 
ABRAHAM,  father  of  a  multitude,  Gen. 
17:4,  5  ;  the  great  founder  of  the  Jewish 
nation.  He  was  a  son  of  Terah,  a  de 
scendant  of  Shem,  and  born  in  Ur,  a  city 
of  Chaldea,  A.  M.  2008,  B.  c.  1996,  Gen. 
11:27,  28.  Here  he  lived  seventy  years, 
when  at  the  call  of  God  he  left  his  idol 
atrous  kindred,  and  removed  to  Haran, 
in  Mesopotamia,  Acts  7:2-4,  accompa 
nied  by  his  father,  his  wife  Sarai,  his 
brother  Nahor,  and  his  nephew  Lot.  A 
few  years  after,  having  buried  his  father, 
he  again  removed  at  the  call  of  God, 
with  his  wife  and  nephew,  and  entered 
the  land  of  promise  as  a  nomadc  or  wan 
dering  shepherd.  Sojourning  for  a  time 
at  Shechem,  he  built  here,  as  was  his  cus 
tom,  an  altar  to  the  Lord,  who  appeared 
to  him,  and  promised  that  land  to  his 
seed.  Removing  from  place  to  place  for 
convenience  of  water  and  pasturage,  he 
was  at  length  driven  by  a  famine  into 
Egypt,  where  he  dissembled  in  calling 
his  wife  his  sister,  Gen.  12.  Returning 
to  Canaan  rich  in  nocks  and  herds,  he 
left  Lot  to  dwell  in  the  fertile  valley  of 
the  lower  Jordan,  and  pitched  his  own 
tents  in  Mamre,  Gen.  13.  A  few  years 
after,  he  rescued  Lot  and  his  friends  from 
10 


captivity,  and  received  the  blessing  of 
Melchizedek,  Gen.  14.  Again  God  ap 
peared  to  him,  promised  that  his  seed 
should  be  like  the  stars  for  number,  and 
foretold  their  oppression  in  Egypt  400 
years,  and  their  return  to  possess  .the 
promised  land,  Gen.  15.  But  the  prom 
ise  of  a  son  being  yet  unfulfilled,  Sarai 
gave  him  Hagar  her  maid  for  a  second 
ary  wife,  of  whom  Ishmael  was  born, 
Gen.  16.  After  thirteen  years,  God  again 
appeared  to  him,  and  assured  him  that 
the  heir  of  the  promise  should  yet  be 
born  of  his  wife,  whose  name  was  then 
changed  to  Sarah.  He  established  also 
the  covenant  of  circumcision,  Gen.  17. 
Here,  too,  occurred  the  visit  of  the  three 
angels,  and  the  memorable  intercession 
with  the  Angel-Jehovah  for  the  inhabit- 
!  ants  of  Sodom,  Gen.  18.  After  this,  Abra 
ham  journeyed  south  to  Gerah,  where  he 
again  called  Sarah  his  sister.  In  this  re 
gion  Isaac  was  born  ;  and  soon  after,  Ha 
gar  and  Ishmael  were  driven  out  to  seek 
a  new  home,  Gen.  21.  About  twenty-five 
years  after,  God  put  to  trial  the  faith  of 
Abraham,  by  commanding  him  to  sacri 
fice  Isaac,  his  son  and  the  heir  of  the 
promise,  upon  mount  Moriah,  Gen.  22. 
Twelve  years  after,  Sarah  died,  and  the 
cave  of  Machpelah  was  bought  for  a  bur 
ial-place,  Gen.  23.  Abraham  sent  his 
steward,  and  obtained  a  wife  for  Isaac 
from  his  pious  kindred  in  Mesopotamia, 
Gen.  24.  He  himself  also  married  Ke- 
turah,  and  had  six  sons,  each  one  the 
founder  of  a  distinct  people  in  Arabia. 
At  the  age  of  175,  full  of  years  and  hon 
ors,  he  died,  and  was  buried  by  his  sons 
in  the  same  tomb  with  Sarah,  Gen.  25. 

The  character  of  Abraham  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  in  Scripture.  He 
was  a  genuine  oriental  patriarch,  a  prince 
in  the  land  ;  his  property  was  large,  his 
retinue  very  numerous,  and  he  com 
manded  the  respect  of  the  neighboring 
people  :  and  yet  he  was  truly  a  stranger 
and  a  pilgrim,  the  only  land  he  pos 
sessed  being  the  burial-place  he  had  pur 
chased.  Distinguished  by  his  integrity, 
generosity,  and  hospitality,  he  was  most 
of  all  remarkable  for  his  simple  and  un 
wavering  faith,  a  faith  that  obeyed  with 
out  hesitation  or  delay,  and  recoiled  not 
from  the  most  fearful  trial  ever  imposed 
upon  man,  so  that  he  is  justly  styled 
"the  father  of  the  faithful,"  that  is,  of 
believers.  No  name  in  history  is  ven 
erated  by  so  large  a  portion  of  the  hu- 


ABS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ACH 


man  race,  Mohammedans  as  well  as  Jews 
and  Christians.  As  the  ancestor  of  Christ, 
in  whom  all  the  nations  are  tlessed,  and 
as  the  father  of  all  believers,  the  cove 
nant  is  abundantly  fulfilled  to  him  :  his 
seed  are  as  the  stars  of  heaven,  and  with 
them  he  shall  inherit  tlia  heavenly  Ca 
naan. 

ABRAHAM'S  BOSOM.  In  Luke  16 : 22, 
Lazarus  is  said  to  have  been  carried  to 
Abraham's  bosom,  that  is,  to  the  state 
of  bliss  in  paradise  'v/hich.  the  father  of 
the  faithful  was  enjoying.  This  is  often 
represented  by  a  feast,  by  sitting  down 
to  a  banquet,  Matt.  8:11 ;  Luke  13:29. 
To  lie  on  ones  bosom  refen  to  the  oriental 
mode  of  reclining  at  tab! 3,  Jolm  13:23. 
See  EATING. 

AB'SALOM,  only  son  of  David  by  Ma- 
acah,  2  Sam.  3:3.  He  was  remarkable  for 
his  beauty  and  for  his  fine  head  of  hair, 
2  Sam.  14:25,  which  being  cue  from  time 
to  time  when  it  incommoded  Mm,  used 
to  weigh  200  shekels  by  the  king's  stand 
ard,  that  is,  probably  about  thirty  ounces, 
an  extraordinary,  but  not  incredible 
weight.  Amnon,  another  of  the  king's 
sons,  having  violated  his  sister  Tamar, 
Absalom  caused  him  to  be  slain,  and 
then  tied  to  Geshur,  where  Talmai  Ms 
grandfather  was  king.  After  three  year's, 
at  the  intercession  of  Joab,  David  per 
mitted  him  to  return  to  Jerusalem,  and 
at  length  received  him  again  into  favor, 
2  Sam.  14.  Absalom,  however,  grossly 
abused  his  father's  kindness ;  he  soon 
began  to  play  the  demagogue,  and  by 
many  artful  devices  ' '  stole  the  hearts  of 
the  people,"  and  got  himself  proclaimed 
king  in  Hebron.  David  retired  from  Je 
rusalem  ;  Absalom  followed  him  ;  and  in 
the  battle  which  ensued,  the  troops  of 
the  latter  were  defeated,  and  he  himself, 
being  caught  by  his  head  in  a  tree,  was 
found  and  slain  by  Joab.  David  was 
much  affected  by  his  death,  and  uttered 
bitter  lamentations  over  him,  2  Sam. 
18:33. 

His  history  affords  instructive  lessons 
to  the  young  against  the  sins  to  which 
they  are  prone,  particularly  vanity,  am 
bition,  lawless  passions,  and  filial  diso 
bedience. 

AC'CAD,  one  of  the  four  cities  built  in 
the  plain  of  Shinar  by  Nimrod,  founder 
of  the  Assyrian  empire,  Gen.  10:10.  Its 
site  is  identified  by  some  travellers  with 
ruins  which  lie  from  six  to  nine  miles 
west  of  Bagdad.  There  is  here  a  ruin 


ous  structure  called  Tell-i-nimrood,  Hill 
of  Nimrod,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  brick 
work  400  feet  in  circumference  at  the 
base,  and  125  feet  high,  standing  on  a 
mound  of  rubbish.  More  recently,  Col. 
Rawlinson  claims  that  the  site  of  Accad 
was  at  a  place  now  called  Niffer,  amid 
the  marshes  of  Southern  Babylonia. 

AC'CHO,  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Asher, 
Judg.  1:31.  In  the  New  Testament,  Ac- 
cho  is  called  Ptolemais,  Acts  21:7,  from 
cne  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  enlarged  and 
beautified  it.  The  crusaders  gave  it  the 
name  of  Acre,  or  St.  John  of  Acre.  It 
is  still  called  Akka  by  the  Turks.  It  sus 
tained  several  sieges  during  the  crusades, 
and  was  the  last  fortified  place  wrested 
from  the  Christians  by  the  Turks. 

The  town  is  situated  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  thirty  miles  south  of 
Tyre,  on  the  north  angle  of  a  bay  to  which 
it  gives  its  name,  and  which  extends  in 
a  semicircle  of  three  leagues,  as  far  as 
the  point  cf  mount  Carmel,  south-west 
of  Acre.  After  its  memorable  siege  by 
Buonaparte,  when  he  was  repulsed  by  Sir 
Sidney  Smith,  in  1799,  Accho  was  much 
improved  and  strengthened,  and  its  pop 
ulation  was  estimated  at  from  18,000  to 
20,000.  It  has  since  then  suffered  great 
ly,  having  been  besieged  six  months  by 
Ibrahim  Pacha,  in  18o2,  and  bombarded 
by  an  English  feet  in  1840.  Present 
population,  (18c£,)  10,000  or  12,000. 

Accho,  and  all  the  sea-coast  beyond  it 
northwards,  was  considered  as  the  hea 
then  land  cf  the  Jews. 

ACEL'DAMA,  field  of  Hood,  a  small 
field  south  of  Jerusalem,  which  the 
priests  purchased  with  the  thirty  pieces 
of  silver  that  Judas  had  received  as  the 
price  of  our  Saviour's  blood,  Matt.  27:8  ; 
Acts  1:19.  Pretending  that  it  was  not 
lawful  to  appropriate  this  money  to  sa 
cred  uses,  because  it  was  the  price  of 
blood,  they  purchased  with  it  the  so 
called  potter's  field,  to  be  a  burying- 

?lace  for  strangers.     Judas  is  said,  Acts 
:8,  to  have  purchased  the  field,  because 
it  was  bought  with  his  money.     Tradi 
tion  points  out  this  field  on  the  steep 
side  of  the  hill  of  Evil  Counsel  overhang 
ing  the  valley  of  Hinnom  on  the  south. 
It  appears  to  have  been  used,  since  the 
time  of  the  crusaders,  as  a  sepulchre  for 
pilgrims,  and  subsequently  by  the  Ar 
menians.    At  present  it  is  not  thus  used. 
ACHA'IA  is  used  in  the  New  Testament 
for  the  wbole  region  of  Greece  south  of 
U 


ACH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ACT 


Macedonia,  including  the  Peloponnesus, 
or  Morea,  and  some  territory  north  of 
the  gulf  of  Corinth,  Acts  18:12  ;  19:21 ; 
2  Cor.  11:10.  Achaia  Proper,  however, 
was  a  province  of  Greece,  of  which  Cor 
inth  was  the  capital,  and  embraced  the 
north-western  part  of  the  Peloponnesus. 
See  GREECE. 

A'CHAN,  the  son  of  Carmi,  who  diso 
beyed  the  strict  charge  of  the  Lord,  and 
purloined  some  of  the  spoils  of  Jericho 
which  were  doomed  to  destruction.  This 
brought  a  curse  and  defeat  upon  the  peo 
ple.  He  was  discovered  by  lot,  and  ston 
ed  with  all  his  family  in  the  valley  of 
Achor,  north  of  Jericho,  Josh.  6  : 18  ; 
7 : 1-26.  He  is  called  Achar  in  1  Chr.  2:7. 

ACHISH,  king  of  Gath,  a  city  of  the 
Philistines,  to  whom  David  twice  fled  for 
protection  from  Saul.  On  the  first  occa 
sion,  being  recognized  by  the  king's  offi 
cers,  arid  thinking  his  life  in  danger,  he 
feigned  madness,  and  by  this  device  es 
caped,  1  Sam.  21:10.  Several  years  af 
ter,  he  returned  with  a  band  of  600  men, 
and  was  welcomed  by  Acliish  as  an  ene 
my  of  Saul  and  of  Israel.  Achish  gave 
him  Ziklag  for  a  residence ;  and  being 
deceived  as  to  the  views  and  operations 
of  David,  expected  his  assistance  in  a  war 
with  Israel,  but  was  persuaded  by  his 
officers  to  send  him  home  to  Ziklag,  1 
Sam.  27-29. 

ACH'METHA,  Ezra  6  :  2,  supposed  to 
mean  Ecbatana,  a  city  of  Media,  inferior 
to  none  in  the  East  but  Babylon  and  Nin 
eveh.  It  was  surrounded  by  seven  walls, 
of  different  heights  and  colors,  and  was 
a  summer  residence  of  the  Persian  kings 
after  Cyrus.  Travellers  identify  it  with 
the  modern  Hamadan,  in  which  many 
Jews  still  reside,  and  where  they  profess 
to  point  out  the  tomb  of  Mordecai  and 
Esther. 

A'CHOR,  trouble,  a  valley  north  of  Jeri 
cho  ;  so  called,  perhaps,  from  the  troubles  | 
occasioned  by  the  sin  of  Achan,  who  was  ! 
here  put  to  death,  Josh.  7  :  26.      The  j 
prophets  allude  to  it  with  promises  of 
hope   and  joy  in  the  gospel  era,  Isa. 
65:10;  Hos.  2:15. 

ACH'SAH,  the  daughter  of  Caleb,  giv 
en  in  marriage  with  a  large  dowry  to  his 
nephew  Othniel,  as  a  prize  for  taking  the 
city  Debir,  Josh.  15 : 15-17;  Judg.  1 : 12,13. 

ACH'SHAPH,  a  royal  city  of  the  Ca- 
naanites,  Josh.  11:1,  conquered  by  Josh 
ua,  and  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Asher, 
Josh.  12:20;  19:25. 
12 


ACH'ZIB,  a  city  of  Asher,  from  which, 
however,  the  Jews  were  unable  to  expel 
the  Canaanites,  Judg.  1:31.  It  was  af> 
terwards  called  by  the  Greeks,  Ecdippa, 
and  is  now  named  Zib  ;  it  lay  on  the  sea- 
coast,  ten  miles  north  of  Acre. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  a  canonical 
book  of  the  New  Testament,  written  by 
Luke  as  a  sequel  to  his  gospel,  and  a  his 
tory  in  part  of  the  early  church.  It  is 
not,  however,  a  record  of  the  acts  of  all 
the  apostles,  but  chiefly  of  those  of  Peter 
and  Paul.  In  his  gospel,  Luke  described 
the  founding  of  Christianity  in  what 
Christ  did,  taught,  and  suffered:  in  the 
Acts  he  illustrates  its  diffusion,  selecting 
what  was  best  fitted  to  show  how  the 
Holy  Spirit  guided  and  blessed  the  first 
followers  of  Christ  in  building  up  his 
church.  Beginning  where  his  gospel 
ended,  he  narrates  the  ascension  of  the 
Saviour  and  the  conduct  of  the  disciples 
thereupon  ;  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  according  to  Christ's  promise ;  the 
miraculous  preaching  of  the  apostles, 
their  amazing  success,  and  the  persecu 
tions  raised  against  them  ;  with  other 
events  of  moment  to  the  church  at  Jeru 
salem,  till  they  were  scattered  abroad. 
He  then  shows  how  Judaism  was  super 
seded,  and  how  Peter  was  led  to  receive 
to  Christian  fellowship  converts  from  the 
Gentiles.  The  remainder  of  the  narra 
tive  is  devoted  to  the  conversion  and 
calling  of  the  apostle  Paul,  his  mission 
ary  zeal,  labors,  and  sufferings,  and  ends 
with  his  two  years'  imprisonment  at 
Rome. 

Luke  himself  witnessed,  to  a  great  ex 
tent,  the  events  he  narrates.  His  Greek 
is  the  most  classical  in  the  New  Testa 
ment  ;  and  the  view  he  gives  of  the 
spirit  of  the  early  church,  so  many  of 
whose  members  had  "been  with  the 
Lord,"  is  invaluable.  The  book  was 
probably  written  about  A.  D.  64,  that  is, 
soon  after  the  time  at  which  the  narra 
tion  terminates.  The  place  where  it  was 
written  is  not  known. 

In  order  to  read  the  Acts  of  the  Apos 
tles  with  intelligence  and  profit,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  sufficient  acquaint 
ance  with  geography,  with  the  manners 
of  the  times  and  people  referred  to,  and 
with  the  leading  historical  events.  The 
power  of  the  Romans,  with  the  nature 
and  names  of  the  public  offices  they  es 
tablished,  and  the  distinctions  among 
them,  must  be  understood,  as  well  as  the 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ADA 


disposition  and  political  opinions  of  the 
unconverted  Jewish  nation,  which  were 
too  prevalent  among  the  Christianized 
Hebrews. 

AD' AM,  the  progenitor  and  representa 
tive  head  of  our  race  ;  formed  of  the  dust 
of  the  ground,  and  made  a  living  soul  by 
the  Creator's  breath.  He  was  the  last 
work  of  the  creation,  and  received  do 
minion  over  all  that  the  earth  contained. 
That  he  might  not  be  alone,  God  provid 
ed  Eve  as  a  helpmeet  for  him,  and  she 
became  his  wife.  Marriage  is  thus  a 
divine  institution,  first  in  order  of  time, 
as  well  as  of  importance  and  blessedness 
to  mankind.  Adam  was  made  a  perfect 
man — complete  in  every  physical,  men 
tal,  and  spiritual  endowment ;  and  placed 
in  the  garden  of  Eden  on  probation,  holy 
and  happy,  but  liable  to  sin.  From  this 
estate  he  fell  by  breaking  the  express 
command  of  God,  through  the  tempta 
tions  of  Satan  and  the  compliance  of 
Eve;  and  thus  brought  the  curse  upon 
himself  and  all  his  posterity.  Sovereign 
grace  interposed ;  a  Saviour  was  revealed, 
and  the  full  execution  of  the  curse  stayed ; 
but  Adam  was  banished  from  Eden  and 
its  tree  of  life,  and  reduced  to  a  life  of 
painful  toil.  His  happiness  was  farther 
imbittered  by  witnessing  the  fruits  of 
his  fall  in  his  posterity.  Cain  his  first 
born  son,  and  Abel  the  second,  born  in 
the  likeness  of  their  fallen  parents,  were 
ere  long  lost  to  them — the  one  slain, 
and  the  other  a  fugitive.  They  proba 
bly  had  many  other  sons  and  daugh 
ters,  but  the  name  of  Seth  alone  is 
given.  Adam  lived  to  the  age  of  nine 
hundred  and  thirty  years,  and  saw  the 
earth  rapidly  peopled  by  his  descend 
ants  ;  but ' '  the  wickedness  of  man  was 
great  upon  the  earth. ' '  At  the  time  of 
his  death,  Lamech,  the  father  of  Noah, 
was  fifty-six  years  of  age ;  and  being 
in  the  line  of  those  who  ' '  walked  with 
God,"  had  probably  heard  the  early 
history  of  the  race  from  the  lips  of  the 
penitent  Adam. 

The  curse  pronounced  on  man  in 
cludes  not  only  physical  labor  and  toil 
on  a  barren  and  thorny  earth,  and  the 
physical  dissolution  of  the  body,  but  also 
the  exposure  of  the  soul,  the  nobler  part, 
to  "everlasting  death."  In  that  very 
day  he  should  lose  the  moral  image  of  his 
Maker,  and  become  subject  not  only  to 
physical  death,  but  also  to  God's  eternal 
wrath  and  curse,  which  is  death  in  the 


highest  sense  of  the  word,  and  is  trie 
doom  which  has  fallen  upon  all  his  race. 
Such  is  the  view  of  the  apostle  Paul ;  who 
everywhere  contrasts  the  death  introduced 
into  the  world  through  Adam,  with  the 
life  which  is  procured  for  our  race  through 
Jesus  Christ,  Kom.  5.  This  life  is  spirit 
ual  ;  and  the  death,  in  its  highest  sense, 
is  also  spiritual.  So  far  as  the  penalty 
is  temporal  and  physical,  no  man  is  or 
can  be  exempt  from  it ;  but  to  remove 
the  spiritual  and  eternal  punishment, 
Christ  has  died ;  and  he  who  comes  to 
him  in  penitence  and  faith  will  avoid 
the  threatened  death,  and  enter  into  life 
eternal,  both  of  the  body  and  the  soul. 

The  Redeemer  is  called  "the  second 
Adam,"  1  Cor.  15 :  45,  as  being  the  head 
of  his  spiritual  seed,  and  the  source  of 
righteousness  and  life  to  all  believers,  as 
the  first  Adam  was  the  source  of  sin  and 
death  to  all  his  seed. 

II.  A  city  near  the  Jordan,  towards 
the  sea  of  Tiberias,  at  some  distance  from 
which  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  were 
heaped  up  for  the  passage  of  the  Jews, 
Josh.  3 : 16. 

ADAMANT,  a  name  anciently  used 
for  the  diamond,  the  hardest  of  all  min 
erals.  It  is  used  for  cutting  or  writing 
upon  glass  and  other  hard  substances, 
Jer.  17  :  1.  It  is  also  employed  figura 
tively,  Ezek.  3:9;  Zech.  7  : 12.  Others 
suppose  the  smiris,  or  emery,  to  be  meant. 

AD'DEIl,  a  species  of  serpent,  more 
commonly  called  viper.  The  word  adder 


is  used  five  times  in  the  Bible,  as  a  trans 
lation  of  four  different  Hebrew  words, 
denoting  different  serpents  of  the  venom 
ous  sort.  In  Gen.  49  : 17,  it  seems  to 
mean  the  cerastes,  or  horned  viper,  of 
the  color  of  sand,  and  very  deadly  bite  ; 
accustomed  to  lie  hidden  in  the  tracks  in 
13 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARif. 


ADO 


the  sand,  and  dart  up  on  the  unwary 
traveller.  In  Psa.  58 :  4 ;  91 : 13,  it  is 
probably  the  asp.  In  Psa.  140 :  3  per 
haps  the  tarantula,  or  some  serpent  that 
strikes  backward.  See  SERPENT,  VIPER. 
A'DAR,  the  twelfth  month  of  the  He 
brew  ecclesiastical  year,  and  the  sixth  of 
the  civil  year.  In  this  month  occurred 
the  celebrated  feast  of  Purim.  It  nearly 
answers  to  our  March.  As  the  lunar 
year,  which  the  Jews  follow,  is  shorter 
than  the  solar  year  by  eleven  days, 
which,  after  three  years,  make  about  a 
month,  they  then  insert  a  thirteenth 
month,  which  they  call  Ve-Adar,  or  a 
second  Adar.  See  MOXTII. 

AD'MAH,  one  of  the  four  cities  in  the 
plain  of  Siddim,  destroyed  by  lire  from 
heaven  and  covered  by  the  Dead  sea, 
Gen.  14 ;  2 ;  19  :  24,  25  ;  Hos.  11:8. 

ADONI-BE'ZEK,  lord  of  Bczck,  a  Ca- 
naaiiite  tyrant  of  Bezek,  east  of  Shechem. 
Having  taken  seventy  of  the  neighboring 
petty  chiefs,  he  disabled  them  by  cutting 
off  their  thumbs  and  great  toes,  and  fed 
them  like  dogs.  The  same  barbarous 
treatment  was  meted  out  to  him,  when 
defeated  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  Ca- 
naanites  and  Perizzites,  by  Judah  and 
Simeon,  Judg.  1 : 4-7. 

ADONl'JAH,  the  fourth  son  of  David, 
by  Haggith,  2  Sam.  3:4.  After  the 
death  of  Amnon  and  Absalom,  he  as 
pired  to  the  throne,  although  it  was 
promised  to  Solomon,  his  younger  broth 
er.  Having  gained  over  Joab  and  Abia- 
thar  and  other  adherents,  he  at  length 
openly  revolted  and  claimed  the  crown 
while  David  was  yet  living.  The  news 
of  this  revolt  being  brought  to  the  king, 
he  caused  Solomon  to  be  crowned  king 
at  once ;  upon  which  the  friends  of  Adoiii- 
jah  dispersed,  and  he  took  refuge  at  the 
horns  of  the  altar.  Solomon  dismissed 
him  with  only  an  admonition.  But  soon 
after  the  death  of  David,  he  applied  for 
the  hand  of  Abishag,  thus  renewing  his 
pretensions  to  the  throne,  for  which  he 
was  put  to  death,  1  Kin.  1,2. 

ADONI-ZE'DEK,  a  king  of  Jerusalem, 
who  made  an  alliance  with  four  other 
kings  against  Joshua.  A  great  battle 
was  fought  at  Gibeon,  where  the  Lord 
aided  Israel  by  a  terrific  hailstorm,  and 
by  miraculously  prolonging  the  day. 
The  five  kings  were  utterly  routed,  and 
hid  themselves  in  a  cave  at  Makkedah ; 
but  were  taken  by  Joshua,  and  put  to 
death,  Josh.  10. 
14 


ADONI'RAM,  a  receiver  of  tributes 
under  David  and  Solomon,  and  director 
of  the  thirty  thousand  men  sent  to  Leba 
non  to  cut  timber,  1  Kin.  5  : 14.  The 
same  person  is  also  called  Adoram,  by 
contraction,  2  Sam.  20:24;  IKin.  12:18; 
and  also  Hadoram,  2  Chr.  30:18.  He 
was  stoned  to  death  by  the  revolted  ten 
tribes,  having  been  sent  to  them  by  Re- 
hoboam,  either  to  induce  them  to  re 
turn,  or  to  test  them  by  gathering  the 
taxes. 

ADOPTION  is  an  act  by  which  a  per 
son  takes  a  stranger  into  his  family, 
acknowicdges  him  for  his  child,  and  con 
stitutes  him  heir  of  his  estate.  Jacob's 
adoption  of  his  two  grandsons,  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh,  Gen.  48:5,  was  a  kind  of 
substitution,  whereby  he  intended  that 
these  his  grandsons  should  have  each  his 
lot  in  Israel,  as  if  they  had  been  his  own 
sons :  ' '  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  are  mine  ; 
as  Reuben  and  Simeon,  they  shall  be 
mine."  As  he  gives  no  inheritance  to 
their  father  Joseph,  the  effect  of  this 
adoption  was  simply  the  doubling  of 
their  inheritance. 

But  Scripture  affords  instances  of  an 
other  kind  of  adoption — that  of  a  father 
having  a  daughter  only,  and  adopting 
her  children.  Thus,  1  Chr.  2  :  21,  Ma- 
chir,  grandson  of  Joseph,  and  father  of 
Gilead,  Num.  26  :  29,  gave  his  daughter 
to  Hezron,  "who  took  her;  and  he  was 
a  son  of  sixty  years,"  sixty  years  of  age, 
' '  and  she  bare  him  Segub ;  and  Segub 
begat  Jair,  who  had  twenty-three  cities 
in  the  land  of  Gilead,"  Josh.  13:80; 
1  Kin.  4  : 13.  However,  as  well  he  as 
his  posterity,  instead  of  being  reckoned 
to  the  family  of  Judah,  as  they  would 
have  been  by  their  paternal  descent  from 
Hezron,  are  reckoned  as  sons  of  Ma- 
chir,  the  father  of  Gilead.  Nay,  more, 
it  appears,  Num.  32:41,  that  this  Jair, 
who  was  in  fact  the  son  of  Segub,  the 
son  of  Hezron,  the  son  of  Judah,  is  ex 
pressly  called  "Jair,  the  son  of  Manas 
seh,"  because  his  maternal  great-grand 
father  Avas  Machir  the  son  of  Manasseh. 
In  like  manner  we  read  that  Mordecai 
adopted  Esther,  his  niece ;  he  took  her 
to  himself  to  be  a  daughter,  Esth.  2:7- 
So  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  adopted  Mo 
ses;  and  he  became  her  son,  Ex.  2:10. 
So  we  read,  Ruth  4:17,  that  Naomi  had 
a  son — a  son  is  born  to  Naomi ;  when  in 
deed  it  was  the  son  of  Ruth. 

At  the  present  day,  adoption  is  not 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ADU 


uncommon  in  the  East,  where  it  is  made 
before  a  public  officer  with  legal  forms. 

In  the  New  Testament,  adoption  de 
notes  that  act  of  God's  free  grace  by 
which,  on  being  justified  through  faith, 
we  are  received  into  the  family  of  God, 
and  made  heirs  of  the  inheritance  of 
heaven.  It  is  "in  Christ,"  and  through 
his  atoning  merits,  that  believers  "re 
ceive  the  adoption  of  sons,"  Gal.  4:4,  5. 
Some  of  the  privileges  of  this  state  are, 
deliverance  from  a  fearful  and  servile 
spirit ;  the  special  love  and  care  of  our 
heavenly  Father ;  conformity  to  his  im 
age  ;  a  filial  confidence  in  him ;  free  ac 
cess  to  him  at  all  times;  the  witness  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  whereby  we  cry,  "Abba, 
Father;"  and  a  title  to  our  heavenly 
home,  Rom.  8:14-17;  Eph.  1:4,  5. 

ADORAIM,  a  town  in  the  south  of 
Judah,  fortified  by  Rchoboam,  2  Chr. 
11:9.  Robinson  has  identified  it  with 
the  modern  Dura,  a  large  village  five 
miles  west  by  south  from  Hebron. 

ADO'RAM,  see  ADONIRAM. 

ADRAM'MELECH,  I.,  son  of  Sennach 
erib,  king  of  Assyria,  Isa.  37:38,  2  Kin. 
19:37,  who,  upon  returning  to  Nineveh 
after  his  fatal  expedition  against  Heze- 
kiah,  was  killed  by  his  two  sons,  Adram- 
melech  and  Sharezer,  through  fear,  ac 
cording  to  a  Jewish  tradition,  of  being 
sacrificed  to  his  idol  Nisroch.  They  then 
tied  to  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  B.  c. 
713. 

II.  One  of  the  gods  adored  by  the  in 
habitants  of  Sepharvaim,  who  settled  in 
Samaria,  in  the  stead  of  those  Israelites 
who  were  carried  beyond  the  Euphrates. 
They  made  their  children  pass  through 
fire,  in  honor  of  this  false  deity,  and  of  an 
other  called  Anammelech,  2  Kin.  17:31. 
Some  think  that  Adrammelech  represent 
ed  the  sun,  and  Anammelech  the  moon. 

ADRAMYT'TIUM,  a  maritime  town 
of  Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  opposite  to  the 
island  of  Lesbos,  Acts  27  :  2.  It  is  now 
called  Adramyt. 

A'DRIA,  in  Acts  27:27,  is  the  Adriatic 
sea.  This  term  now  denotes  only  the 
Gulf  of  Venice ;  but  in  St.  Paul's  time  it 
included  the  whole  sen  lying  between 
Italy  anr?  Greece,  and  extending  on  the 
south  from  Crete  to  Sicily,  within  which 
the  island  of  Malta  or  Melita  lies.  So 
Ptolemy  and  Strabo. 

A'DRIEL,  a  son  of  Barzillai,  married 
Merab,  daughter  of  Saul,  who  had  been 
promised  to  David,  1  Sam.  18:19.  Adri- 


el  had  five  sons  by  her,  who  were  deliv 
ered  up  to  the  Gibeonites,  to  be  put  to 
death  before  the  Lord,  to  avenge  the  cru 
elty  of  Saul  their  grandfather  against 
the  Gibeonites.  In  2  Sam.  21:8,  these 
are  said  to  be  the  sons  of  Michal,  whom 
she  "brougBt  up"  for  Adriel ;  but  un 
less  this  is  a  copyist's  error,  Michal  had 
adopted  the  children  of  her  sister  Merab, 
who  was  perhaps  dead ;  or  possibly  both 
sisters  may  have  borne  the  name  Michal. 
Compare  under  ABIATIIAR. 

ADUL'LAM,  an  ancient  city  in  the 
plain  of  Judah,  south-west  of  Jerusalem, 
Gen.  38:1;  Josh.  15:35.  Its  king  was 
slain  by  Joshua,  Josh.  12  : 15.  It  was 
one  of  the  cities  rebuilt  and  fortified  by 
Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:7  ;  Mic.  1:15,  and 
was  reoccupied  by  the  Jews  after  the 
captivity,  Neh.  11:30. 

When  David  withdrew  from  Achish, 
king  of  Gath,  he  retired  to  the  "cave  of 
Adullam,"  1  Sam.  22:1 ;  2  Sam.  23:13. 
The  location  of  this  cave,  however,  is 
uncertain.  Tradition  places  it  in  the 
hill  country,  about  six  miles  south-east 
of  Bethlehem,  the  city  of  David  ;  a  large 
and  fine  cave,  visited  by  many  travellers. 
It  is  capable  of  holding  thousands. 

ADUL'TERY  is  a  criminal  connection 
between  persons  who  are  engaged,  one  or 
both,  to  keep  themselves  wholly  to  oth 
ers  ;  and  thus  it  exceeds  the  guilt  of  for 
nication,  which  is  the  same  intercourse 
between  unmarried  persons.  As  the 
highest  sin  of  its  kind,  and  so  including 
all  other  sins  of  the  flesh,  it  is  forbidden 
in  the  seventh  commandment.  Where 
polygamy  was  allowed,  as  among  the  an 
cient  Jews,  illicit  intercourse  between  a 
married  man  and  a  woman  who  was  not 
married,  nor  betrothed,  constituted  not 
adultery,  but  fornication. 

Fornication  may  be,  in  some  sense, 
covered  by  a  subsequent  marriage  of  the 
parties ;  but  adultery  cannot  be  so  healed. 
Hence  God  often  compares  himself  to  a 
husband  jealous  of  his  honor,  Jer.  31 :32 ; 
and  hence  the  forsaking  of  the  true  God 
is  compared  to  fornication  and  adultery 
of  the  vilest  kind,  Jer.  3:9;  Ezek. 
23:30-49. 

By  the  law  of  Moses,  both  the  man 
and  the  woman  who  had  committed 
adultery  were  punished  with  death,  Lev. 
20 : 10 ;  21:9;  John  8:5.  A  woman  sus 
pected  of  this  crime  might,  in  order  to 
clear  herself,  drink  the  "water  of  jeal 
ousy,"  as  prescribed  in  Num.  5. 
15 


ADU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AHA 


ADUM'MIM,  a  border  town  of  Benja 
min  and  Judah,  not  far  from  Jericho  on 
the  road  to  Jerusalem.  This  road  ascends 
through  a  desolate  and  rocky  region, ' '  the 
ascent  of  Adummim,"  Josh.  15:7  ;  18:17; 
it  furnished  many  lurking  places  for  rob 
bers,  and  was  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's 
parable,  The  good  Samaritan,  Luke  10. 

AD'VOCATE,  or  PAR'ACLETE,  one  that 
pleads  the  cause  of  another.  In  its  tech 
nical  sense,  the  office  was  unknown  to 
the  Jews  till  they  became  subject  to  the 
Komans.  It  is  applied  to  Christ  as  our 
intercessor,  1  John  2:1;  compare  Rom. 
8:34;  Heb.  7:25;  and  to  the  Holy  Spir 
it,  as  our  teacher  and  comforter,  John 
14:16;  15:26. 

^E'NON,  see  ENON. 

AFFIN'ITY,  1  Kin.  3:1 ;  relationship 
by  marriage ;  as  consanguinity  is  rela 
tionship  by  blood.  The  degrees  within 
which  relatives  were  forbidden  by  the 
Levitical  law  to  intermarry,  may  be 
found  in  Lev.  18. 

AG'ABUS,  "a  prophet"  of  the  early 
church,  perhaps  one  of  "the  seventy" 
disciples  of  Christ.  He  foretold  the  fam 
ine,  of  which  Suetonius  and  others  speak, 
in  the  days  of  Claudius,  A.  D.  44.  It  was 
very  severe  in  Judea ;  and  aid  was  sent 
to  the  church  at  Jerusalem  from  Antioch, 
Acts  11:27.  Many  years  after,  Agabns 
predicted  the  sufferings  of  Paul  at  the 
hands  of  the  Jews,  Acts  21 : 10. 

A'GAG,  a  general  name  of  the  kings 
of  the  Amalekites  ;  apparently  like  Pha 
raoh  for  the  Egyptian  kings,  Num. 
24:7;  1  Sam.  15:8.  The  last  one  men 
tioned  in  Scripture  was  "hewed  in 
pieces"  by  Samuel,  before  the  Lord,  be 
cause  Saul  had  sinfully  spared  him  and 
the  flocks  and  herds,  when  ordered  utter 
ly  to  exterminate  them.  He  seems  to 
have  incurred  an  uncommon  punishment 
by  infamous  cruelties,  1  Sam.  15:33. 

"Agagite,  in  Esther  3:1,  10;  8:3,  5,  is 
used  to  mark  the  nation  whence  Haman 
sprung.  Josephus  explains  the  word  by 
Amalekite. 

AG'ATE,  a  precious  stone,  said  to  take 
its  name  from  the  river  Achates  in  Sic 
ily,  where  it  abounded.  Agates,  which 
are  of  several  kinds,  are  likewise  pro 
cured  in  India,  in  various  parts  of  Eu 
rope,  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
They  are  semi-transparent,  and  often  .are 
beautifully  veined  and  clouded,  and  pre 
sent  in  miniature  the  picture  of  many 
natural  objects.  The  agate  was  the  sec- 
16 


ond  stone  in  the  third  row  of  the  high- 
priest's  breastplate,  Ex.  28:19;  39:12. 

AGRIP'PA,  see  HEROD  III.,  IV. 

A'GUR,  an  inspired  Hebrew,  author  of 
the  thirtieth  chapter  of  Proverbs,  incor 
porated  with  those  of  Solomon. 

A'HAB,  I.,  the  sixth  king  of  Israel, 
succeeded  his  father  Omri  B.  c.  918,  and 
reigned  twenty-two  years.  His  wife  was 
Jezebel,  daughter  of  Ethbaal  king  of 
Tyre  ;  an  ambitious  and  passionate  idol 
atress,  through  whose  influence  the  wor 
ship  of  Baal  and  Ash  tore  th  was  intro 
duced  in  Israel.  Ahab  erected  in  Sama 
ria  a  house  of  Baal,  and  set  up  images  of 
Baal  and  Ashtoreth ;  idolatry  and  wick 
edness  became  fearfully  prevalent,  and 
the  king  "did  more  to  provoke  the  Lord 
to  anger  than  all  the  kings  that  were  be 
fore  him."  In  the  midst  of  this  great 
apostasy,  God  visited  the  land  with  three 
years  of  drought  and  famine  ;  and  then, 
at  mount  Carmel,  reproved  idolatry  by 
fire  from  heaven,  and  by  the  destruction 
of  four  hundred  and  fifty  prophets  of  Baal. 
About  six  years  later,  Ben-hadad,  king  of 
Syria,  invaded  Israel  with  a  great  army, 
but  was  ignominiously  defeated ;  and  still 
more  disastrously  the  year  after,  when 
Ahab  took  him  captive,  but  soon  released 
him,  and  thus  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  God.  In  spite  of  the  warnings  and 
mercies  of  Providence,  Ahab  went  on  in 
sin ;  and  at  length,  after  the  murder  of 
Kaboth,  his  crimes  and  abominable  idol 
atries  were  such  that  God  sent  Elijah  to 
denounce  judgments  upon  him  and  his 
seed.  These  Avere  in  part  deferred,  how 
ever,  by  his  apparent  humiliation.  Soon 
after,  having  gone  with  Jehoshaphat, 
king  of  Judah,  to  regain  Ramoth-gilead 
from  the  Syrians,  and  joined  battle  with 
them  in  defiance  of  Jehovah,  he  was 
slain,  and  dos;s  licked  up  his  blood  at  the 
pool  of  Samaria,  1  Kin.  16:29  to  22:40. 

II.  A  false  prophet,  who  seduced  the 
Israelites  at  Babylon,  and  was  denounced 
by  Jeremiah,  Jer.  29:21,  22. 

AHASUE'RTIS,  a  royal  title,  common 
to  several  Median  and  Persian  kings  nam 
ed  in  Scripture.  I.  The  father  of  Darius 
the  Mede,  Dan.  9:1.  The  most  proba 
ble  opinion  is,  that  the  name  here  desig 
nates  Astyages,  the  grandfather  of  Cyrus. 
See  below,  and  DARIUS  I. 

II.  Mentioned  Ezra  4:6,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Cyrus ;  probably  Cambyses, 
who  reigned  seven  and  a  half  years  from 
B.  c.  529. 


AHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AIII 


III.  The  husband  of  Esther,  most 
probably  Xerxes.  Commentators  have 
been  much  divided,  and  have  understood 
under  this  name  all  the  Persian  kings  in 
succession.  But  the  other  kings  of  Per 
sia  are  all  mentioned  in  Scripture  by 
their  own  names,  or  at  least  definitely 
pointed  out ;  while  Xerxes  is  not  men 
tioned,  unless  under  this  name.  Besides, 
recent  researches  show  that  the  Hebrew 
word  for  Ahasuerus  is  readily  formed 
from  the  Persian  name  of  Xerxes,  the 
name  Xerxes  being  only  a  Greek  corrup 
tion  of  the  Persian.  See  ESTHER. 

AHA'VA,  a  town  in  Chaldea,  which 
gave  name  to  the  stream  on  the  banks  of 
which  the  exiled  Jews  assembled  their 
second  caravan  under  Ezra,  when  re 
turning  to  Jerusalem,  Ezra  8  : 15,  21, 
31.  It  may  be  the  modern  Hib  on  the 
Euphrates,  in  the  latitude  of  Bagdad. 

A'HAZ,  son  of  Jotham,  and  twelfth 
king  of  Judah.  He  ascended  the  throne 
at  twenty  years  of  age,  and  reigned  six 
teen  years,'  2  Kin.  16:1,  2,  20.  u.  c.  738. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  idolatry  arid 
contempt  of  the  true  God;  and  against 
him  many  of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah 
are  directed,  Isa.  7.  He  made  his  own 
children  pass  through  the  fire  to  idols; 
he  introduced  the  Syrian  gods  into  Jeru 
salem,  altered  the  temple  after  the  Syri 
an  model,  and  even  closed  it  altogether. 
Having  thus  forfeited  the  aid  of  Jeho 
vah,  he  met  various  repulses  in  battle 
with  Pekah  and  Piezin ;  the  Edomites 
revolted,  and  the  Philistines  harassed  his 
borders.  He  turned  yet  more  away  from 
God  in  his  distress,  and  sought  aid  from 
Pul,  king  of  Assyria.  This  fatal  step 
made  him  tributary  to  Pul,  and  to  Tig- 
lath-pileser  his  successor.  Ahaz  was  re 
duced  to  great  extremities,  in  buying  off 
the  Assyrians ;  but  became  more  infatu 
ated  still  in  idolatry,  and  dying  in  his 
impiety  at  the  age  of  thirty-six,  was  re 
fused  a  burial  with  the  kings  his  ances 
tors,  2  Chr.  28. 

AHAZIAH,  I.,  son  and  successor  of 
Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  1  Kin.  22:40,  51; 
2  Kin.  1.  He  reigned  two  years,  alone 
and  with  his  father,  who  associated  him 
in  the  kingdom  the  year  before  his 
death,  B.  c.  894.  Ahaziah  imitated 
Ahab's  impiety,  and  worshipped  Baal 
and  Astarte,  whose  rites  had  been  intro 
duced  into  Israel  by  Jezebel  his  mother. 
During  his  reign  the  Moabites  revolted. 
Having  joined  king  Jehoshaphat  in  a 


commercial  enterprise  on  the  Red  sea, 
his  impiety  blasted  the  whole.  After  a 
fall  from  the  gallery  of  his  house,  he 
sent  to  consult  a  god  of  the  Philistines 
as  to  his  recovery.  Elijah  the  prophet 
foretold  his  speedy  death — first  to  the 
messengers,  and  again  to  Ahaziah  him 
self,  after  two  companies  of  fifty  had 
been  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven. 

II.  Otherwise  Jehoahaz,  or  Azariah, 
king  of  Judah,  son  of  Jehoram  and  Ath- 
aliah  ;  he  succeeded  his  father  B.  c.  881, 
2  Kin.  8 : 25 ;  2  Chr.  22 : 2.  He  was  twen 
ty-two  years  of  age  when  he  ascended 
the  throne,  and  reigned  but  one  year  at 
Jerusalem.  He  followed  the  house  of 
Ahab,  to  which  he  was  allied  by  his 
mother,  and  did  evil.  He  met  his  death 
at  the  hand  of  Jehu,  while  in  company 
with  Jorum,  son  of  Ahab. 

AHI'AH,  son  of  Ahitub,  and  high- 
priest  in  the  reign  of  Saul,  1  Sarn.  14:3. 
He  was  probably  the  brother  of  his  suc 
cessor  Ahinielech,  slain  by  Saul,  1  Sam. 
22:9. 

AHI'JAH,  a  prophet  and  chronicler  of 
the  times  of  Solomon  and  Jeroboam, 
1  Kin.  11:29;  2  Chr.  9:29.  He  is  thought 
to  be  the  person  who  spoke  in  God's  name 
to  Solomon  while  building  the  temple, 

1  Kin.  6:11 ;  and  again  after  he  fell  into 
sin,  1  Kin.  11:11.    He  notified  Jeroboam 
of  the  separation  of  Israel  from  Judah, 
and  of  the  foundation  of  his  house — the 
ruin  of  which  he  afterwards  foretold,  1 
Kin.  14:1-14. 

AHI'KAM,  sent  by  Josiah  to  Huldah 
the  prophetess,  when  the  book  of  the 
law  was  found  in  the  temple,  2  Kin. 
22: 12.  He  afterwards  nobly  befriended 
the  prophet  Jeremiah,  Jer.  26:24;  39:14. 

AHIMAAZ,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Zadok,  became  high-priest  in  the  reign  of 
Solomon.  During  the  reign  of  David, 
he  revealed  to  him  the  counsels  of  Absa 
lom  and  his  advisers  in  rebellion,  2  Sam. 
17:15-21 ;  and  conveyed  to  him  also  the 
tidings  of  Absalom's  defeat  and  death, 

2  Sam.  18. 

AHIM'ELECH,  I.,  son  of  Ahitub,  and 
brother  of  Ahiah,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
the  high-priesthood.  Some  think,  how 
ever,  that  both  names  belong  to  the 
same  person.  During  his  priesthood  the 
tabernacle  was  at  Nob,  where  Ahimelech 
dwelt,  with  many  priests.  Here  he  re 
ceived  David  when  fleeing  from  Saul,  and 
gave  him  the  show-bread  and  Goliath's 
sword.  This  act,  as  reported  by  Doeg 
17 


AHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ALA 


the  Edomite,  Saul  viewed  as  treasonous ; 
and  by  the  hand  of  this  idolatrous  and 
malignant  foreigner,  he  put  Ahimelech 
and  eighty-five  other  priests  of  Jehovah 
to  death,  1  Sam.  22 —  a  crime  sufficient 
of  itself  to  forfeit  the  throne  and  the 
favor  of  God. 

II.  Also  called  Abimelech,  1  Chr. 
18:16,  probably  the  same  as  Abiathar, 
which  see,  1  Chr.  24:3,  G,  31. 

AHIN'OAM,  I.,  daughter  of  Ahimaaz 
and  wife  of  Saul,  1  Sam.  14:50. 

II.  A  woman  of  Jezreel,  wife  of  David 
and  mother  of  Amnon.  She  was  taken 
captive  by  the  Amalekites,  at  Ziklag, 

1  Sam.  30:5;  but  was  recovered  by  Da 
vid,  and  accompanied  him  to  Hebron, 

2  Sam.  2:2;  3:2. 

AHI'O,  a  son  of  Abinadab,  who  went 
before  the  ark  of  God  on  its  way  to  Je 
rusalem  from  his  father's  house ;  thus 
escaping  the  fate  of  Uzzah  his  brother, 
2  Sam.  6:3-7. 

AHITH'OPHEL,  a  native  of  Giloh, 
originally  one  of  David's  most  intimate 
and  valued  friends  ;  but  upon  the  defec 
tion  and  rebellion  of  Absalom,  he  espous 
ed  the  cause  of  that  prince,  and  became 
one  of  David's  bitterest  enemies.  Being 
disappointed  that  Absalom  did  not  follow 
his  sagacious  advice,  and  foreseeing  the 
issue  of  the  rebellion,  he  hanged  him 
self,  2  Sam.  15: 12 ;  ch.  17  ;  Psa.  55: 12-14. 
Ahithophel  seems  to  have  been  the 
grandfather  of  Bathsheba.  2  Sam.  23:34, 
compared  with  11:3. 

AHI'TUB,  I.,  grandson  of  Eli,  and  son 
of  Phinehas,  in  whose  place  he  succeeded 
to  the  high-priesthood  on  the  death  of 
Eli,  Phinehas  having  perished  in  battle, 
B.  c.  1141,  ISam.  4:11. 

II.  Son  of  Amariah,  and  father  of  Za- 
dok,  2  Sam.  8:17  ;  1  Chr.  6:8. 

AHO'LAH,  and  AHOL'IBAH,  two 
symbolical  names,  adopted  by  Ezekicl, 
23 : 4,  to  denote  the  two  kingdoms  of  Ju- 
dah  and  Samaria.  They  are  represented 
as  sisters,  and  of  Egyptian  extraction. 
Aholah  stands  for  Samaria,  and  Ahol- 
ibah  for  Jerusalem.  The  allegory  is  a 
history  of  the  Jewish  church. 

A'l,  called  also  Hai,  Gen.  12:8;  Aija, 
Neh.  11:31;  and  Aiath,  Isa.  10:28.  A 
royal  city  of  the  Cariaanites,  cast  of  Beth 
el,  near  which  Abraham  once  sojourned 
and  built  an  altar,  Gen.  12:8;  13:3. 
It  is  memorable  for  Joshua's  defeat  on 
account  of  Achan,  and  his  subsequent 
victory,  Josh.  7:2-5;  8  : 1-21).  It  was 
18 


rebuilt,  and  is  mentioned  by  Isaiah.  Its 
ruins  are  spoken  of  by  Eusebius  and  Je 
rome,  but  the  exact  site  cannot  now  be 
fixed  with  certainty. 

A'lN,  fountain,  spelt  EN  in  the  English 
Bible,  in  compound  words,  as  En-rogel. 
It  is  the  name  of  a  city  of  Judah,  after 
wards  assigned  to  Simeon,  Josh.  15:32; 
1  Chr.  4 : 32.  Also  of  a  place  in  the  north 
of  Canaan,  Num.  34:11. 

AIR.  The  air  or  atmosphere  surround 
ing  the  earth  is  often  denoted  by  the 
word  heaven ;  so  ' '  the  fowls  of  heaven ' ' 
means  the  birds  of  the  air. 

To  "beat  the  air,"  and  to  "speak  in 
the  air,"  1  Cor.  9:26;  14:9,  are  modes 
of  expression  used  in  most  languages, 
signifying  to  speak  or  act  without  judg 
ment  or  understanding,  or  to  no  pur 
pose.  "The  powers  of  the  air,"  Eph. 
2:2,  probably  means  devils. 

AJALON,  or  Aijalon.  I.  A  town  in 
the  tribe  of  Dan,  assigned  to  the  Levites, 
sons  of  Kohath,  Josh.  21 :24.  It  was  not 
far  from  Timnath,  and  was  taken  by  the 
Philistines  from  Ahaz,  2  Chr.  28 : 18.  It 
lay  in  or  near  a  valley,  not  far  from  the 
valley  of  Gibeon,  and  is  recognized  in  the 
modern  village  of  Yalo.  The  valley  lies 
towards  the  north,  and  is  the  place  where 
Joshua  commanded  the  sun  and  moon  to 
stand  still,  and  they  obeyed  him,  Josh. 
10:12. 

II.  A  town  in  Benjamin,  some  three 
miles  east  of  Bethel.     It  was  fortified  by 
Eehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:10. 

III.  In  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  the  place 
of  Elon's  burial,  Judg.  12:12. 

AKRAB'BIM,  scorpions,  a  point  in  the 
frontier  line  of  the  promised  land,  Judg. 
1 : 36,  and-  in  a  region  infested  with  ser 
pents  and  scorpions,  Deut.  8 : 15.  It  is 
to  be  found  probably  in  the  mountains 
near  the  Dead  sea,  on  its  south-west  side. 
In  Josh.  15 :  3,  it  is  translated  Maaleh- 
akrabbim,  the  ascent  of  Akrabbim. 

ALABASTER,  a  sort  of  stone,  of  fine 
texture,  either  the  white  gypsum,  a  sul 
phate  of  lime,  or  the  onyx-alabaster,  a 
hard  carbonate  of  lime,  having  the  color 
of  the  human  nail,  and  nearly  allied  to 
marble.  This  material  being  very  gener 
ally  used  to  fabricate  vessels  for  holding 
unguents  and  perfumed  liquids,  many 
vessels  were  called  alabaster  though  made 
of  a  different  substance,  as  gold,  silver, 
glass,  etc.  In  Matt.  26 :  6,  7,  we  read 
that  Mary,  sister  of  Lazarus,  John  12 : 3, 
poured  an  alabaster  box  of  precious  oint- 


ALA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


ALE 


inent  on  Christ's  head.  Mark  says  "she 
brake  the  box,"  signifying  probably,  that 
the  seal  upon  the  box,  or  upon  the  neck 
of  the  vase  or  bottle,  which  kept  the  per 
fume  from  evaporating,  had  never  been 
removed ;  it  was  on  this  occasion  first 
opened.  See  SPIKENARD. 

AL'AMOTH,  a  musical  term,  indicat 
ing  probably  music  for  female  voices, 
Psa.  46,  title;  1  Chr.  15:20. 

ALEXAN'DER,  I.,  the  Great,  the  fa 
mous  son  and  successor  of  Philip,  king 
of  Macedon.  He  is  alluded  to  in  Dan. 
7:6  ;  8:4-7,  under  the  figures  of  a  leop 
ard  with  four  wings,  and  a  one-horned 
he-goat,  representing  the  swiftness  of  his 
conquests  and  his  great  strength.  He 
was  appointed  by  God  to  destroy  the 
Persian  empire  and  substitute  the  Gre 
cian.  In  the  statue  seen  by  Nebuchad 
nezzar  in  his  dream,  Dan.  2:39,  the  belly 
of  brass  was  the  emblem  of  Alexander. 
He  succeeded  his  father  B.  c.  336,  and 
within  twelve  years  overran  Syria,  Pal 
estine,  and  Egypt,  founded  Alexandria, 
conquered  the  Persians,  and  penetrated 
far  into  the  Indies.  He  died  at  the  age 
of  thirty-two,  from  the  effects  of  intem 
perance,  and  left  his  vast  empire  to  be 
divided  among  his  four  generals. 

II.  Son  of  Simon  the  Cyrenian,  Mark 
15:21,  apparently  one  of  the  more  prom 
inent  early  Christians. 

III.  One  of  the  council  who  condemned 
Peter  and  John,  Acts  4: 6. 

IV.  A  Jew  of  Ephcsus,  who  sought  in 
vain  to  quiet  the  popular  commotion  re 
specting  Paul,  Acts  19:33. 

V.  A  coppersmith,  and  apostate  from 
Christianity,  1  Tim.  1:20;  2  Tim.  4:14. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a  celebrated  city  in 
Lower  Egypt,  situated  between  the  Med 
iterranean  sea  and  the  lake  Mareotis,  not 
far  from  the  most  westerly  mouth  of  the 
Nile.  It  was  founded  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  B.  c.  332,  and  peopled  by  colo 
nies  of  Greeks  and  Jews.  Alexandria 
rose  rapidly  to  a  state  of  prosperity,  be 
coming  the  centre  of  commercial  inter 
course  between  the  East  and  the  West, 
and  in  process  of  time  was,  in  point  both 
of  magnitude  and  wealth,  second  only  to 
Rome  itself.  The  ancient  city  was  about 
fifteen  miles  in  circuit,  peopled  by  300,- 
000  free  citizens  and  as  many  slaves. 
From  the  gate  of  the  sea  ran  one  mag 
nificent  street,  2,000  feet  broad,  through 
the  entire  length  of  the  city,  to  the  gate 
of  Canopus,  affording  a  view  of  the  ship 


ping  in  the  port,  whether  north  in  the 
Mediterranean,  or  south  in  the  noble 
basin  of  the  Mareotic  lake.  Another 
street  of  equal  \vidth  intersected  this  at 
right  angles,  in  a  square  half  a  league  in 
circumference. 

Upon  the  death  of  Alexander,  whose 
body  was  deposited  in  this  new  city,  Al 
exandria  became  the  regal  capital  of 
Egypt,  under  the  Ptolemies,  and  rose  to 
its  highest  splendor.  During  the  reign 
of  the  first  three  princes  of  this  name,  its 
glory  was  at  the  highest.  The  most  cel 
ebrated  philosophers  from  the  East,  as 
well  as  from  Greece  and  Rome,  resorted 
thither  for  instruction  ;  and  eminent 
men,  in  every  department  of  knowledge, 
were  found  within  its  walls.  Ptolemy 
Soter,  the  first  of  that  line  of  kings,  form 
ed  the  museum,  the  library  of  700,000  vol 
umes,  and  several  other  splendid  works. 
At  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  B.  c.  26,  Alex 
andria  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ro 
mans  ;  and  after  having  enjoyed  the  high 
est  fame  for  upwards  of  a  thousand  years, 
it  submitted  to  the  arms  of  the  caliph 
Omar,  A.  D.  646. 

The  present  Alexandria,  or  according 
to  the  pronunciation  of  the  inhabitants, 
Skanderia,  occupies  only  about  the  eighth 
part  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  The 
splendid  temples  have  been  exchanged 
for  wretched  mosques  and  miserable 
churches,  and  the  magnificent  palaces 
for  mean  and  ill-built  dwellings.  The 
city,  which  was  of  old  so  celebrated  for 
its  commerce  and  navigation,  is  now 
merely  the  port  of  Cairo,  a  place  where 
ships  may  touch,  and  where  wares  may 
be  exchanged.  The  modern  city  is  built 
with  the  ruins  of  the  ancient.  The 
streets  are  so  narrow,  that  the  inhabit 
ants  can  lay  mats  of  reeds  from  one  roof 
to  the  opposite,  to  protect  them  from  the 
scorching  sun.  The  population  consists 
of  Turks,  Arabs,  Copts,  Jews,  and  Arme 
nians.  Many  Europeans  have  counting- 
houses  here,  where  the  factors  exchange 
European  for  oriental  merchandise. 

The  Greek  or  Alexandrine  version  of 
the  Scriptures  was  made  here  by  learned 
Jews,  seventy-two  in  number,  and  hence 
it  is  called  the  Septuagint,  or  version  of 
the  Seventy.  The  Jews  established  them 
selves  in  great  numbers  in  this  city  very 
soon  after  it  was  founded.  Josephus  says 
that  Alexander  himself  assigned  to  them 
a  particular  quarter  of  the  city,  and  al 
lowed  them  equal  rights  and  privileges 
19 


ALG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ALO 


with  the  Greeks.  Philo,  who  himself 
lived  there  in  the  time  of  Christ,  affirms 
that,  of  live  parts  of  the  city,  the  Jews 
inhabited  two.  According  to  his  state 
ments,  also,  there  dwelt  in  his  time,  in 
Alexandria  and  the  other  Egyptian  cit 
ies,  not  less  than  a  million  Jews ;  but 
this  would  seem  exaggerated. 

AL'GUM,  the  same  as  ALMUG,  which 
sec. 

AL'LEGORY,  a  figurative  mode  of  dis 
course,  which  employs  terms  literally 
belonging  to  one  thing,  in  order  to  ex 
press  another.  It  is  strictly  a  prolonged 
metaphor.  Such  are  Nathan's  address 
to  David,  2  Sam.  12  : 1-14,  Psa.  80,  and 
our  Lord's  parable  of  the  sower,  Luke 
8:5-15.  The  expression,  "which  things 
are  an  allegory,"  Gal.  4:24,  means  that 
the  events  in  the  life  of  Isaac  and  Ish- 
mael,  mentioned  in  previous  verses,  have 
been  allegorically  applied. 

ALLELU'IA,  see  HALLELU'JAH. 

AL'LON-BACHUTH',  oak  of  weeping; 
the  spot  where  Rebekah's  nurse  was  bur 
ied,  Gen.  35:8. 

AL'MON-DIBLATHA'IM,  one  of  the 
encampments  of  the  Israelites  on  their 
way  from  mount  Hor  to  the  plains  of 
Moab  ;  location  unknown,  Num.  33:46. 


ALMOND-TREE.   This  tree  resembles 
a  peach-tree,  but  is  larger.     In  Pales 


tine,  it  blossoms  in  January,  and  in 
March  has  fruit.  Its  blossoms  are  white. 
Its  Hebrew  name  signifies  a  watcher,  and 
to  this  there  is  an  allusion  in  Jer.  1:11. 
In  Eccl.  12  :  5,  the  hoary  head  is  beauti 
fully  compared  with  the  almond-tree, 
both  on  account  of  its  snowy  whiteness 
and  its  winter  blossoming. 

AL'MUG,  a  kind  of  tree  or  wood,  which 
Hiram  brought  from  Ophir  for  the  use  of 
Solomon  in  making  pillars  for  the  tem 
ple  and  his  own  house,  and  also  musical 
instruments,  1  Kin.  10:11 ;  2  Chr.  2:8. 
The  rabbins  call  it  coral ;  but  it  could  not 
be  this.  It  was  more  probably  the  tree 
which  furnishes  what  is  now  commonly 
called  Brazil  wood,  which  is  also  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies,  Siam,  the  Molucca 
islands,  and  Japan,  and  has  several  spe 
cies.  Its  wood  is  very  durable,  and  is 
used  in  fine  cabinet  work.  It  yields  also 
a  dye  of  a  beautiful  red  color,  for  which 
it  is  much  used.  Its  resemblance  in  color 
to  coral  may  have  given  occasion  for  the 
name  almug,  which  in  rabbinic  still  sig 
nifies  coral ;  and  thus  the  meaning  of 
the  name  would  be  coral-wood. 

AL'OES,  or  more  properly,  ALOE,  an 
East  Indian  tree,  that  grows  about  eight 
or  ten  feet  high,  and  yields  a  rich  per 
fume,  Psa.  45:8  ;  Prov.  7:17  ;  Song  4: 14. 
This  tree  or  wood  was  called  by  the 
Greeks  Agallochon,  and  has  been  known 
to  moderns  by  the  names  of  lign-aloe, 
aloe-wood,  paradise-wood,  eagle-wood, 
etc.  Modern  botanists  distinguish  two 
kinds :  the  one  grows  in  Cochin-China, 
Siam,  and  China,  is  never  exported,  and 
is  of  so  great  rarity  in  India,  as  to  be 
I  worth  its  weight  in  gold.  The  tree  is 
!  represented  as  large,  with  an  erect  trunk 
!  and  lofty  branches.  The  other  or  more 
common  species  is  called  garo  in  the  East 
Indies,  and  is  the  wood  of  a  tree  grow 
ing  in  the  Moluccas,  the  Excoecaria  Agal- 
locha  of  Linnasus.  The  leaves  are  like 
those  of  a  pear-tree  ;  and  it  has  a  milky 
juice,  which,  as  the  tree  grows  old,  hard 
ens  into  a  fragrant  resin.  The  trunk  is 
knotty,  crooked,  and  usually  hollow. 
Aloe-wood  is  said  by  Herodotus  to  have 
been  used  by  the  Egyptians  for  embalm 
ing  dead  bodies,  and  Nicodemus  brought 
it,  mingled  with  myrrh,  to  embalm  the 
!  body  of  our  Lord,  John  19 :  39.  This 
perfume,  it  will  be  seen,  is  something 
altogether  different  from  the  aloes  of  the 
apothecaries,  which  is  a  bitter  resin,  ex 
tracted  from  a  low  herb. 


ALP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ALT 


AL'PHA,  see  the  letter  A. 

ALPH^E'US,  I.,  father  of  James  the 
Less,  Matt.  10:3,  Luke  6:15,  and  hus 
band  of  the  Mary  usually  regarded  as 
sister  to  the  mother  of  Christ,  John 
19:25.  See  MARY,  I.  and  III.  By  com 
paring  John  19:25  with  Luke  24:18  and 
Matt.  10:3,  it  is  evident  that  Alphteus  is 
the  same  as  Cleophas  ;  Alphseus  being  his 
Greek  name,  and  Cleophas  his  Hebrew  or 
Syriac  name. 

II.  Father  of  Matthew,  or  Levi,  the 
evangelist,  Mark  2 : 14. 

AL'TAR,  a  table-like  structure  on 
which  sacrifices  and  incense  were  offer 
ed,  built  of  various  materials,  usually  of 
stone,  but  sometimes  of  brass,  etc.  It 
is  evident  that  sacrifices  were  offered 
long  before  the  flood  ;  but  the  first  men 
tion  of  an  altar  in  Scripture  is  when 
Noah  left  the  ark.  Mention  is  made  of 
altars  reared  by  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
and  Moses.  The  latter  was  commanded 
to  build  an  altar  of  earth,  Ex.  20 : 24. 
If  stone  was  employed,  it  must  be  rough 
and  unhewn,  probably  lest  the  practice 
of  sculpture  should  lead  them  to  violate 
the  second  commandment.  It  was  not  , 
to  be  furnished  with  steps,  Deut.  27:2-6. 

The  altars  in  the  Jewish  tabernacle, 
and  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  were  the 
following :  1.  The  altar  of  burnt-offer 
ings.  2.  The  altar  of  incense.  3.  The 
table  of  show -bread,  for  which  see 
BREAD. 


1.  THE  ALTAR  OF  BURNT-OFFERINGS  was 
a  kind  of  coffer  of  shittim-wood  covered 
with  brass  plates,  about  seven  feet  six 
inches  square,  and  four  feet  six  inches  in 
height.  At  the  four  corners  were  four 
horns,  or  elevations.  It  was  portable, 
and  had  rings  and  staves  for  bearing  it, 


Ex.  27,  38.  It  was  placed  in  the  court 
before  the  tabernacle,  towards  the  east. 
The  furniture  of  the  altar  was  of  brass, 
and  consisted  of  a  pan,  to  receive  the 
ashes  that  fell  through  the  grating ; 
shovels  ;  basins,  to  contain  the  blood 
with  which  the  altar  was  sprinkled  ;  and 
forks,  to  turn  and  remove  the  pieces  of 
flesh  upon  the  coals.  The  fire  was  a  per 
petual  one,  kindled  miraculously,  and 
carefully  cherished.  Upon  this  altar  the 
lamb  of  the  daily  morning  and  evening 
sacrifice  was  offered,  and  the  other  stated 
and  voluntary  blood-sacrifices  and  meat 
and  drink-offerings.  To  this  also  certain 
fugitives  were  allowed  to  flee  and  find 
protection.  The  altar  in  Solomon's  tem 
ple  was  larger,  being  about  thirty  feet 
square  and  fifteen  feet  high,  2  Chr.  4:1. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  covered  with  thick 
plates  of  brass  and  filled  with  stones, 
with  an  ascent  on  the  east  side.  It  is 
often  called  ''the  brazen  altar." 


2.  THE  ALTAR  OF  INCENSE  was  a  small 
table  of  shittim-wood,  covered  with 
plates  of  gold ;  it  was  eighteen  inches 
square,  and  three  feet  high,  Ex.  30 ; 
37 : 25,  etc.  At  the  four  corners  were  four 
horns,  and  all  around  its  top  was  a  little 
border  or  crown.  On  each  side  were  two 
rings,  into  which  staves  might  be  insert 
ed  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  it.  It 
stood  in  the  Holy  place  ;  not  in  the  Ho 
ly  of  Holies,  but  before  it,  between  the 
golden  candlestick  and  the  table  of  show- 
bread,  and  the  priests  burned  incense 
upon  it  every  morning  and  evening.  So 
Zacharias,  Luke  1:9,  11.  See  TEMPLE. 

ALTAR  at  Athens,  inscribed  ' '  to  the 
unknown  God,"  Acts  17:23.  It  is  cer 
tain,  both  from  Paul's  assertion  and  the 
21 


AMA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AMA 


testimony  of  Greek  writers,  that  altars 
to  an  unknown  god  or  gods  existed  at 
Athens.  But  the  attempt  to  ascertain 
definitely  whom  the  Athenians  worship 
ped  under  this  appellation,  must  ever 
remain  fruitless  for  want  of  sufficient 
data.  The  inscription  afforded  to  Paul  a 
happy  occasion  of  proclaiming  the  gos 
pel  ;  and  those  who  embraced  it  found 
indeed  that  the  Being  whom  they  had 
thus  ignorantly  worshipped  was  the  one 
only  living  and  true  God. 

AM'ALEK,  son  of  Eliphaz,  and  grand 
son  of  Esau,  Gen.  30  : 12.  It  is  not  cer 
tain  that  any  distinct  mention  is  made 
in  the  Bible  of  his  posterity,  people  call 
ed  Amalekites  being  in  existence  long 
before,  Gen.  14  :  7  ;  Num.  24  :  20. 

AM'ALEKITES,  a  powerful  people, 
who  dwelt  in  Arabia  Petrasa,  between 
the  Dead  sea  and  the  Red  sea,  perhaps 
in  moving  troops.  We  cannot  assign  the 
place  of  their  habitation,  except  in  gen 
eral  it  is  apparent  that  they  dwelt  south 
of  Palestine,  between  mount  Seir  and  the 
border  of  Egypt ;  and  it  does  not  appear 
that  they  possessed  many  cities,  though 
one  is  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  15  :  5.  They 
lived  generally  in  migrating  parties,  in 
caves  or  in  tents,  like  the  Bedaween 
Arabs  of  the  present  day.  The  Israelites 
had  scarcely  passed  the  Red  sea,  when 
the  Amalekites  attacked  them  in  the 
desert  of  Rephidim,  and  slew  those  who, 
through  fatigue  or  weakness,  lagged  be 
hind  ;  and  for  this  unprovoked  assault 
on  the  people  of  God,  the  doom  of  ex 
termination  was  passed  upon  them,  Ex. 
17  : 8-16.  They  came  again  into  conflict 
with  a  part  of  the  Israelites  on  the  bor 
der  of  the  promised  land,  Num.  14  : 45  ; 
and  after  400  years,  Saul  attacked  and 
destroyed  them  at  the  command  of  the 
Lord,  1  Sam.  15.  A  remnant,  however, 
escaped  and  subsisted  afterwards  ;  David 
defeated  them  on  several  occasions,  1 
Sam.  27:8;  30:1;  2  Sam.  8: 12;  and  they 
were  finally  blotted  out  by  the  Simeon- 
ites,  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  1.  Chr. 
4:43,  thus  fulfilling  the  prediction  of 
Balaam,  Num.  24  : 20.  Haman,  the  last 
of  the  race  mentioned  in  Scripture,  per 
ished  like  his  fathers,  in  conflict  with 
the  Jews.  See  the  book  of  Esther. 

AM' ANA,  the  southern  part  or  sum 
mit  of  Anti-Lebanon,  adjacent  to  and 
north  of  Hermon,  from  which  the  river 
Amana  or  Abana  poured  down  towards 
Damascus,  Song  4  :  8. 
22 


AMARIAH,  I.,  son  of  Meraioth,  a  de 
scendant  of  Aaron  in  the  line  of  Elea- 
zar.  He  was  the  father  of  Ahitub,  (II.,) 
and  grandfather  of  Zadok,  in  whose  per 
son  the  high-priesthood  was  restored  to 
that  line,  1  Chr.-  6:7. 

II.  High-priest  at  a  later  period,  a  son 
of  Azariah,  and  father  of  another  Ahi 
tub,  1  Chr.  6  : 11.  In  like  manner,  in 
the  same  list  there  are  three  persons 
named  Azariah. 

AM' ASA,  I.,  David's  nephew,  the  son 
of  Abigail,  David's  sister,  and  Jether  an 
Ishmaelite.  His  parentage  may  have  led 
David  to  show  him  less  favor  than  his 
other  nephews,  and  this  may  have  dis 
posed  him  to  join  in  the  rebellion  of  Ab 
salom.  He  was  the  general  of  Absalom's 
army,  and  was  defeated  by  his  cousin 
Joab,  2  Sam.  17,  18.  David  afterwards 
offered  him  a  pardon  and  the  command 
of  his  troops  in  the  place  of  Joab,  whose 
overbearing  conduct  he  could  110  longer 
endure,  2  Sam.  10  : 13.  But  in  the  con 
fusion  of  Sheba's  rebellion,  Amasa  was 
treacherously  murdered  by  his  powerful 
rival,  2  Sam.  20  : 4-10.  B.  c.  1022. 

II.  A  chief  of  Ephraim,  who  opposed 
retaining  as  bondsmen  the  men  of  Judah 
taken  captive  in  a  war  with  Pekah  king 
of  Israel,  2  Chr.  28  : 12. 

AMASAI,  a  Levite,  who  joined  David 
with  thirty  gallant  men,  while  in  the 
desert  flying  from  Saul,  1  Chr.  6  •  25 ; 
12 : 16-18. 

AMAZIAH,  I.,  eighth  king  of  Judah, 
son  of  Joash,  began  to  reign  B.  c.  835, 
and  reigned  twenty -nine  years  in  Jeru 
salem.  Pie  did  good  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord,  but  not  with  a  perfect  heart.  Hav 
ing  established  himself  in  his  throne  and 
slain  the  murderers  of  his  father,  he  mus 
tered  a  host  of  300,000  men  of  Judah, 
and  hired  100,000  men  of  Israel,  for  a 
war  upon  Edom.  These  hired  forces  he 
reluctantly  dismissed  at  the  command  of 
God,  who  gave  him  the  victory  without 
their  aid.  But  this  did  not  prevent  him 
from  carrying  home  with  him  the  idols 
of  Edom,  and  setting  them  up  to  be  his 
gods.  For  this  defiance  of  Jehovah,  he 
was  threatened  with  destruction  by  a 
prophet  of  the  Lord ;  and  soon  after, 
went  headlong  into  war  with  Israel,  in 
which  he  was  defeated  and  humbled. 
Fifteen  years  after,  he  was  slain  by  con 
spirators,  after  flying  to  Lachish  to  es 
cape  them,  2  Kin.  14  : 1-20 ;  2  Chr.  25. 

II.  A  priest  of  the  golden  calf  at  Beth- 


.AMB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY.        AMM 


el,  who  denounced  the  prophet  Amos  to 
Jeroboam,  and  sought  to  banish  him  into 
Judah  for  his  fidelity,  Amos  7  : 10-17. 

AM'BER,  is  a  yellow  or  straw-colored 
gummy  substance,  originally  a  vegetable 
production,  but  reckoned  in  the  mineral 
kingdom.  It  is  found  in  lumps  in  the  sea 
and  on  the  shores  of  Prussia,  Sicily,  Tur 
key,  etc.  Externally  it  is  rough  ;  it  is 
very  transparent,  and  on  being  rubbed, 
yields  a  fragrant  odor.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  to  be  medicinal,  but  is  now  em 
ployed  only  in  the  manufacture  of  trin 
kets,  ornaments,  etc. 

The  Hebrew  word  chasmil  is  translated 
by  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  elect-rum, 
that  is,  amber,  because  the  Hebrew  de 
notes  a  very  brilliant  amber-like  metal, 
composed  of  silver  and  gold,  which  was 
much  prized  in  antiquity,  Ezek.  1:4, 
27  ;  8:2.  Others,  as  Bochart,  refer  here 
to  the  mixture  of  gold  and  brass,  of 
which  the  ancients  had  several  kinds, 
some  of  which  exhibited  a  high  degree 
of  lustre.  Something  similar  to  this  was 
probably  also  the  "fine  brass,"  in  Ezra 
8  : 27  ;  licv.  1 : 15. 

AMEN  is  strictly  an  adjective,  signi 
fying  firm,  and  by  a  metaphor,  faithful. 
So  in  KcV.  3  : 14,  our  Lord  is  called  "  the 
Amen,  the  faithful  and  true  Witness," 
where  the  last  words  explain  the  pre 
ceding  appellation.  In  its  adverbial  use 
it  means  certainly,  truly,  surely.  It  is 
used  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  by 
way  of  emphasis,  frequently  by  our  Sav 
iour,  and  is  there  commonly  translated 
Verily.  In  John's  gospel  alone,  it  is 
often  used  by  him  in  this  way  double, 
Verily,  verily.  At  the  end  of  a  sentence  it 
is  often  used,  singly  or  repeated,  especial 
ly  at  the  end  of  hymns  and  prayers  ;  as, 
"Amen  and  Amen,"  Psa.  41:13;  72:19; 
89  : 52.  The  proper  signification  of  it 
here  is,  to  confirm  the  words  which  have 
preceded,  assert  the  sincerity  and  invoke 
the  fulfilment  of  them :  so  it  is,  so  be  it, 
let  it  be  done.  Hence,  in  oaths,  after 
the  priest  has  repeated  the  words  of  the 
covenant  or  imprecation,  all  those  who 
pronounce  the  Amen,  bind  themselves 
by  the  oath,  Num.  5  : 22  ;  Deut.  27  : 15, 
etc.  ;  Neh.  5:13  ;  8:6  ;  1  Chron.  16  :  36. 
Compare  Psa.  106  : 48. 

AM'ETHYST,  a  precious  stone  of  a 
violet  blue  color,  verging  towards  a  blu 
ish  or  reddish  white.  It  is  seldom  uni 
form  in  color,  and  is  generally  cloudy 
and  spotted  with  zigzag  stripes.  The 


most  beautiful  specimens  come  from 
Ceylon,  the  East  Indies,  Siberia,  and 
Saxony.  It  is  very  highly  prized,  Ex. 
28:19;  Eev.  21:20. 

AMMIN'ADAB,  I.,  a  son  of  Aram,  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  father  of  Naa- 
shon.  He  was  one  of  the  ancestors  of 
Christ;  and  his  daughter  Elisheba  was 
the  wife  of  Aaron,  Ex.  6  : 23 ;  Ruth 
4 : 20 ;  Matt.  1:4.  "  The  chariots  of  Am- 
minadib,"  Song  6:12,  were  very  light 
and  swift,  in  allusion  perhaps  to  some 
noted  charioteer  of  that  day. 

II.  A  son  of  Kohath,  1  Chr.  6:33. 

AM'MONITES,  the  descendants  of  Am- 
mon,  or  Ben-Ammi,  a  son  of  Lot.  They 
destroyed  an  ancient  race  of  giants  called 
Zamzummim,  and  seized  their  country, 
which  lay  east  of  Judea,  Deut.' 2: 19-21. 
Their  territory  extended  from  the  Arnon 
to  the  Jabbok,  and  from  the  Jordan  a 
considerable  distance  into  Arabia.  Their 
capital  city  was  Kabbah,  (also  called  Fiab- 
bath  Ammon,  and  afterwards  Philadel 
phia,  )  which  stood  on  the  Jabbok .  Yet  in 
the  time  of  Moses  they  had  been  driven 
out  of  this  region,  towards  the  east,  by 
the  Amorites,  Num.  21:21-35;  32:33. 
Moses  was  forbidden  to  assail  them, 
Deut.  2:19.  They  were  gross  idolaters; 
their  chief  idol  being  Moloch,  supposed 
to  be  the  same  with  Saturn,  1  Kin. 
11 : 5-7  ;  2  Kin.  23 : 13.  They  oppressed 
Israel  in  the  time  of  Jephthah,  and 
were  defeated  by  him  with  great  slaugh 
ter,  Judg.  11.  The  children  of  Ammon 
afterwards,  at  various  times,  troubled  the 
Israelites,  for  which  the  prophets  threat 
ened  them  with  divine  judgments,  Jer. 
49:1-6;  Ezck.  25:2-10;  and  they  were 
at  last  totally  subdued  by  Judas  Macca 
beus,  1  Mace.  5:6-44. 

AM'MON,  or  NO-AMMON,  or  No,  a  city 
of  Egypt.  The  name  of  the  city  is  prop 
erly  No-Ammon,  that  is,  the  seat  or 
dwelling  of  the  god  Ammon,  Nah.  3:8, 
in  the  Hebrew.  Similar  is  its  Greek 
name  Diospolis,  the  city  of  Jupiter- Ammon. 
In  Ez.  30:14,  15,  16,  it  is  called  simply 
No ;  and  in  Nah.  3:8  and  Jer.  46:2/S,  the 
English  version  has  also  only  No.  In 
the  latter  passage,  "the  multitude  of 
No"  would  be  better  "  Ammon  of  No." 
The  name  designates,  beyond  all  reason 
able  doubt,  the  city  of  Thebes,  the  an 
cient  and  renowned  capital  of  Upper 
Egypt.  Homer  describes  her  as 

"  The  world's  great  empress  on  the  Egyptian 
plains, 

23 


A  M  N  BIBLE  DICTIONARY.  A  AI 0 


LUXOR,  FROM   THE   RIVER   NILE. 


That  spreads  her  conquests  o'er  a  thousand 

states, 
And  pours  her  heroes  through  a  hundred 

gates." 

The  vast  ruins  of  the  temples  of  Luxor 
and  Carnac  still  proclaim  the  grandeur 
and  magnificence  with  which  the  wor 
ship  of  Jupiter-Ammon  was  conducted. 
The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Thebes 
are  the  wonder  and  delight  of  modern 
travellers,  for  their  extent,  their  vast- 
ness,  and  their  sad  and  solitary  gran 
deur.  They  are  covered  with  ancient 
hieroglyphics  and  historical  sculptures, 
among  which  one  interesting  scene  is 
thought  to  record  the  exploits  of  Shishak 
against  Jerusalem  in  the  fifth  year  of 
Rehoboam,  1  Kin.  14:25.  See  Wilkin 
son,  Robinson,  and  Olin.  Also  Mission 
ary  Herald,  1823,  p.  347,  and  SHISHAK. 

AM'NOX,  the  eldest  son  of  David,  by 
Ahinoam  of  Jezreel.  He  is  known  only 
by  his  guilt  in  violating  his  sister ;  for 
which  Absalom,  two  years  after,  caused 
•him  to  be  assassinated,  2  Sam.  13. 

A'MON,  the  fourteenth  king  of  Judah, 
son  of  Manasseh,  began  to  reign  B.  c. 
639,  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  and  reign 
ed  only  two  years  at  Jerusalem.  He  did 
evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  as  his  father 
Manasseh  had  done,  by  forsaking  Jeho 
vah  and  worshipping  idols.  His  servants 
24 


conspired  against  him,  and  slew  him  in 
his  own  house  ;  but  the  people  killed  all 
the  conspirators,  and  established  his  son 
Josiah  on  the  throne.  He  was  buried  in 
the  garden  of  Uzzah,  2  Kin.  21:18-26  ; 
2  Chr.  33:21-25. 

AM'ORITES,  a  people  descended  from 
Emer,  the  fourth  son  of  Canaan,  Gen. 
10:16.  They  first  peopled  the  mountains 
west  of  the  Dead  sea,  near  Hebron  ;  but 
afterwards  extended  their  limits,  and 
took  possession  of  the  finest  provinces  of 
Moab  and  Ammon,  on  the  east  between 
the  brooks  Jabbok  and  Arnon,  Num. 
13:29 ;  21:21-31 ;  Josh.  5:1 ;  Judg.  11:13. 
Moses  took  this  country  from  their  king, 
Sihon.  The  lands  which  the  Amorites 
possessed  on  this  side  Jordan  were  given 
to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  those  beyond 
the  Jordan  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and 
Gad.  The  name  Amorite  is  often  taken 
in  Scripture  for  Canaanite  in  general, 
Gen.  15:16;  Amos  2:9.  See  CAXAANITES. 

By  the  expression,  "Thy  father  was 
an  Amorite  and  thy  mother  a  Hittite," 
Ezek.  16:3,  God  reminds  the  Jews  that 
they  were  naturally  no  more  worthy  of 
divine  favor  than  the  worst  of  the  hea 
then  Canaanites. 

A'MOS,  the  fourth  of  the  minor  proph 
ets,  was  a  herdsman  of  Tekoah,  a  small 
town  of  Judah,  about  twelve  miles  south 


AMO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ANA 


of  Jerusalem.  He  prophesied,  however, 
concerning  Israel,  at  Bethel,  in  the  days 
of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  Jeroboam 
II.,  king  of  Israel,  about  u.  c.  787,  and 
was  thus  a  contemporary  of  Hosea,  Joel, 
and  Isaiah.  The  first  two  chapters  con 
tain  predictions  against  the  surrounding 
nations,  enemies  of  the  people  of  God. 
But  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  were  the 
chief  subjects  of  his  prophecies.  Their 
temporary  prosperity  under  Jeroboam 
led  to  gross  idolatry,  injustice,  and  cor 
ruption  ;  for  which  sins  he  denounces  the 
judgments  of  God  upon  them :  but  he 
closes  with  cheering  words  of  consolation. 
His  holy  boldness  in  reproving  sin  drew 
on  him  the  wrath  of  the  priests,  who  la 
bored  to  procure  his  banishment,  Amos 
7 : 10-17.  In  regard  to  style,  Amos  takes 
a  high  rank  among  the  prophets.  He  is 
full  of  imagery,  concise,  and  yet  simple 
and  perspicuous. 

II.  One  of  the  ancestors  of  our  Lord, 
Luke  3: 25. 

A'MOZ,  the  father  of  Isaiah,  2  Kin. 
19:2;  Isa.  1:1. 

AMPHIP'OLIS,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
situated  riot  far  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Strymon,  which  flowed ' '  around  the 
city, ' '  and  thus  occasioned  its  name.  The 
village  which  now  stands  upon  the  site 
of  the  ancient  city  is  called  Empoli  or 
Yamboli,  a  corruption  of  Amphipolis. 
It  was  visited  by  Paul  and  Silas,  Acts 
17:1. 

AM'RAM,  the  father  of  Aaron,  Miri 
am,  and  Moses.  He  died  in  Egypt,  aged 
one  hundred  and  thirty-seven,  Exod. 
6:18,  20. 

AM'RAPHEL,  king  of  Shinar  in  the 
time  of  Abraham.  With  three  other 
petty  kings,  he  made  war  upon  the 
tribes  around  the  Dead  sea,  and  the  cities 
of  the  plain,  Gen.  14:1. 

A'NAH,  the  father  of  Aholibamah,  one 
of  Esau's  wives.  While  feeding  his 
father's  asses  in  the  desert,  he  is  said  to 
have  found  the  "mules,"  Gen.  36:24. 
But  the  Hebrew  word  is  supposed  to 
mean  rather  "warm  springs  ;"  and  such 
springs  are  found  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  Dead  sea,  which  was  not  far  from 
the  dwelling  of  the  Seirites,  to  whom 
Anah  belonged.  In  this  region  was  a 
place  afterwards  celebrated  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  for  its  warm  springs, 
and  called  by  them  Callirrhoe. 

A'NAK,  plural  AN' AKIM,  famous  giants 
in  Palestine,  descended  from  Arba,  found 


er  of  the  city  Hebron.  They  spread  them 
selves  over  the  south  of  Judah,  the  hill 
country,  and  several  cities  of  the  Philis 
tines.  The  Hebrew  spies  were  terrified 
at  their  sight,  Num.  13  : 33 ;  but  in  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  they  were  destroyed 
or  expelled,  Josh.  11:22;  15:14;  Judg. 
1:20. 

ANAM'MELECH,  see  ADRAMMELECH. 

ANANI'AS,  I.,  a  Jew  of  Jerusalem, 
the  husband  of  Sapphira,  who  attempted 
to  join  the  Christians,  and  pretended  to 
give  them  the  entire  price  of  his  lands, 
but  died  instantly  on  being  convicted  of 
falsehood  by  Peter,  Acts  5  : 1-10. 

II.  A  Christian  of  Damascus,  who  re 
stored  the  sight  of  Paul,  after  his  vision 
of  the  Saviour,  Acts  0  :  10-17  ;  22 : 12. 

III.  A  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  the  son 
of  Nebedasus.    He  was  sent  as  a  prisoner 
to  Rome  by  Quadratus,  the  governor  of 
Syria,  'and  Jonathan  was  appointed  in 
his  place ;  but  being  discharged  by  the 
emperor  Claudius,  he  returned  to  Pal 
estine,   and  Jonathan  being  murdered 
through  the  treachery  of  Felix,  Ananias 
appears  to 'have  performed  the  functions 
of  the  high-priest  as  a  substitute,  until 
Ismael  was  appointed  by  Agrippa.      It 
was  he  before  whom  with  the  Sanhedrim 
Paul  was  summoned,  under  Felix,  and 
who  ordered  an  attendant  to  smite  Paul 
on  the  mouth.     The  apostle's  prophetic 
denunciation   in  reply  seems   to   have 
been  fulfilled  when,  in  the  commence 
ment  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  the  as 
sassins  burned  the  house  of  Ananias,  and 
afterwards  discovered  his  place  of  retreat 
in  an   aqueduct,  and   slew   him,   Acts 
23:2;  24:1. 

ANATH'EMA,  that  is,  a  curse,  a  ban, 
signifies  properly  something  set  apart, 
separated,  devoted.  It  is  understood 
principally  to  denote  the  absolute,  irre 
vocable,  and  entire  separation  of  a  per 
son  from  the  communion  of  the  faithful, 
or  from  the  number  of  the  living,  or 
from  the  privileges  of  society ;  or  the 
devoting  of  any  man,  animal,  city  or 
thing,  to  be  extirpated,  destroyed,  con 
sumed,  and,  as  it  were,  annihilated, 
Lev.  27.  Thus  Jericho,  Josh.  6  : 17-21, 
and  Achan  were  accursed,  Josh.  7. 

Another  kind  of  anathema,  very  pe 
culiarly  expressed,  occurs  1  Cor.  16  : 22  : 
' '  If  any  man  love  not  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  let  him  be  Anathema,  Maran- 
atha."  This  last  word  is  made  up  of 
two  Syriac  words,  signifying,  "  The  Lord 
25 


ANA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ANG 


cometh,"  that  is,  the  Lord  will  surely 
come,  and  will  execute  this  curse,  by 
condemning  those  who  love  him  not. 
At  the  same  time,  the  opposite  is  also 
implied,  that  is,  the  Lord  cometh  also 
to  reward  those  who  love  him.  See 
EXCOMMUNICATION. 

AN'ATHOTH,  one  of  the  cities  given 
to  the  priests,  in  Benjamin ;  identified 
jby  Robinson  in  Anata,  some  four  miles 
{north  by  east  of  Jerusalem,  Josh.  21 : 18  ; 
1  Chr.  6  :  GO.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  prophet  Jeremiah,  Jer.  1:1;  32  : 7. 
Its  people,  however,  rejected  his  words, 
and  sought  his  life,  Jer.  11 :  21. 

AN'DKEW,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
was  of  Bethsaida,  and  the  brother  of 
Peter,  John  1 : 40,  44.  Being  a  disciple 
of  John  the  Baptist,  he  understood  the 
intimations  of  his  master  as  to  the  Lamb 
of  God,  and  was  the  first  of  the  apostles 
to  follow  him,  John  1 :  35-40,  and  come 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  Messiah.  Com 
pare  Jas.  4  :  8.  He  was  afterwards  called 
as  an  apostle,  on  the  shore  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  Matt.  4  : 18  ;  and  thenceforth 
followed  Christ  to  the  end,  Mark  13  : 3  ; 
John  6  : 7  ;  12  : 22.  Of  his  later  history 
nothing  is  known  with  certainty.  It 
seems  probable,  however,  that  after 
preaching  the  gospel  in  Greece,  and  per 
haps  Thrace  and  Scythia,  he  suffered 
crucifixion  at  Patras  in  Achaia,  on  a 
cross  of  peculiar  form  (X,)  hence  com 
monly  known  as  "  St.  Andrew's  cross." 

ANDRONI'CUS,  a  Jewish  Christian, 
and  fellow-prisoner  of  Paul,  Rom.  16  :  7, 

A'NER,  I.,  one  of  Abraham's  allies  in 
the  pursuit  of  Chedorlaomer  and  the 
rescue  of  Lot,  Gen.  14  : 13. 

II.  A  Levitical  city,  in  Manasseh,  1 
Chr.  6 : 70. 

AN'GEL.  The  original  word,  both  in 
Hebrew  and  Greek,  means  messenger, 
and  is  so  translated,  Matt.  11 : 10  ;  Luke 
7  : 24,  etc.  It  is  often  applied  to  an 
ordinary  messenger,  Job  1 : 14  ;  1  Sam. 
11:3;  Luke  9:52;  to  prophets,  Isa. 
42 : 19  ;  Hag.  1 : 13  ;  to  priests,  Eccl. 
5:6;  Mai.  2:7;  and  even  to  inanimate 
objects,  Psa.  78:49;  104:4;  2  Cor. 
12  :  7.  Under  the  general  sense  of  mes 
senger,  the  term  angel  is  properly  ap 
plied  also  to  Christ,  as  the  great  Angel 
or  Messenger  of  the  covenant,  Mai.  3  : 1, 
and  to  the  ministers  of  his  gospel,  the 
overseers  or  angels  of  the  churches,  Rev. 
2:1,8,  12,  etc.  In  1  Cor.  11 : 10,  the 
best  interpreters  understand  by  the  term 
26 


"angels"  the  holy  angels,  who  were 
present  in  an  especial  sense  in  the  Chris 
tian  assemblies ;  and  from  reverence  to 
them  it  was  proper  that  the  women 
should  have  power  (veils,  as  a  sign  of 
their  being  in  subjection  to  a  higher 
power)  on  their  heads.  See  under  VEIL. 

But  generally  in  the  Bible  the  word  is 
applied  to  a  race  of  intelligent  beings,  of 
a  higher  order  than  man,  who  surround 
the  Deity,  and  whom  he  employs  as  his 
messengers  or  agents  in  administering  the 
affairs  of  the  world,  and  in  promoting 
the  welfare  of  individuals,  as  well  as  of 
the  whole  human  race,  Matt.  1 : 20 ; 
22  : 30  ;  Acts  7  : 30,  etc.  Whether  pure 
spirits,  or  having  spiritual  bodies,  they 
have  no  bodily  organization  like  ours, 
and  are  not  distinguished  in  sex,  Matt. 
22  : 30.  They  were  doubtless  created 
long  before  our  present  world  was  made, 
Job  38: 7.  The  Bible  represents  them  as 
exceedingly  numerous,  Dan.  7  : 10  ;  Matt. 
26  :  53  ;  Luke  2  : 13  ;  Heb.  12  :  22,  23  ; 
as  remarkable  for  strength,  Psa.  103  : 20  ; 
2  Pet.  2:11;  Rev.  5  : 2  ;  18  :  21 ;  19  : 17  ; 
and  for  activity,  Judg.  13  : 20  ;  Isa.  6:2-6; 
Dan.  9:21-23;  Matt.  13:49;  26:53; 
Acts  27  : 23  ;  Rev.  8  : 13.  They  appeal 
to  be  of  divers  orders,  Isa.  6  : 2-6  ;  Ezek. 
10:1;  Col.  1:16;  Rev.  12:7.  Their 
name  indicates  their  agency  in  the  dis 
pensations  of  Providence  towards  man, 
and  the  Bible  abounds  in  narratives  of 
events  in  which  they  have  borne  a  visi 
ble  part.  Yet  in  this  employment  they 
act  as  the  mere  instruments  of  God,  and 
in  fulfilment  of  his  commands,  Psa. 
91 : 11 ;  103  :  20  ;  Heb.  1 : 14.  We  are 
not  therefore  to  put  trust  in  them,  pay 
them  adoration,  or  pray  in  their  name, 
Rev.  19:10  ;  22:8,  9.  Though  Scripture 
does  not  warrant  us  to  believe  that  each 
individual  has  his  particular  guardian 
angel,  it  teaches  very  explicitly  that  the 
angels  minister  to  every  Christian,  Matt. 
18: 10  ;  Luke  16  : 22 ;  Heb.  1:14.  They 
are  intensely  concerned  in  the  salvation 
of  men,  Luke  2:10-12 ;  15:7,  10;  1  Pet. 
1 : 12  ;  and  will  share  with  saints  the 
blessedness  of  heaven  for  ever,  Heb. 
12:22. 

Those  angels  ' '  who  kept  not  their  first 
estate, ' '  but  fell  and  rebelled  against  God, 
are  called  the  angels  of  Satan  or  the 
devil,  Matt.  25  : 41 ;  Rev.  12  : 9.  These 
are  represented  as  being  ' '  cast  down  to 
hell,  and  reserved  unto  judgment,"  2  Pet, 
2  : 4.  See  SYNAGOGUE,  ARCHANGEL. 


ANG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ANO 


ANGEL  OF  THE  LORD,  THE  ANGEL- 
JEHOVAH,  the  usual  title  of  Christ  in  the* 
Old  Testament.  Compare  Gen.  16  r  7-13  ; 
22-11-18;  31:11-13;  32:24-30;  Ex. 
3  :  2-6,  14  ;  23  :  20  ;  Judg.  2  ;  13  : 16-22  ; 
Acts  7  :  30-38.  Christ  thus  appears  in 
the  Patriarchal,  the  Mosaic,  and  the 
Christian  dispensation  as  the  same  Jeho 
vah,  revealing  the  Father  to  men,  and 
carrying  forward  the  same  great  plan  for 
the  redemption  of  his  people,  Isa.  63  : 9. 

AN'GER,  a  violent  emotion  of  a  pain 
ful  nature,  sometimes  arising  spontane 
ously  upon  just  occasion,  but  usually 
characterized  in  the  Bible  as  a  great  sin, 
Matt.  5 :  22 ;  Eph.  4:31;  Col.  3 : 8.  Even 
when  just,  our  anger  should  be  mitigated 
by  a  due  consideration  of  the  circum 
stances  of  the  offence  and  the  state  of 
mind  of  the  offender ;  of  the  folly  and 
ill-results  of  this  passion ;  of  the  claims 
of  the  gospel,  and  of  our  own  need  of 
forgiveness  from  others,  but  especially 
from  God,  Matt.  6 : 15.  Anger  is  in 
Scripture  frequently  attributed  to  God, 
Psa.  7  : 11 ;  90  : 11 ;  not  that  he  is  lia 
ble  to  those  violent  emotions  which  this 
passion  produces,  but  figuratively  speak 
ing,  that  is,  after  the  manner  of  men ; 
and  because  he  punishes  the  wicked  with 
the  severity  of  a  superior  provoked  to 
anger. 

AN'ISE,  a  well-known  plant,  resem 
bling  dill,  carraway,  etc.,  but  more  fra 
grant.  The-  seeds  are  kept  by  apothe 
caries.  The  plant  mentioned  in  Matt. 
23:23  was  no  doubt  the  dill,  which 


devoted  to  the  service  of  God.  She  was 
constant  in  attendance  at  the  morning 
and  evening  sacrifices  at  the  temple ; 
and  there,  at  the  age  of  eighty-four 
years,  was  blessed  with  a  sight  of  the 
infant  Saviour,  and  inspired  to  announce 
the  coming  of  the  promised  Messiah  to 
many  who  longed  to  sec  him,  Luke 
2 : 36-38. 

AN'NAS,  a  high-priest  of  the  Jews, 
Luke  3:2;  John  18  : 13,  24  ;  Acts  4  : 6. 
He  is  mentioned  in  Luke  as  being  high" 
priest  along  with  Caiaphas,  his  *on  in- 
law.  .  He  was  first  appointed  to  that 
office  by  Cyrenius,  or  Quiriuus,  procon 
sul  of  Syria,  about  A.  r/.  'i  or  8,  but  was 
afterwards  deprived  of  it.  After  various 
changes,  the  office  was  given  to  Joseph, 
also  called  Caiaphas,  the  son-in-law  of 
Annas,  about  A.  D.  25,  who  continued 
in  office  until  A.  D.  35  or  86.  In  the 
passages  of  the  New  Testament  above 
cited,  therefore,  it  is  apparent  that  Caia 
phas  was  the  only  actual  and  proper 
high-priest ;  but  Annas  being  his  father- 
in-law,  and  having  been  formerly  him 
self  high-priest,  and  being  also  perhaps 
his  substitute,  had  great  influence  and 
authority,  and  could  with  propriety  be 
still  termed  high-priest  along  with  Caia< 
phas.  It  was  before  him  that  Christ  was 
first  taken  on  the  night  of  his  seizure. 
He  also  assisted  in  presiding  over  the 
Sanhedrim  which  sat  in  judgment  upon 
Peter  and  John,  Acts  4 : 6. 


grows  in  Palestine,  and  was  tithed  by 
the  Jews. 

AN'NA,  a  daughter  of  Phanuel,  of  the 
tribe  of  Asher,  early  married,  but  left  a 
widow  after  seven  years,  and  thenceforth 


ANOINTING  was  a  custom  in  general 
use  among  the  Hebrews  and  other  ori 
ental  nations,  and  its  omission  was  one 
27 


ANS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ANT 


gign  of  mourning,  Isa.  61 : 3.  They 
anointed  the  hair,  head,  and  beard, 
Psa.  104 : 15 ;  133 : 2.  At  their  feasts 
and  rejoicings  they  anointed  the 
whole  hody ;  but  sometimes  only 
the  head  or  the  feet,  Psa.  23 : 5 ; 
Matt.  6:17;  John  12:3.  It  was 
a  customary  mark  of  respect  to 
guests,  Luke  7 : 38,  46.  The  use  of 
oil  upon  the  skin  was  thought  to 
be  conducive  to  health.  Anoint 
ing  was  then  used,  and  is  still,  me 
dicinally,  Mark  6:13;  Jas.  5:14;  but 
the  miraculous  cures  thus  wrought 
by  the  apostles  furnish  no  warrant 
for  the  ceremony  just  before  death 
called  "extreme  unction."  The 
anointing  of  dead  bodies  was  also 
practised,  to  preserve  them  from 
corruption,  Mark  14  :  8  ;  16  : 1  ; 
Luke  23 : 56.  They  anointed  kings 
and  high-priests  at  their  inaugura 
tion,  Ex.  29:7,  29,  Lev.  4:3,  Judg. 
9:8,  1  Sam.  9:16,  livings  19:15, 
16,  as  also  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  tab 
ernacle  and  temple,  Ex.  30:26.  This 
anointing  of  sacred  persons  and  objects 
signified  their  being  set  apart  and  conse 
crated  to  the  service  of  God ;  and  the 
costly  and  fragrant  mixture  appointed  for 
this  purpose  was  forbidden  for  all  others, 
Ex,  30  :  23-33  ;  Ezek.  23  :  41. 

The  custom  of  anointing  with  oil  or 
perfume  was  also  common  among  the 
Greeks  and  Ptomans ;  especially  the 
anointing  of  guests  at  feasts  and  other 
entertainments . 

AN'SWER.  Besides  the  common  use 
of  this  word  in  the  sense  of  to  reply,  it  is 
very  often  used  in  the  Bible,  following 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  idioms,  in  the 
sense  of  to  speak;  meaning  simply  that 
one  begins  or  resumes  his  discourse, 
Zech.  3:4;  6:4;  Matt.  11 : 25  ;  12  :  38  ; 
Luke  7  : 40.  It  also  means,  to  sing  in 
choruses  or  responses,  1  Sam.  18  :  7  ;  and 
to  give  account  of  one's  self  in  judgment, 
Gen.  30 :  33  ;  Job  9  :  3. 

ANT,  a  small  insect,  famous  for  its 
industry  and  economy,  for  its  social  hab 
its  and  skill  in  building.  Some  species 
build  habitations  truly  immense  com 
pared  with  themselves,  and  able  to  con 
tain  a  dozen  men.  Their  roofs  are  imper 
vious  to  rain,  and  they  contain  numer 
ous  stories,  galleries,  etc.,  the  result  of 
skilful  and  incessant  labor.  Ants  lav 
ish  the  utmost  care  and  pains  upon  their 
young,  both  in  the  egg  and  the  crysalis 
28 


state.  The  termites  or  white  ants  are 
large  and  very  destructive.  Most  vari 
eties  of  ants  are  known  to  choose  animal 
or  saccharine  food  ;  and  no  species  has 
yet  been  found  laying  up  stores  of  grain 
for  winter  use,  for  while  the  frost  con 
tinues  they  all  lie  torpid.  The  language 
of  Solomon,  Prov.  6:6,  commends  them 
for  toiling  as  soon  and  as  long  as  the 
season  permits  and  rewards  their  labor, 
and  bids  us  make  the  same  diligent  use 
of  life  and  opportunities,  Prov.  30 : 24, 
25.  The  inferior  animals  are  in  many  re 
spects  wiser  than  sinful  man,  Job  12:7,  8. 

AN'TELOPE,  see  under  HOE. 

AN'TICHPJST  strictly  means  one 
opposed  to  Christ.  In  this  sense,  John 
says  there  were  already  in  his  time  many 
antichrists,  many  having  the  spirit  of  an 
tichrist  ;  unbelievers,  heretics,  and  per 
secutors,  1  John  2:18;  4:3.  They  were 
characterized  by  the  denial  of  the  Father 
and  the  Son,  and  of  Christ's  coming  in 
the  flesh,  1  John  2  :  22  ;  4:3.  But  the 
apostles  and  early  Christians  seem  to  have 
looked  forward  to  some  one  great  anti 
christ,  who  should  precede  the  second 
coming  of  our  Lord,  and  whom  Paul 
calls  "the  man  of  sin,  the  son  of  per 
dition,"  2  Thess.  2:3.  To  this  passage 
John  alludes,  1  John  2  : 18.  Able  inter 
preters  agree  that  antichrist  denotes  an 
organized  body  of  men,  perpetuated  from 
age  to  age,  opposed  to  Christ,  and  which 
he  will  destroy,  Rev.  11 ;  13  ;  17. 


ANT  BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


ANTIOCH  IN   SYRIA,   ON   THK   ORONTES. 


AN'TIOCH,  the  name  of  two  cities 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  The 
first  was  situated  on  the  river  Orontes, 
twenty  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  was 
the  metropolis  of  all  Syria.  It  was 
founded  by  Sclcucus  Nicator,  and  called 
by  him  after  the  name  of  his  father  An- 
tiochus.  This  city  is  celebrated  by  Cice 
ro,  as  being  opulent  and  abounding  in 
men  of  taste  and  letters.  It  was  at  one 
time  a  place  of  great  wealth  and  refine 
ment,  and  ranked  as  the  third  city  in 
the  Roman  empire.  Its  situation,  amid 
innumerable  groves  and  small  streams, 
midway  between  Alexandria  and  Con 
stantinople,  rendered  it  a  place  of  great 
beauty  and  salubrity,  as  well  as  commer 
cial  importance.  It  was  also  a  place  of 
great  resort  for  the  Jews,  and  afterwards 
for  Christians,  to  all  of  whom  ixivitations 
and  encouragements  were  held  out  by 
Scleucus  Nicator.  The  distinctive  name 
of  "Christians"  was  here  first  applied  to 
the  followers  of  Jesus,  Acts  11 :  19,  26 ; 
13  : 1 ;  Gal.  2:11.  Antioch  was  highly 
favored  by  Vespasian  and  Titus,  and  be 
came  celebrated  for  luxury  and  vice. 
Few  cities  have  suffered  greater  disasters. 
Many  times  it  has  been  nearly  ruined  by 
earthquakes,  one  of  which,  in  1822,  de 
stroyed  one-fourth  of  its  population,  then 
about  twenty  thousand.  It  is  now  called 
Antakia. 

The  other  city,  also  founded  by  Seleu- 


cus  Nicator,  was  called  Antioch  of  Pisid- 
ia,  because  it  was  attached  to  that  prov 
ince,  although  situated  in  Phrygia,  Acts 
13:14;  14:19,  21;  2  Tim.  3:11. 

AN'TIPAS,  I.  See  HEROD  ANTIPAS. 

II.  A  faithful  martyr,  in  Pergamos, 
Rev.  2 : 13. 

ANTIP'ATRIS,  the  name  of  a  city  of 
Palestine,  situated  seven  or  eight  milcw 
from  the  coast,  in  a  fertile  and  well 
watered  plain  between  Crcsarea  and  Je 
rusalem,  on  the  site  of  the  former  city 
Caphar-Saba.  It  was  founded  by  Herod 
the  Great,  and  called  Antipatris,  in  hon 
or  of  his  father  Antipater.  This  place 
was  visited  by  Paul,  Acts  23  :  31.  An 
Arab  village,  called  Kefr  Saba,  now 
occupies  its  site. 

ANTO'NIA,  a  square  fortress  on  the 
east  side  of  Jerusalem,  north  of  the  tem 
ple  area,  with  which  it  had  a  covered 
communication.  There  was  a  tower  at 
each  corner,  and  it  was  isolated  by  high 
walls  and  trenches.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
Herod  the  Great,  and  named  after  Mark 
Antony.  Josephus  often  speaks  of  it. 
It  was  ' '  the  castle ' '  from  which  soldiers 
came  down  to  rescue  Paul  from  the  Jews 
in  the  temple;  and  from  its  stairs  he 
addressed  the  multitude,  Acts  21 : 31-40. 

APE,  an  animal  rudely  resembling  the 
human  race.  The  tribe  may  be  famil 
iarly  distinguished  as  monkeys,  apes, 
and  baboons.  Solomon  imported  them 
29 


APII 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


APO 


from  Ophir,  1  Kin.  10 :  22  ;  2  Chr.  9  : 21. 
They  were  at  one  time  worshipped  in 
Egypt;  and  still  are  adored  in  some 
parts  of  India,  where  one  traveller  de 
scribes  a  magnificent  temple  dedicated 
to  the  monkey.  There  may  be  an  allu 


sion  to  large  apes  or  baboons,  literally 
"hairy  ones/'  m  Lev.  17  : 7  :  Isa.  13  : 21 ; 
34 : 14. 

APHAR'SACHITES,  etc.,  Ezra  4:9; 
5:6;  named  among  the  heathen  subjects 
of  the  king  of  Assyria,  transplanted  into 
Samaria.  The  Apharsites,  also  named 
in  Ezra  4 :  9,  are  regarded  by  Luther  as 
Persians. 


the  book  of  Revelation.  This  book  be 
longs,  in  its  character,  to  the  prophetical 
writings,  and  stands  in  intimate  relation 
with  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testa 
ment,  and  more  especially  with  the  writ 
ings  of  the  later  prophets,  as  Ezekiel, 
Zechariah,  and  particularly  Daniel,  in- 
asmucn  as  it  is  almost  entirely  symbol 
ical.  This  circumstance  has  surrounded 
the  interpretation  of  this  book  with  diffi 
culties,  which  no  interpreter  has  yet  been 
able  fully  to  overcome.  As  to  the  au 
thor,  the  weight  of  testimony  through 
out  all  the  history  of  the  church  is  in 
favor  of  John,  the  beloved  apostle.  As 
to  the  time  of  its  composition,  most 
commentators  suppose  it  to  have  been 
written  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa 
lem,  about  A.  D.  96  ;  while  others  assign 
it  an  earlier  date. 

It  is  an  expanded  illustration  of  the 
first  great  promise,  "The  seed  of  the 
woman  shall  bruise  the  head  of  the 
serpent."  Its  figures  and  symbols  are 
august  and  impressive.  It  is  full  of  pro 
phetic  grandeur,  and  awful  in  its  hiero 
glyphics  and  mystic  symbols :  seven  seals 
opened,  seven  trumpets  sounded,  seven 
vials  poured  out ;  mighty  antagonists 
and  hostile  powers,  full  of  malignity 
against  Christianity,  and  for  a  season 
oppressing  it,  but  at  length  defeated  and 
annihilated  ;  the  darkened  heaven,  tem 
pestuous  sea,  and  convulsed  earth  fight 
ing  against  them,  while  the  issue  of  the 
long  combat  is  the  universal  reign  of 
peace  and  truth  and  righteousness — the 
whole  scene  being  relieved  at  intervals 
by  a  choral  burst  of  praise  to  God  the 
Creator,  and  Christ  the  Redeemer  and 
j  Governor.  Thus  its  general  scope  is 


A'PHEK,  strength,  I.,   a  city  in  Leb-  |  intelligible  to  all  readers,  or  it  could  not 


anon,  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Asher, 
Josh.  13:4;  19:30;  but  not  subdued, 
Judg.  1 :  31.  Its  site  may  be  still  found 
in  mount  Lebanon,  called  Aphka. 

II.  A  city  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  in 
the  valley  of  Jezreel,  noted  in  the  wars 
with  the  Philistines,  1  Sam.  4 : 1 ;  29 : 1. 

III.  A  city  rive  miles  east  of  the  sea 
of  Galilee,  the  walls  of  which  fell  upon 
twenty-seven    thousand    Syrians    under 
Benhadad,  after  his  defeat  by  the  Israel 
ites,  IKin.  20:26-34. 

APOC'ALYPSE    signifies    revelation, 
but  is  particularly  referred  to  the  reve- 


yield  either  hope  or  comfort.  It  is  also 
full  of  Christ.  It  exhibits  his  glory  as 
Redeemer  and  Governor,  and  describes 
that  deep  and  universal  homage  and 
praise  which  the  "Lamb  that  was  slain  " 
is  for  ever  receiving  before  the  throne. 
Either  Christ  is  God.  or  the  saints  and 
angels  are  guilty  of  idolatry. 

"To  explain  this  book  perfectly," 
says  Bishop  Newton,  "is  not  the  work 
of  one  man.  or  of  one  age ;  probably  it 
never  will  be  clearly  understood  till  it  is 
all  fulfilled." 

APOC'RYPHA  signifies  properly  hid- 


lations  which  John  had  in  the  isle  of  j  den,  concealed  ;  and  as  applied  to  books, 
Patmos,    whither  he  was  banished  by    it  means  those  which  assume  a  claim  to 
Domitian.    Hence  it  is  another  name  lor    a  sacred  character,  but  are  really  unin- 
30 


APO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


APO 


spired,  and  have  not  been  publicly  admit 
ted  into  the  canon.  These  are  of  two 
classes:  namely, 

1.  Those  which  were  in  existence  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  but  were  not  admit 
ted  by  the  Jews  into  the  canon  of  the 
Old  Testament,  because  they  had  no  He 
brew  original  and  were  regarded  as  not 
divinely  inspired.     The  most  important 
of  these  are  collected  in  the  Apocrypha 
often  bound  up  with  the  English  Bible ; 
but  in  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  they 
stand  as  canonical. 

These  apocryphal  writings  are  ten  in 
number  :  namely,  Baruch,  Ecclesiasticus, 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  Tobit,  Judith,  two 
books  of  the  Maccabees,  Song  of  the 
Three  Children,  Susannah,  and  Bell  and 
the  Dragon.  Their  style  proves  that 
they  were  a  part  of  the  Jewish-Greek 
literature  of  Alexandria,  within  three 
hundred  years  before  Christ ;  and  as  the 
Septuagint  Greek  version  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible  came  from  the  same  quarter,  it 
was  often  accompanied  by  these  unin 
spired  Greek  writings,  and  they  thus 
gained  a  general  circulation.  Josephus 
and  Philo,  of  the  first  century,  exclude 
them  from  the  canon.  The  Talmud  con 
tains  no  trace  of  them ;  and  from  the 
various  lists  of  the  Old  Testament  Scrip 
tures  in  the  early  centuries,  it  is  clear 
that  then  as  now  they  formed  no  part  of 
the  Hebrew  canon.  None  of  them  are 
quoted  or  endorsed  by  Christ  or  the  apos 
tles  ;  they  were  not  acknowledged  by 
the  Christian  fathers ;  and  their  own 
contents  condemn  them,  abounding  with 
errors  and  absurdities.  Some  of  them, 
however,  are  of  value  for  the  historical 
information  they  furnish,  for  their  moral 
and  prudential  maxims,  and  for  the  illus 
trations  they  afford  of  ancient  life. 

2.  Those  which  were  written  after  the 
time  of  Christ,  but  were  not  admitted 
by  the  churches  into  the  canon  of  the 
New  Testament,  as  not  being  divinely 
inspired.     These  are  mostly  of  a  legen 
dary  character.    They  have  all  been  col 
lected  by  Fabricius  in  his  Codex  Apoc. 
New  Testament. 

^  APOLLO'NIA,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
situated  between  Amphipolis  and  Thes- 
salonica,  about  a  day's  journey  on  foot 
from  the  former  place,  Acts  17  : 1. 

APOL'LOS,  a  Jew  of  Alexandria,  a 
learned  and  eloquent  man,  who  through 
the  Scriptures  and  the  ministry  of  John 
the  Baptist  became  a  Christian.  He 


visited  Ephesus  about  A.  D.  54,  and  pub 
licly  proclaimed  his  faith  in  Christ; 
whereupon  he  was  further  instructed  in 
gospel  truth.  Passing  thence  into  Acha- 
ia,  he  preached  with  great  power  and 
success,  especially  among  the  Jews,  Acts 
18 : 24-28.  At  Corinth,  he  for  a  time 
watered  what  Paul  had  planted,  Acts 
19 : 1 ;  1  Cor.  3:6.  His  character  was 
not  unlike  that  of  Paul ;  they  were 
equally  grieved  at  the  dissensions  of  the 
Corinthians,  and  at  those  personal  par 
tialities  which  led  many  away  from 
Christ,  1  Cor.  3 : 4-22 ;  16 : 12 ;  and  they 
cooperated  to  the  end  in  serving  him, 
Titus  3  : 13.  Jerome  is  of  opinion  that 
Apollos  afterwards  returned  to  Corinth 
from  Crete. 

APOL'LYON,  see  ABADDON. 

APOS'TLE,  a  messenger  or  envoy. 
The  term  is  applied  to  Jesus  Christ,  who 
was  God's  envoy  to  save  the  world,  Heb. 
3:1;  though,  more  commonly,  the  title 
is  given  to  persons  who  were  envoys 
commissioned  by  the  Saviour  himself. 

The  apostles  of  Jesus  Christ  were  his 
chief  disciples,  whom  he  invested  with 
authority,  filled  with  his  Spirit,  entrust 
ed  particularly  with  his  doctrines  and 
services,  and  chose  to  raise  the  edifice  of 
his  church.  They  were  twelve  in  num 
ber,  answering  to  the  twelve  tribes. 
Matt.  19:28,  and  were  plain,  unlearned 
men,  chosen  from  the  common  people. 
After  their  calling  and  charge,  Matt. 
10:5-42,  they  attended  their  divine 
Master,  witnessing  his  works,  imbibing 
his  spirit,  and  gradually  learning  the 
facts  and  doctrines  of  the  gospel.  After 
his  resurrection,  he  sent  them  into  all 
the  world,  commissioned  to  preach,  to 
baptize,  to  work  miracles,  etc.  See 
John  15:27;  1  Cor.  9:1;  15:8;  2  Cor. 
12:12;  1  Thess.  2:13.  The  names  of 
the  twelve  are,  Simon  Peter ;  Andrew, 
1  his  brother ;  James,  the  son  of  Zebedee, 
called  also  "the  greater;"  John,  his 
brother  ;  Philip ;  Bartholomew ;  Thom 
as  ;  Matthew,  or  Levi ;  Simon  the  Ca- 
naanite ;  Lebbeus,  surnamed  Thaddeus, 
also  called  Judas  or  Jiide  ;  James,  "  the 
less, ' '  the  son  of  Alphacus ;  and  Judas 
Iscariot,  Matt.  10:2-4;  Mark  3:16; 
Luke  6:14.  The  last  betrayed  his  Mas 
ter,  and  then  hanged  himself,  and  Mat 
thias  was  chosen  in  his  place,  Acts 
1:15-26.  In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
are  recorded  the  self-sacrificing  toils  and 
sufferings  of  these  Christlike  men,  who 
31 


APP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARA 


did  that  which  was  "right  in  the  sight 
of  God ' '  from  love  to  their  Lord ;  and 
gave  themselves  wholly  to  their  work, 
with  a  zeal,  love,  and  faith  Christ  de 
lighted  to  honor— teaching  us  that  apos 
tolic  graces  alone  can  secure  apostolic 
successes. 

APPHI'A,  Phile.  2,  supposed  by  some 
to  have  been  the  wife  of  Philemon. 

APPLE-TREES, 
mentioned  in  Song 
2:3;  8:5;  Joel  1:12. 
Many  suppose  the 
citron-tree  to  be  here 
meant.  The  rich 
color,  fragrant  odor 
and  handsome  ap 
pearance  of  this 
tree,  both  in  flower 
and  in  fruit,  agree 
well  with  the  above 
passages.  Thoughts 
of  wise  men,  well 
expressed,  are  like 
"apples  of  gold  in 
pictures  of  silver," 
that  is,  like  ripe 
and  golden  fruit  in  CITRON. 

finely  wrought  sil 
ver  baskets,  Prov.  25  : 11. 

APPII-FO'RUM,  market-ptace  ofAppius, 
a  village  or  market-town,  founded  by 
Appius  Claudius  on  the  great  road  (via 
Appia)  which  he  constructed  from  Home 
to  Capua.  It  is  most  probably  to  be 
found  in  the  present  Casarillo  di  Santa 
Maria,  situated  forty  miles  from  Home, 
in  the  borders  of  the  Pontine  marshes, 
where  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  town. 
ThBee  Taverns  was  a  village  about  ten 
miles  nearer  Rome,  Acts  28 : 15. 

AQ'UILA,  a  Jew  born  in  Pontus,  a 
tent-maker  by  occupation,  who  with  his 
wife  Priscilla  joined  the  Christian  church 
at  Rome.  When  the  Jews  were  banished 
from  that  city  by  the  emperor  Claudius, 
Aquila  and  his  wife  retired  to  Corinth. 
They  afterwards  became  the  companions 
of  Paul  in  his  labors,  and  are  mentioned 
by  him  with  much  commendation,  Acts 
18  : 2,  3,  24-26  ;  Rom.  16 :  3,  4  ;  1  Cor. 
16 : 19  ;  2  Tim.  4 : 19. 

AR,  called  also  Rabbah  and  Rabbath- 
Moab,  the  capital  of  Moab,  Num.  21  :  28  ; 
Dent.  2  ;  Isa.  15  : 1.  Its  site,  still  called 
Rabbah,  is  found  upon  a  hill  some  fifteen 
miles  east  of  the  Dead  sea,  and  south  of 
the  Arnon,  midway  between  it  and  Kir 
Moab. 

32 


ARA'BIA  is  a  country  of  Western  Asia, 
lying  south  and  east  of  Judea.  It  extends 
1,500  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
1,200  from  east  to  west.  On  the  north 
it  is  bounded  by  part  of  Syria,  on  the 
east  by  the  Persian  gulf  and  the  Eu 
phrates,  on  the  south  by  the  Arabian  sea 
and  the  straits  of  Babelmandel,  and  on 
[  the  west  by  the  Red  sea,  Egypt,  and  Pal 
estine.  Arabia  is  distinguished  by  ge 
ographers  into  three  parts — Deserta,  Pe- 
trsea,  and  Felix. 

ARABIA  DESER'TA,  the  desert,  a  vast 
steppe,  or  elevated  expanse  of  sand,  with 
occasional  hills  and  a  sparse  vegetation. 
It  has  the  mountains  of  Gilead  on  the 
west,  and  the  river  Euphrates  on  the 
east,  and  extends  far  to  the  south.  It 
comprehends  the  countiy  of  the  Iture- 
ans,  the  Ishmaelites,  the  people  of  Ke- 
dar,  and  others,  who  led  a  wandering 
life,  having  no  cities,  houses,  or  fixed  hab 
itations,  but  wholly  dwelling  in  tents; 
in  modern  Arabic,  such  are  called  Beda- 
wm.  When  Paul  says  he  "went  into 
Arabia  and  returned  again  to  Damas 
cus,"  he  meant  doubtless  the  northern 
part  of  Arabia  Deserta,  which  lay  adja 
cent  to  the  territories  of  Damascus,  Gal, 
1:17. 

ARABIA  PETR/E'A  lies  south  of  the  Holy 
Land,  and  had  Petra  for  its  capital.  See 
SELA.  This  region  contained  the  south 
ern  Edomites,  the  Amalekites,  the  Hi- 
vites,  etc.,  people  at  present  known  un 
der  the  general  name  of  Arabs.  In  this 
country  was  Kadesh-barnea,  Gerar,  Beer- 
sheba,  Paran,  Arad,  Hasmona,  Oboth, 
Dedan,  etc.,  also  the  peninsula  of  mount 
Sinai  and  the  land  of  Midian.  This  por- 
^tion  of  Arabia,  though  smaller  than  the 
"others,  is  rich  in  historical  associations. 
The  patriarch  Job  was  familiar  with  its 
scenery.  At  Horeb,  Moses  saw  the  burn 
ing  bush,  and  Elijah  heard  the  "still 
small  voice."  In  this  "  great  and  terri 
ble  wilderness,"  from  mount  Sinai  to 
the  promised  land,  the  Hebrews  spent 
their  forty  years  of  wanderings. 

ARABIA  FE'LIX,  the  happy,  lies  still  far 
ther  south  and  east,  being  bounded  east 
by  the  Persian  gulf,  south  by  the  ocean 
between  Africa  and  India,  and  west  by 
the  Red  sea.  As  this  region  did  not  im 
mediately  adjoin  the  Holy  Land,  it  is  not 
so  frequently  mentioned  as  the  former 
ones.  The  queen  of  Sheba,  who  visited 
Solomon,  1  Kings  10:1,  was  probably 
queen  of  part  of  Arabia  Felix.  This 


AHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


AHA 


A   SCENE   IN  ARABIA. 


country  abounded  with  riches,  and  par 
ticularly  with  spices,  and  is  now  called 
Hedjaz,  Yemen,  etc.  It  is  much  cele 
brated  in  modern  times  by  reason  of  the 
cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina  being  situ 
ated  in  it. 

There  are,  according  to  native  histo 
rians,  two  races  of  Arabs  :  those  who  de 
rive  their  descent  from  the  primitive  in 
habitants  of  the  land,  Joktan,  etc.,  and 
those  who  claim  Ishmael  as  their  ances 
tor.  Southern  Arabia  was  settled  in 
part  by  Cush  and  his  sons,  descendants 
of  Ham,  who  also  peopled  the  adjoining 
coast  of  Africa,  and  in  part  by  descend- 
aiits  of  Shem,  particularly  Joktan,  Gen. 
10:25,  26.  Ishmael,  Gen.  25:13-15, 
and  the  six  sons  of  Abraham  by  Ketu- 
rah,  Gen.  25  :  2,  together  with  the  seed 
of  Esau  and  of  Lot,  occupied  the  parts  of 
Arabia  nearer  Judea.  The  changes  of 
forty  centuries  render  it  impossible  to 


distinguish  either  of  these  parent  sources 
in  the  numerous  Arab  tribes  descended 
from  them.  These  tribes  have  traditions 
and  peculiarities  of  their  own,  and  inces 
sant  feuds  ;  yet  as  a  whole  they  are  but 
one  people,  distinct  from  all  others.  The 
only  general  division  is  into  those  who 
dwell  in  cities,  as  in  Southern  Arabia, 
and  those  who  live  in  the  fields  and  des 
erts.  The  latter  are  migratory,  dwelling 
in  tents  and  removing  according  to  the 
convenience  of  water  and  pasturage,  and 
are  often  robbers.  Each  tribe  is  divided 
up  into  little  communities,  of  which  a 
sheikh  or  patriarch  is  the  head.  Such  are 
the  Bedaween. 

In  ancient  times  the  Arabs  were  idol 
aters  and  star-worshippers.  They  are 
now  nominally  Mohammedans,  but  tlieii 
religion  sits  but  lightly  on  them.  Iso 
lated  from  other  nations,  and  with  slight 
exceptions  free  from  all  foreign  control 
83 


ARA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARA 


they  preserve  their  ancient  manners  with 
singular  fidelity,  and  the  study  of  these 
throws  much  light  upon  Bible  narratives. 
Their  language  also  is  still  spoken  with 
great  purity  ;  and  as  it  is  near  akin  to 
the  Hebrew,  it  furnishes  invaluable  aid 
in  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament. 

A'RAD,  a  Canaanitish  city  on  the  ex 
treme  south  of  Judea,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  drove  back  the  Hebrews  as  they 
attempted  to  enter  the  promised  land 
from  Kadesh,  Num.  21 : 1 ;  it  was  after 
wards  subdued,  Josh.  10 : 41 ;  12 : 14 ; 
Judg.  1 :  1G.  Kobinson  found  its  site  on 
a  hill  about  fifteen  miles  south  of  Hebron. 

A'RAM,  I.,  the  name  of  three  men  in 
the  Bible :  a  sou  of  Shem,  Gen.  10  :  22, 
a  grandson  of  Nahor,  Gen.  22:21,  and 
an  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  Ruth  4  :  19  ;  1 
Chr.  2  : 10  ;  Matt.  1:3;  Luke  3  :  33. 

II.  Nearly  synonymous  with  Syria ; 
the  Hebrew  name  of  the  whole  region 
north-east  of  Palestine,  extending  from 
the  Tigris  on  the  east  nearly  to  the  Med 
iterranean  on  the  west,  and  to  the  Tau 


rus  range  on  the  north.  It  was  named 
after  Aram  the  son  of  Shem.  Thus  de 
nned,  it  includes  also  Mesopotamia, 
which  the  Hebrews  named  Aram-naha- 
raim,  Aram  of  the  two  rivers,  Gen.  24  : 10, 
or  Padan-aram,  the  plain  of  Aram,  Gen. 
25  :  20  ;  48  : 7.  Various  cities  in  the  west 
ern  part  of  Aram  gave  their  own  names 
to  tiie  regions  around  them  :  as  Damas 
cus,  (Aram-Dammesek,)  2  Sam.  8:6; 
Maachah,  near  Bashan,  1  Chr.  19  : 6  ; 
Geshur,  Josh.  12  :  5  ;  2  Sam.  15:8;  Zo- 
bah,  and  Beth-rehob,  2  Sam.  10  :  6,  8. 
Several  of  these  were  powerful  states, 
and  often  waged  war  against  Israel.  Ba- 
vid  subdued  them  and  made  them  trib 
utaries,  and  Solomon  preserved  this  su 
premacy.  After  him  it  was  lost,  except 
perhaps  under  Jeroboam  II.  See  SYRIA, 
PADAN-ARAM.  The  Aram;jcan  language, 
nearly  resembling  the  Hebrew,  gradual 
ly  supplanted  the  latter  as  a  spoken  lan 
guage,  and  was  in  use  in  Judca  at  the 
time  of  Christ.  It  is  still  used  by  Syrian 
Christians  around  Mosul. 


MOUNT  ARARAT,  IN  ARMENIA. 


AR'ARAT,  the  name  of  a  province  in 
th§  centre  of  Armenia,  between  the  river 
Araxes  and  the  lakes  Van  and  Ooroo- 
34 


miah.  2  Kings  19:37,  Isaiah  37:38,  and 
sometimes  used  to  denote  the  whole 
country,  Jer.  51:27.  On  the  mountains 


AHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARE 


of  Ararat  the  ark  rested,  Gen.  8:4.  In 
1831,  Messrs.  Smith  and  Dwight,  Amer 
ican  missionaries,  visited  Armenia,  and 
traversed  the  province  of  Ararat.  Mr. 
Smith  describes  the  mountains  as  fol 
lows  : 

.' '  We  passed  very  near  the  base  of  that 
noble  mountain,  which  is  called  by  the 
Armenians  Masis,  and  by  Europeans  gen 
erally  Ararat ;  and  for  more  than  twenty 
days  had  it  constantly  in  sight,  except 
when  obscured  by  clouds.  It  consists  of 
two  peaks,  one  considerably  higher  than 
the  other,  and  is  connected  with  a  chain 
of  mountains  running  off  to  the  north 
west  and  west,  which,  though  high,  are 
not  of  sufficient  elevation  to  detract  at 
all  from  the  lonely  dignity  of  this  stu 
pendous  mass.  From  Nakhchewan,  at 
the  distance  of  at  least  100  miles  to  the 
south-east,  it  appeared  like  an  immense 
isolated  cone,  of  extreme  regularity,  ris 
ing  out  of  the  valley  of  the  Araxes.  Its 
height  is  said  to  be  16,000  feet.  The 
eternal  snows  upon  its  summit  occasion 
ally  form  vast  avalanches,  which  precip 
itate  themselves  down  its  sides  with  a 
sound  not  unlike  that  of  an  earthquake. 
When  we  saw  it,  it  was  white  to  its  very 
base  with  snow.  And  certainly  not 
among  the  mountains  of  Ararat  or  of 
Armenia  generally,  nor  those  of  any  part 
of  the  world  where  I  have  been,  have  I 
ever  seen  one  whose  majesty  could  plead 
half  so  powerfully  its  claims  to  the  honor 
of  having  once  been  the  stepping-stone 
between  the  old  world  and  the  new.  I 
gave  myself  up  to  the  feeling,  that  on 
its  summit  were  once  congregated  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  earth,  and  that,  while 
in  the  valley  of  the  Araxes,  I  was  pay 
ing  a  visit  to  the  second  cradle  of  the 
human  race." 

Mount  Ararat  was  visited  in  1829  by 
Prof.  Parrot,  who  after  several  attempts 
reached  the  summit,  more  than  17,200 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  bears 
traces  of  volcanic  action,  and  in  1840 
was  shaken  by  a  disastrous  earthquake. 

ARAU'NAH,  a  Jebusite,  residing  on 
mount  Moriah  after  the  Jebusites  were 
dispossessed  by  David,  2  Sam.  5:6; 
24 : 18.  In  1  Chr.  21 :  18,  he  is  called 
ORNAN.  The  divine  choice  of  his  land 
for  the  temple  site,  2  Chr.  3:1,  and  his 
readiness  to  give  it  freely  for  this  pur 
pose,  suggest  the  probability  that  he  was 
a  convert  to  the  true  religion. 

AR'BA,  an  ancestor  of  the  Anakim, 


and  founder  of  Hebron,  to  which  he  gave 
its  ancient  name,  Josh.  15  : 13. 

ARCHAN'GEL.  This  word  is  only  twice 
used  in  the  Bible,  1  Thess.  4  : 1C  ;  Jude 
9.  In  this  last  passage  it  is  applied  to 
Michael,  who,  in  Dan.  10  : 13,  21 ;  12  : 1, 
is  described  as  having  a  special  charge  of 
the  Jewish  nation,  and  in  Rev.  12 : 7-9 
as  the  leader  of  an  angelic  army.  So 
exalted  are  the  position  and  offices  as 
cribed  to  Michael,  that  many  think  the 
Messiah  is  meant. 

AUCHELA'US,  a  son  of  Herod  the 
Great,  by  his  Samaritan  wife  Malthace. 
He  was  educated  with  his  brother  Anti- 
pas  at  Rome,  and  after  his  father's  death 
was  placed  over  Judea,  Idumea,  and  Sa 
maria,  (the  eities  Gaza,  Gadara,  and  Hip 
po  excepted,)  with  the  title  of  cthnarch  or 
tetrarch ;  whence  he  is  said  to  reign,  Matt. 
2  : 22.  This  passage  implies  that  he  in 
herited  the  tyrannical  and  cruel  disposi 
tion  of  his  father  ;  and  history  informs 
us  that  after  enjoying  his  power  for  ten 
years,  he  was  accused  before  the  emperor 
on  account  of  his  cruelties,  and  banished 
to  Vienne  on  the  Rhone,  in  Gaul,  where 
he  died. 

ARCHIP'PUS,  saluted  by  Paul  as  his 
"fellow-soldier,"  Phile.  2,  and  exhorted 
to  take  heed  to  his  ministry  at  Colosse, 
and  fulfil  it,  Col.  4  : 17. 

ARCTU'RUS  signifies,  properly,  the 
Bear's  Tail,  and  denotes  a  star  in  the 
tail  of  the  Great  Bear,  or  constellation 
Ursa  Major.  The  "sons"  of  Arcturus 
are  probably  the  smaller  stars  adjacent, 
Job  9  :  9  ;  38  : 32. 

AREOPAGUS,  the  hill  of  Mars,  the  seat 
of  the  ancient  and  venerable  supreme 
court  of  Athens,  called  the-Areopagites, 
Acts  17  : 19-34.  It  was  composed  en 
tirely  of  ex-archons,  of  grave  and  blame 
less  character,  and  their  wise  and  just 
decisions  made  it  famous  far  beyond 
the  bounds  of  Greece.  Their  numbers 
and  authority  varied  greatly  from  age 
to  age.  They  held  their  sessions  by 
night.  They  took  cognizance  of  murders, 
impieties,  and  immoralities ;  punished 
vices  of  all  kinds,  idleness  included  ;  re 
warded  or  assisted  the  virtuous ;  and 
Avere  peculiarly  attentive  to  blasphemies 
against  the  gods,  and  to  the  performance 
of  the  sacred  mysteries.  The  case  of 
Paul,  therefore,  would  naturally  come 
before  them,  for  he  sought  to  subvert 
their  whole  system  of  idolatry,  and  es 
tablish  Christianity  in  its  place.  The 
35 


ARE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARI 


Bible  narrative,  however,  rather  de 
scribes  an  informal  popular  movement. 
Having  heard  Paul  discoursing  from  day 
to  day  in  the  market-place,  the  philo 
sophic  and  inquisitive  Athenians  took 
him  one  day  up  into  the  adjacent  hill, 
for  a  more  full  and  quiet  exposition  of 
his  doctrine.  The  stone  seats  of  the  Are- 


RUINS  OF   THE   AREOPAGUS  AND  ACROPOLIS. 

opagus  lay  open  to  the  sky ;  in  the  court 
stood  Epicureans,  Stoics,  etc.  ;  around 
them  spread  the  city,  full  of  idolaters 
and  their  temples ;  and  a  little  south 
east  rose  the  steep  height  of  the  Acropo 
lis,  on  whose  level  summit  were  crowded 
more  and  richer  idolatrous  structures 
than  on  any  other  equal  space  in  the 
world.  Amid  this  scene,  Paul  exhibit 
ed  the  sin  and  folly  of  idol-worship  with 
such  boldness  and  power,  that  none  could 
refute  him,  and  some  were  converted. 

AR'ETAS,  the  name  of  several  kings 
of  north-western  Arabia.  The  only  one 
mentioned  in  Scripture  gave  his  daugh 
ter  in  marriage  to  Herod  Antipas ;  but 
she  being  repudiated  by  Herod,  Aretas 
made  war  upon  him  and  destroyed  his 
army.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  em 
peror  Tiberius  directed  Vitellius,  then 
proconsul  of  Syria,  to  make  war  upon 
the  Arabian  king,  and  bring  him  alive 
or  dead  to  Rome.  But  while  Vitellius 
was  in  the  midst  of  preparation  for  the 
war,  he  received  intelligence  of  the  death 
of  Tiberius,  A.  D.  37  ;  on  -which  he  im 
mediately  recalled  his  troops,  dismissed 
them  into  winter  quarters,  and  then  left 
the  province.  Aretas,  taking  advantage 
36 


of  this  supineness,  seems  to  have  made 
an  incursion  and  got  possession  of  Da 
mascus,  over  which  he  appointed  a  gov 
ernor  or  ethnarch,  who,  A.  D.  39,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Jews,  attempted  to  put 
Paul  in  prison,  2  Cor.  11 :  32.  Compare 
Acts  9  : 24,  25. 

AR'GOB,  a  city  in  Bashan  and  Manas- 
seh  east  of  the  Jordan  ;  also  the  region 
around  it.  This  was  very  fertile,  and 
contained  at  one  time  sixty  walled 
towns,  which  were  taken  by  Jair  the 
1  son  of  Manasseh,  and  called  after  him, 

Deut.  3  : 4,  13,  14  ;  1  Kin.  4  : 13. 
±  ARIEL,  the  lion  of  God,  one  of  Ezra' s 
chief  men,  Ezra  8 : 16.  This  word  is 
used,  in  2  Sam.  23  : 20,  1  Chr.  11 : 22, 
as  a  descriptive  or  perhaps  a  family 
name  of  two  lion-like  men  of  Moab. 
In  another  sense,  Ezekiel  applies  it  to 
the  altar  of  God,  Ezek.  43:15,  and 
Isaiah  to  Jerusalem,  as  the  hearth  on 
which  both  the  burnt-offerings  and  the 
enemies  of  God  should  be  consumed, 
Isa.  29 : 1,  2,  7.  See  also  Gen.  49  : 9. 
ARIMATHEA,  orRA'MAii,(dual,  Ra- 
mathaim,)  a  city  whence  came  Joseph 
the  counsellor,  in  whose  new  tomb  the 
body  of  Jesus  was  laid,  Matt.  27:57  ; 
John  19 : 38.  We  learn  from  Euscbius 
and  Jerome  that  this  city  was  near  Lyd- 
da,  a  town  twenty -four  miles  north-west 
of  Jerusalem.  It  has  generally  been  lo 
cated  at  the  modern  Ramleh,  a  town 
near  Lydda,  of  3,000  inhabitants,  in 
which  the  route  from  Egypt  to  Syria 
crosses  that  from  Jerusalem  to  Joppa. 
But  its  site  is  rather  to  be  sought  a  few 
miles  east  of  Lydda,  in  the  hills  which 
skirt  the  plain  of  Sharon.  The  first  book 
of  Maccabees,  11:34,  speaks  of  it  as 
transferred,  together  with  Lydda,  from 
Samaria  to  Judea,  which  may  account 
for  Luke's  calling  it  "a  city  of  the 
Jews,"  Luke  23:51.  It  has  been  sup 
posed  to  be  the  same  place  as  the  Ramah 
of  mount  Ephraim,  the  birthplace  and 
residence  of  Samuel.  This  was  called 
also  Ramathaim-Zophim,  1  Sam.  1:1, 
19,  from  which  name  the  form  Arima- 
thea  is  readily  derived.  See  RAMAH. 

A'RIOCH,  I.,  king  of  Ellasar,  and  ally 
of  Chedorlaomer,  Gen.  14:1. 

II.  A  captain  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
guard,  Dan.  2  : 14. 

ARISTAR'CHUS,  a  native  of  Thessalo- 
nica,  a  faithful  fellow-laborer  with  Paul, 
Acts  20 : 4  ;  27  : 2  ;  Phile.  24.  His  life 
was  endangered  in  th/J  riot  at  Ephesus, 


ARK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARK 


excited  by  the  silversmiths,  Acts  19  : 29  ; 
but  having  escaped,  he  continued  with 
Paul,  and  was  a  prisoner  with  him  at 
Rome,  Col.  4 : 10. 

ARK  OF  NOAH,  the  vessel  in  which 
the  family  of  Noah  was  preserved  during 
the  deluge,  when  all  the  rest  of  our  race 
perished  for  their  sins.  The  ark  is  called 
in  Hebrew,  in  the  Septuagint,  and  by  Jo- 
sephus,  a  chest;  and  the  same  word  is 
used  in  the  history  of  the  infant  Moses, 
Ex.  2:3.  So  far  as  this  name  affords  any 
evidence,  it  goes  to  show  that  the  ark  of 
Noah  was  not  a  regular  sailing-vessel, 
but  merely  intended  to  float  at  large 
upon  the  waters.  We  may  therefore  re 
gard  it  as  a  large,  oblong,  floating  house, 
with  a  roof  either  flat  or  only  slightly  in 
clined.  It  was  construct 
ed  with  three  stories,  and 
had  a  door  in  the  side. 
There  is  no  mention  of 
windows  in  the  side,  but 
"above, ' '  probably  in  the 
roof,  where  Noah  was  com 
manded  to  make  them  of 
a  cubit  in  height,  Gen. 
5:16;  8:13. 

The  dimensions  of  the 
ark,  taking  the  cubit  as 
eighteen  inches,  were  450 
ft.  in  length,  75  in  breadth 
and  45  in  height.  It  was 
built  of  gopher- wood,  and 
made  water-proof  with 
bitumen ,  and  was  no  doubt 
large  enough  to  accom 
modate  the  eight  persons 
of  Noah's  family  and  the 
animals  to  be  saved  in  it — 
namely,  of  all  birds  and 
clean  beasts  seven  each,  and  of  unclean 
beasts  two  each,  male  and  female.  Many 
questions  have  been  raised,  and  discussed 
at  great  length  by  sceptics  and  others,  re 
specting  the  form  and  dimensions  of  the 
ark ;  the  number  of  animals  saved  in  it — 
whether  including  all  species  then  exist 
ing  in  the  world,  except  such  as  live  in 
water  or  lie  dormant,  or  only  the  species 
living  in  the  parts  of  the  world  then  peo 
pled  by  man  ;  and  as  to  the  possibility  of 
their  being  all  lodged  in  the  ark,  and  their 
food  daring  the  year,  etc.  Some  of  these 
questions  the  Bible  clearly  settles.  Oth 
ers  it  is  vain  to  discuss,  since  we  have  no 
means  of  deciding  them.  Certain  it  is, 
that  while  the  Bible  eulogizes  the  faith 
and  obedience  of  Noah,  it  shows  that  his 


salvation  was  a  miracle  of  Providence. 
It  was  by  miracle  that  he  was  forewarn 
ed,  and  directed  to  prepare  for  the  flood; 
and  the  same  miraculous  power  accom 
plished  all  that  Noah  was  unable  to  do  in 
designing,  building,  and  filling  the  ark, 
and  preserving  and  guiding  it  through 
the  deluge.  It  has  been  commonly  sup 
posed  that  the  warning  came  to  Noah  120 
years  before  the  flood.  Compare  Gen.  5 : 32 
with  7:6,  and  Gen.  6:3  with  1  Pet.  3:20. 
Traditions  of  the  ark  are  found  in  most 
nations  all  over  the  globe.  See  DELUGE. 
ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT,  the  sacred 
chest  or  coffer  in  which  the  tables  of  the 
law  were  deposited,  written  by  the  finger 
of  God,  and  witnessing  to  his  covenant 
with  his  people,  Ex.  25:22;  34:29.  It 


was  of  shittim-wood,  covered  within  and 
without  with  plates  of  gold,  nearly  four 
feet  in  length,  and  two  feet  three  inches 
in  width  and'  height.  On  the  top  of  it, 
all  around,  ran  a  kind  of  gold  crown.  It 
had  four  rings  of  gold,  two  on  each  side, 
through  which  staves  were  put,  by  which 
it  Avas  carried.  These  also  were  overlaid 
with  the  finest  gold,  and  were  not  to  be 
removed  from  the  rings,  Ex.  25:10-22. 
The  lid  of  the  ark,  all  of  gold,  was  called 
the  mercy -seat ;  and  upon  its  opposite  ends 
were  two  golden  cherubim,  fronting  each 
other  and  the  mercy-seat,  which  they 
covered  with  their  outspread  wings,  Ex. 
37  :  1-9.  Here  God  specially  dwelt,  2 
Kin.  19:15,  1  Chr.  13:6,  and  shone  forth, 
perhaps  by  some  sensible  manifestations, 
37 


ARK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARM 


Lev.  16:2  ;  Psa.  80:1.  Here  he  received 
the  homage  of  his  people,  and  dispensed 
his  living  oracles,  Num.  7 :8(J.  The  great 
yearly  sacrifice  of  expiation  was  here  of 
fered  by  the  high-priesf,  Heb.  9:7,  in  the 
Holy  of  Holies.  Hence  there  was  no  ob 
ject  held  more  sacred  by  the  Jews  than 
"the  ark  of  God."  During  their  jour 
neys  in  the  wilderness,  it  was  borne  by 
the  priests  under  a  purple  canopy  and 
with  great  reverence  before  the  host  of 
Israel,  Num.  4:5,  6.  Before  it  the  Jor 
dan  was  divided,  and  behind  it  the  wa 
ters  flowed  on  again,  Josh.  3,  4.  The 
walls  of  Jericho  fell  down  before  it, 
Josh.  6:4-12. 

After  this,  the  ark  continued  some 
time  at  Gilgal,  whence  it  was  removed 
to  Shiloh,  Josh.  4:19;  10  :  43  ;  18  :  1. 
Hence  the  Israelites  took  it  to  their 
camp  ;  but  when  they  gave  battle  to  the 
Philistines,  it  was  taken  by  the  enemy, 

1  Sam.  4.    The  Philistines,  oppressed  by 
the  hand  of  God,  returned  the  ark,  and 
it  was  lodged  at  Kirjath-jearim,  1  Sam. 
7:1.     It  was  afterwards,  in  the  reign  of 
Saul,  at  Nob.     David  conveyed  it  from 
Kirjath-jearim  to  the   house  of  Obed- 
Edom,  and  from  thence  to  his  palace  on 
Zion,   2  Sam.  6  ;   and  lastly,   Solomon 
brought  it  into  the  temple  at  Jerusalem, 

2  Chr.  5:2.     It  remained  in  the  temple, 
with  all  suitable  respect,  till  the  times 
of  the  later  idolatrous  kings  of  Judah, 
who  profaned  the  Most  Holy  place  by 
their  idols,  when  the  priests  appear  to 
have  removed  the  ark  from  the  temple. 
At  least,   Josiah  commanded  them  to 
bring  it  back  to  the  sanctuary,  and  for 
bade  them  to  carry  it  about,  as  they  had 
hitherto  done,  2  Chr.  35:3.    The  ark  ap 
pears  to  have  been  destroyed  at  the  cap 
tivity,  or  perhaps  concealed  by  pious 
Jews  in  some   hiding-place  afterwards 
un discoverable,  as  we  hear  nothing  more 
of  it ;  and  the  want  of  it  made  the  sec 
ond  temple  less  glorious  than  the  first. 

Besides  the  tables  of  the  covenant, 
placed  by  Moses  in  this  sacred  coffer.  God 
appointed  the  blossoming  rod  of  Aaron 
to  be  lodged  there,  Num.  17 : 10  ;  Heb. 
9:4 ;  a  golden  vase  of  manna  gathered  in 
the  wilderness,  Ex.  16:33,  34,  and  a  copy 
of  the  book  of  the  law,  Deut.  31:26. 

AR'KITES,  descendants  of  Canaan,  of 
the  Zidonian  branch,  who  settled  a  town 
called  Arka,  at  the  north-west  foot  of 
mount  Lebanon,  Gen.  10  :  17  ;  1  Chr. 
1  :  15.  The  ruins  of  Arka  have  been 
38 


found  by  Burckhardt  and  others  about 
fourteen  miles  north-east  of  Tripolis. 

ARMAGED'DON,  mountain  of  Mcgiddo, 
a  place  mentioned  Rev.  16:16.  Megiddo 
is  a  city  in  the  great  plain  at  the  foot  of 
mount  Carmel,  which  had  been  the  scene 
of  much  slaughter.  Under  this  charac 
ter  it  is  referred  to  in  the  above  text  as 
the  place  in  which  God  will  collect  to 
gether  his  enemies  for  destruction. 

ARME'NIA,  a  large  country  of  Asia, 
having  Media  on  the  east,  Cappadocia  on 
the  west,  Colchis  and  Iberia  on  the  north, 
Mesopotamia  on  the  south,  and  the  Eu 
phrates  and  Syria  on  the  southwest.  It 
is  an  elevated  table-land,  with  a  cool  and 
salubrious  climate.  Lying  between  the 
Caucasus  and  the  Taurus  range,  with 
mount  Ararat  towering  in  its  central 
province,  it  gives  rise  to  three  notable 
rivers,  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  and  Araxes. 
It  is  only  named  in  Scripture  as  the 
place  of  refuge  of  two  Assyrian  parricides, 
2  Kin.  19:37.  The  modern  Armenian 
church  resembles  strongly  the  Greek 
church,  and  is  sadly  debased  and  corrupt. 
See  ARARAT,  MINNI,  and  TOGARMAH. 


ARMS  and  ARMOR.  The  Hebrews 
used  in  war  offensive  arms  of  the  same 
kinds  as  were  employed  by  other  people 
of  their  time  and  of  the  East — swords, 
lances,  spears,  darts,  javelins,  bows,  ar- 


ARM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ARO 


rows,  and  slings.  For  defensive  armor, 
they  used  helmets,  cuirasses,  bucklers, 
armor  for  the  thighs,  etc.  See  WAR. 

In  the  accompanying  engravings  ^  are 
represented  specimens  of  the  various 
weapons  anciently  used  ;  also  of  the  sev 


eral  parts  of  the  armor  for  defence,  and 
the  manner  in  which  they  were  worn:  1. 
the  cuirass,  or  defence  of  the  body — this 
is  called  in  Scripture  the  coat  of  mail,  ha 
bergeon,  and  breastplate  ;  it  appears  to 
have  been  made  of  leather  or  some  pliant 
material,  sometimes  covered  with  metal 
lic-scales,  and  capable  of  taking  the  form 
of  the  parts  of  the  body  it  protected ;  2.  the 
helmet,  usually  of  metal,  with  its  flowing 
crest ;  3.  the  shield,  target,  or  buckler, 
either  of  wood  covered  with  tough  hides, 


or  o^metal ;  4.  the  leg-pieces,  or  greaves, 
of  thick  leather  or  brass :  also  the  bow 


and  arrow;  the  battleaxe ;  the  spear,  dart, 
and  javelin  or  short  spear  ;  and  the  sword 
with  its  sheath,  the  ancient  sword  being 
short,  straight,  and  twoedged. 

Each  Jewish  tribe  had  its  own  banner. 
Under  ABOMINATION  is  a  cut  represent 
ing  the  ensigns  of  the  Roman  legions, 
which  the  Jews  regarded  as  idolatrous, 
not  only  because  they  had  been  conse 
crated  to  idols,  and  by  heathen  priests, 
but  as  they  had  images  on  them,  and 
were  objects  of  adoration.  Exod.  20:4. 
AR'NON,  a  river  rising  in  the  moun 
tains  east  of  the  Dead  sea,  into  which  it 
Hows.  It  is  now  called  Wady  Modjeb, 
and  anciently  divided  the  territories  of 
the  Moabites  in  turn  from  those  of  the 
Ammonites,  Amoritcs,  and  Rcubenites, 
Num.  21:13;  Josh.  13:16.  It  flows  in 
a  deep  and  wild  ravine  of  the  same 
name.  Buickhardt,  after  reaching  the 
ruins  of  Aroer,  which  stand  on  the  edge 
of  the  precipice  at  the  foot  of  which  the 
Arnon  flows,  says,  "From  hence  a  foot 
path  leads  down  to  the  river.  The  view 
which  the  Modjeb  presents  is  very  strik 
ing.  From  the  bottom,  where  the  river 
runs  through  a  narrow  stripe  of  verdant 
level  about  forty  yards  across,  the  steep 
and  barren  banks  arise  to  a  great  height, 
covered  with  immense  blocks  of  stone 
which  have  rolled  down  from  the  upper 
strata ;  so  that,  when  viewed  from  above, 
the  valley  looks  like  a  deep  chasm,  form 
ed  by  some  tremendous  convulsion  of 
the  earth,  into  which  there  seems  to  be 
no  possibility  of  descending  to  the  bot 
tom.  The  distance  from  the  edge  of  one 
precipice  to  that  of  the  opposite  one,  is 
about  two  miles  in  a  straight  line." 

He  was  thirty-fi  ve  minutes  in  descend 
ing  to  the  river  bed.  Here  the  heat  of 
midsummer  is  extreme,  and  the  river 
becomes  almost  dried  up ;  but  in  the 
rainy  season  there  is  an  impetuous  tor 
rent. 

AR'OER,  I.,  an  ancient  city  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Arnon,  in  the  south 
ern  border  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  Deut. 
2 : 36  ;  4 : 48 ;  Josh.  13:9.  It  was  in  the 
territory  of  the  Arnorites,  Josh.  12:2, 
but  seems  to  have  fallen  at  a  later  day 
into  the  hands  of  Moab,  Jer.  48: 19.  See 
ARNON. 

II.  A  town  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  proba- 
ably  eastof  Rabbath-Ammon,  Josh.  13:25, 
and  perhaps  on  the  Jabbok,  2  Sam.  24:5. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Judg.  11:33. 

III.  A  town  of  Judah,  to  which  David 

39 


ARF 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ASA 


sent  presents,  1  Sam.  30: 28  , 1  Chr.  11 :44. 
Rcbinson  found  traces  of  it  about  sixteen 
miles  south  by  west  from  Hebron. 

AH' PAD,  a  Syrian  city,  associated  with 
Hamath,  2  Kin.  18:34;  19;  Isa.  10:9; 
36:19,  and  with  Damascus,  Jer.  49:23. 
Its  site  is  unknown. 

ARPHAX'AD,  a  son  of  Shem,  two 
years  after  the  flood,  Gen.  10:22  ;  11:10. 
Seven  generations  followed  him  before 
Abraham,  while  he  lived  till  after  the 
settlement  of  Abraham  in  the  land  of 
promise  and  the  rescue  of  Lot  from  the 
four  kings.  He  died  A.  M.  2096,  aged 
four  hundred  and  thirty-eight. 

AR'ROW,  used  by  the  Jews  both  in 
hunting  and  in  war ;  sometimes  merely 
a  sharpened  reed,  sometimes  feathered, 
barbed,  and  even  poisoned,  Job  6 : 4.  The 
bow  was  of  various  forms  and  materials, 
and  many  could  be  used  only  by  the 
strongest  men,  Psa.  18:34.  Arrows  were 
used  to  convey  fire  to  an  enemy's  house, 
and  for  divination,  Ezek.  21:21.  The 
word  is  applied  symbolically  to  children, 
Psa.  127  : 4,  5 ;  to  the  lightning,  Psa. 
18 : 14 ;  Hab.  3:11;  to  sudden  calamities, 
Job  6  : 4  ;  Psa.  38  :  2  ;  91 : 5  ;  Ezek.  5: 15  ; 
and  to  the  deceitful  and  bitter  words  of 
an  evil  tongue,  Psa.  64:3  ;  120:4. 

ARTAXER'XES,  great  king,  the  name 
or  title  of  several  kings  of  Persia.  I.  It 
is  given  in  Ezra  4:7-24,  to  Smcrdis  the 
Magian,  who  usurped  the  throne  after 
the  death  of  Cambyses,  B.  c.  522,  pre 
tending  to  be  Smerdis,  the  son  of  Cyrus, 
whom  Cambyses  had  put  to  death.  His 
usurped  power  was  used,  at  the  instiga 
tion  of  Rehum,  etc.,  to  stop  the  rebuild 
ing  of  the  temple.  He  was  murdered, 
after  a  reign  of  eight  months,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Darius  son  of  Ilystaspes. 

II.  The  king  of  this  name  mentioned 
in  Ezra  7,  is  most  probably  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Xerxes,  who  ascended  the  throne  B.  c. 
464,  and  died  B.  c.  425,  after  a  mild  reign 
of  thirty-nine  years.  In  the  seventh  year 
of  his  reign,  Ezra  led  a  second  company 
of  the  Jewish  exiles  back  to  Jerusalem. 
In  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes  Lon 
gimanus,  Nehemiah  was  sent  to  Jerusa 
lem  as  governor,  Nch.  2:1 ;  5:14,  etc. 

AR'TEMAS,  apparently  a  faithful  min 
ister,  cooperating  with  Paul,  Titus  3:12, 
who  thought  him  worthy  to  take  the 
place  of  Titus  at  Crete,  while  the  latter 
spent  the  winter  with  the  apostle  at  Ni- 
copolis. 

40 


AR'VAD,  a  Phoenician  city,  on  a  small 
rocky  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Eleutherus,  twenty-two  miles  north  of 
Tripolis.  It  is  now  called  Ruad,  and  is 
but  a  ruin.  The  Arvadites  also  occupied 
the  adjacent  coast.  They  were  descend 
ants  of  Canaan,  Gen.  10: 18  ;  1  Chr.  1:16; 
and  were  noted  mariners.  Ezek.  27:8,  11. 

A'SA,  the  third  king  of  Judah  after 
Solomon,  son  and  successor  of  Abijamf 
1  Kin.  15:8.  He  began  to  reign  B.  c. 
951,  and  reigned  forty-one  years  at  Jeru 
salem.  The  first  part  of  his  reign  was 
comparatively  peaceful  and  prosperous. 
He  restored  the  pure  worship  of  God ; 
expelled  those  who,  from  sacrilegious 
superstition,  prostituted  themselves  in 
honor  of  their  false  gods ;  purified  Jeru 
salem  from  the  infamous  practices  attend 
ing  the  worship  of  idols ;  and  deprived 
his  mother  of  her  office  and  dignity  of 
queen,  because  she  erected  an  idol  to 
Astarte.  In  the  eleventh  year  of  his 
reign,  God  gave  him  the  victory  over 
the  vast  army  of  the  Cushite  king  Ze- 
rah ;  and  the  prophet  Azariah  encour 
aged  him  to  go  on  in  his  work  of  reform. 
And  yet,  when  Baasha  king  of  Israel 
opposed  this  very  work,  he  sought  aid 
not  from  God,  but  from  heathen  Syria. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  he  became 
diseased  in  his  feet ;  and  Scripture  re 
proaches  him  with  having  had  recourse 
to  the  physicians,  rather  than  to  the 
Lord,  2  Chr.  10:12.  Yet  his  reign  was, 
on  the  whole,  one  of  the  happiest  which 
Jud .ill  enjoyed,  and  the  Bible  repeatedly 
commends  his  piety  as  an  example.  1 
Kin.  22:43;  2  Chr.  20:32;  21:12.  His 
funeral  rites  were  celebrated  with  special 
magnificence.  There  was  ill-will  and 
strife  between  Asa  and  Baasha  all  their 
days,  as  between  Rehoboam  and  Israel, 
IKin.  15:6,  16. 

ASAHEL,  son  of  David's  sister  Zeru- 
iah,  and  brother  of  Joab  ;  one  of  David's 
thirty  heroes,  and  extremely  swift  of 
foot ;  killed  by  Abner,  at  the  battle  of 
Gibcon,  2  Sam.  2:18,  23. 

A'SAPH,  I.,  assembler,  a  celebrated  mu 
sician  in  David's  time,  and  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  temple  music.  1  Chr.  16:5; 
25:1,  2.  This-  service  appears  to  have 
been  hereditary  in  his  family,  Neh.  7 : 44  ; 
11:22.  He  is  also  called  a  seer,  2  Chr. 
29 : 30 ;  and  his  name  is  prefixed  to  twelve 
Psalms,  (50,  73-83,)  but  whether  they 
were  written  by  him,  or  for  him  or  his 
family  to  sing,  is  unknown.  See  M*usic. 


ASC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ASH 


II.  A  recorder  of  king  Hezekiah,  2 
Kin.  18:18;  Isa.  36:3. 

III.  Keeper  of  forests  under  Artaxer- 
xes,  Neh.  2:8. 

ASCEN'SION,  the  visible  ascent  of 
Christ  to  heaven.  When  our  Saviour 
had  repeatedly  conversed  with  his  apos 
tles  during  forty  days,  after  his  resurrec 
tion,  and  afforded  them  infallible  proofs 
of  its  reality,  he  led  them  out  to  the 
mount  of  Olives,  and  was  raised  up  to 
heaven  in  their  sight,  there  to  continue 
till  he  shall  come  again  at  the  last  day 
to  judge  the  quick  and  the  dead,  Acts 
1:9,  11.  The  ascension  was  demonstrat 
ed  by  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
John  16:7-14;  Acts  2.  It  was  Christ's 
real  human  nature  that  ascended ;  and 
he  thus  triumphed  gloriously  over  death 
and  hell,  as  head  of  his  body  the  church. 
While  he  blessed  his  disciples  he  was 
parted  from  them,  and  multitudes  of  the 
angelic  hosts  accompanied  and  welcomed 
him,  Psa.  24:9  ;  68:17.  The  consequen 
ces  resulting  from  his  ascension  are :  the 
fulfilment  of  types  and  prophecies  con 
cerning  it ;  his  appearance  as  a  priest  in 
the  presence  of  God  for  us ;  his  more 
open  and  full  assumption  of  his  kingly 
office ;  his  receiving  gifts  for  men ;  his 
opening  the  way  to  heaven  for  his  peo 
ple,  Heb.  10:19,  20;  and  assuring  his 
saints  of  their  ascension  to  heaven  after 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  John  14 : 1,  2. 

AS'ENATH,  daughter  of  Potipherah, 
priest  or  prince  of  On  ;  given  in  marriage 
by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph,  as  adding  honor 
and  strength  to  his  high  office .  She  was 
the  mother  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh, 
Gen.  41:45;  46:20. 

ASH'DOD,  one  of  the  five  chief  cities 
of  the  Philistines,  assigned  to  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  but  never  conquered  by  them, 
Josh.  13:3;  15:47;  1  Sam.  5:1;  6:17; 
Neh.  4:7.  Here  stood  the  temple  of 
Dagon ;  and  hither  the  ark  was  first 
brought,  after  the  fatal  battle  at  Ebene- 
zer,  1  Sam.  5:1.  It  was  called  by  the 
Greeks  Azotus,  and  belonged  to  Judea 
in  the  time  of  Christ.  Here  Philip 
preached  the  gospel,  Acts  8:40.  At  the 
present  day,  it  is  a  miserable  village, 
still  called  Esdud. 

ASH'ER,  the  eighth  son  of  Jacob  and 
second  of  Zilpah,  Gen.  30 : 13  ;  35  :  26. 
On  entering  Canaan  his  tribe  was  the 
fifth  in  order,  numbering  fifty-three 
thousand  four  hundred.  The  portion  of 
Asher  lay  along  the  seaboard,  having 


Lebanon  and  Zidon  on  the  north,  Cannel 
and  the  tribe  of  Issachar  on  the  south,  and 
Zebulun  and  Naphtali  on  the  east.  It  was 
fruitful  in  grain,  wine,  oil,  and  minerals, 
Gen.  49:20;  Deut.  33:24,  25.  How 
much  of  the  Phoenician  coast  was  includ 
ed  is  uncertain,  Josh.  19:25,  28  ;  but  the 
Asherites  were  imable  to  expel  the  Ca- 
naanites,  and  dwelt  in  part  among  them, 
Judg.  1:31,  32.  They  are  honorably  men 
tioned  in  the  history  of  David,  1  Chr. 
12:36,  and  of  Hezekiah,  2  Chr.  30:11. 

ASH'ES.  To  repent  in  sackcloth  and 
ashes,  or  to  lie  down  among  ashes,  was 
an  external  sign  of  self-affliction  for  sin, 
or  of  grief  under  misfortune.  We  find 
it  adopted  by  Job,  2:8;  by  many  Jews 
when  in  great  fear,  Esth.  4:3;  and  by 
the  king  of  Nineveh,  Jonah  3:6.  The 
ashes  of  a  red  heifer  were  used  in  cere 
monial  purification,  Num.  19. 

ASH'IMA,  a  deity  adored  by  the  men 
of  Hamath,  who  were  settled  in  Sama 
ria,  2  Kin.  17:30. 

ASH'KENAZ,  a  son  of  Gomer  and 
grandson  of  Japheth,  Gen.  10:3.  The 
region  peopled  by  his  descendants  -is 
named  in  Jer.  51:27  with  Minni  and 
Ararat,  provinces  of  Armenia.  It  prob 
ably  lay  towards  the  Black  sea. 

ASH'PENAZ,  chief  of  the  eunuchs  of 
king  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  the 
charge  of  Daniel  and  his  young  compan 
ions,  and  was  led  to  show  them  favor  at 
his  own  peril,  Dan.  1:3-18. 


ASHTORETH,   FROM  A   TYRIAN   COIN. 

ASH'TORETH,  plural  ASH'TAROTH, 
called  by  the  Greeks  Astarte,  was  a  god 
dess  of  the  Phoenicians,  2  Kin.  23:13, 
whose  worship  was  also  introduced 
among  the  Israelites  and  Philistines,  1 
Kin.  11:5,  33;  1  Sam.  7:3;  31:10.  She 
is  commonly  named  in  connection  with 
Baal,  Judg.  2:13;  10:6;  1  Sam.  7:4; 
12:10.  Another  Hebrew  name  for  the 
41 


AST 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ASS 


same  goddess  is  Asherah,  the  liappy,  the 
fortunate  ;  or  more  simply,  fortune.  This 
last  name  is  commonly  rendered  in  the 
English  version  ' '  grove  ; ' '  but  eminent 
Hebrew  scholars  think  this  meaning  is 
unsupported  either  by  the  etymology  or 
the  context.  Both  these  Hebrew  names 
of  Astarte,  when  used  in  the  plural, 
often  signify  images  or  statues  of  Astar 
te  ;  which  are  said  to  be  set  up,  broken 
down,  destroyed,  etc.  In  connection 
with  the  worship  of  Astarte  there  was 
much  of  dissolute  licentiousness ;  and 
the  public  prostitutes  of  both  sexes  were 
regarded  as  consecrated  to  her.  See 
2  Kin.  23:7.  Compare  Lev.  19:29;  Deut. 
23:18. 

As  Baal  or  Bel  denotes,  in  the  astro 
logical  mythology  of  the  East,  the  male 
star  of  fortune,  the  planet  Jupiter ;  so 
Ashtorcth  signifies  the  female  star  of 
fortune,  the  planet  Venus.  As  to  the 
opinion  that  Baal  designates  .the  sun, 
and  Ashtoreth  the  moon,  see  under  BAAL. 
Compare  Jer.  7:18;  11:13;  44:17,  18; 
Ezek.  1G. 

ASHTAROTH-KARNAIM,  two-horned  As- 
tartes,  Gen.  14:5,  or  simply  Ashtaroth, 
Deut.  1:4,  a  city  of  Og,  king  of  Bashaii, 
beyond  Jordan.  The  name  is  doubtless 
derived  from  the  goddess  Ashtoreth  or 
Astarte,  whose  images  were  adored  there 
under  the  figure  of  a  female  with  a  cres 
cent,  or  horns.  It  was  in  the  limits  of 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  Josh.  13:31 ; 
and  was  a  Levitical  city,  1  Chr.  6  : 71. 
It  is  also  called  Beeshterah,  Josh.  21:27. 

ASIA,  one  of  the  great  divisions  of  the 
eastern  continent,  lying  east  of  Europe. 
The  Asia  spoken  of  in  the  Bible  is  Asia 
Minor,  a  peninsula  which  lies  between 
the  Euxine  or  Black  sea  and  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  whicii 
formerly  included  the  provinces  of  Phry- 
gia,    Cilicia,    Pamphylia,    Caria,    Lycia, 
Lydia,    Mysia,    Bithynia,    Paphlagonia, 
Cappadocia,  Galatia,  Lycaonia,  and  Pi- 
sidia.     On  the  western  coast  were  an 
ciently  the  countries  of  ^Eolia,  Ionia,  and 
Doris,  the  names  of  which  were  after-  I 
wards  retained,  although  the  countries  j 
were  included  in  the  pi'ovinces  of  Mysia,  \ 
Lydia,    and   Caria.      Many  Jews    were  | 
scattered  over  these  regions,  as  appears 
from  the  history  in  Acts,  and  from  Jose- 
phus.     The  writers  of  the  New  Testa 
ment  comprehend,  under  the  name  of 
Asia,  either  (1)  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor, 
Acts  19:26,  27  ;  20:4,  16,  18 ;  or  (2)  only  | 
42 


proconsular  Asia,  that  is,  the  region  of 
Ionia,  of  whicii  Ephesus  was  the  capital, 
and  which  Strabo  also  calls  Asia,  Acts 
2:9;  6:9;  16:6;  19:10,  22.  Cicero 
speaks  of  proconsular  Asia  as  containing 
the  provinces  of  Phrygia,  Mysia,  Caria, 
and  Lydia. 

AS'KELON,  a  city  in  the  land  of  the 
Philistines,  between  Ashdod  and  Gaza, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  After 
the  death  of  Joshua,  the  tribe  of  Judah 
took  Askelon ;  but  it  subsequently  be 
came  one  of  the  five  governments  belong 
ing  to  the  Philistines,  Judg.  1 : 18 ;  1 
Sam.  6  : 17.  Dr.  Pdchardson  thus  de 
scribes  its  present  state:  "Askelon  was 
one  of  the  proudest  satrapies  of  the  Phil 
istines  ;  now  there  is  not  an  inhabitant 
within  its  walls ;  and  the  prophecy  of 
Zechariah  is  fulfilled :  '  The  king  shall 
perish  from  Gaza,  and  Askelon  shall  not 
be  inhabited,'  "  Zech.  9:5. 

ASNAP'PEK,  the  Assyrian  king  or 
satrap,  under  whose  direction  the  terri 
tory  of  the  ten  tribes  was  peopled  by 
emigrants  from  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
2  Kin.  17 : 24  ;  Ezra  4 : 10.  Some  identify 
him  with  Esar-haddon,  and  some  with 
Shalmaneser.  Ezra  styles  him  "great 
and  noble;"  but  no  other  trace  of  him 
is  left. 

ASP,  HebreAv  Pethen,  a  kind  of  ser 
pent,  whose  poison  is  of  such  rapid  oper 
ation,  that  it  kills  almost  the  instant  it 
penetrates,  without  a  possibility  of  rem 
edy.  It  is  said  to  be  very  small,  not 
more  than  a  foot  in  length.  Forskal 
supposes  it  to  be  the  Baetan,  or  Coluber 
Lebetina,  of  Linnaeus ;  but  the  true  asp 
of  the  ancients  seems  to  be  unknown. 
It  is  frequently  mentioned  by  ancient 
writers ;  but  in  such  an  indefinite  man 
ner,  that  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the 
species  with  precision.  It  is  mentioned 
in  Deut.  32  :  33  ;  Job  20  :  14,  16  ;  Psa. 
58:4;  91:13;  Isa.  11:8;  Jer.  8:17;  Rom. 
8:13.  A  traveller  in  the  desert  south  of 
Judah  describes  it  as  still  infested  with 
serpents ;  and  adds  as  an  instance,  "One 
day  we  saw  in  our  path  an  asp,  a  foot 
long,  coiled  up  in  the  attitude  of  spring 
ing.  Our  Arabs  killed  it,  saying  it  was 
exceedingly  venomous. ' ' 

ASS,  an  animal  well  known  for  do 
mestic  uses ;  and  frequently  mentioned 
in  Scripture.  People  of  the  first  quality 
in  Palestine  rode  on  asses.  Deborah,  in 
her  song,  describes  the  nobles  of  the 
land  as  those  who  ' '  ride  on  white  asses," 


ASS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ASS 


Judg.  5:10.  Compare  Judg.  10:4;  12:14. 
The  oriental  asses  are  not  to  be  compared 
with  those  of  northern  countries ;  but 
are  far  more  stately,  active,  and  lively. 
Indeed,  they  were  anciently,  as  still, 
highly  prized  ;  and  were  also  preferred 
for  riding,  especially  the  she-asses,  on 
account  of  their  sure-footedness.  Hence 
we  so  often  find  mention  of  she-asses 
alone. 


The  Wild  Ass  is  a  well-known  oriental 
animal,  often  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
and  is  a  much  handsomer  and  more 
dignified  animal  than  the  common  ass. 
These  animals  were  anciently  found  in 
Palestine,  Syria,  Arabia  Deserta,  Meso 
potamia,  Phrygia,  and  Lycaonia;  but 
they  rarely  occur  in  those  regions  at  the 
present  time,  and  seem  to  be  almost 
entirely  confined  to  Tartary,  some  parts 
of  Persia  and  India,  and  Africa.  Their 
manners  greatly  resemble  those  of  the 
wild  horse.  They  assemble  in  troops 
under  the  conduct  of  a  leader  or  senti 
nel,  and  are  extremely  shy  and  vigi 
lant.  They  will,  however,  stop  in  the 
midst  of  their  course,  and  even  suffer 
the  approach  of  man  for  an  instant,  and 
then  dart  off  with  the  utmost  rapidity. 
They  have  been  at  all  times  celebrated 
for  their  swiftness.  Their  voice  resem 
bles  that  of  the  common  ass,  but  is  shrill 
er.  Mr.  Moricr  says,  "We  gave  chase 
to  two  wild  asses,  which  had  so  much 
more  speed  than  our  horses,  that  when 
they  had  got  at  some  distance,  they 
stood  still  and  looked  behind  at  us, 
snorting  with  their  noses  in  the  air,  as 
if  in  contempt  of  our  endeavors  to  catch 
them." 

AS'SOS,  a  seaport  in  Mysia,  opposite 


to  the  island  of  Lesbos  on  the  north. 
Here  Paul  took  ship  for  Mityleue,  Acts 
20:13.  It  is  now  a  poor  village,  called 
Beiram. 

ASSYR'IA,  a  celebrated  country  and 
empire,  had  its  name  from  Ashur,  or  As- 
sur,  the  second  son  of  Shem,  who  settled 
in  that  region,  Gen.  10:22.  In  the  Bi 
ble  the  name  Assyria  is  employed  in  three 
different  significations :  namely, 

1.  Assyria  ancient  and  proper  lay  east 
of  the  Tigris,  between  Armenia,  Susi- 
ana,  and  Media,  and  appears  to  have 
comprehended  the  six  provinces  at 
tributed  to  it  by  Ptolemy,  namely,  Ar- 
rapachis,  Adiabene,  Arbelis,  (nowEr- 
bil,)  Calachene,  (Heb.  Halah?  2  Kin. 
17  ':  6,)  Apollonias,  and  Sittacene.    It 
is  the  region  which  mostly  comprises 
the  modern  Kurdistan  and  the  pash- 
ali.t  of  Mosul.     Of  these  provinces, 
Adiabene  was  the  most  fertile  and  im 
portant  ;  in  it  was  situated  Nineveh 
the  capital ;  and  the  term  Assyria,  in 
its  most  narrow  sense,  seems  some 
times  to  have  meant  only  this  prov- 
ince. 

2.  Most  generally,  Assyria  means 
the  Kingdom  of  Assyria,  including  Baby 
lonia  and  Mesopotamia,  and  extending  to 
the  Euphrates,  which  is  therefore  used 
by  Isaiah  as  an  image  of  this  empire,  Isa. 
7:20  ;  8:7.     In  one  instance,  the  idea  of 
the  empire  predominates  so  as  to  exclude 
that  of  Assyria  proper,    namely,  Gen. 
2:14,  where  the  Hiddekel  or  Tigris  is 
said  to  flow  eastward  of  Assyria. 

3.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian 
state,  the  name  continued  to  be  applied 
to  those  countries  which  had  been  for 
merly  under  its  dominion,  namely,  (a) 
To  Babylonia,  2  Kin.  23:29;  Jer.  2:18. 
(6)  To  Persia,  Ezra  6 : 22,  where  Darius  is 
also  called  king  of  Assyria. 

The  early  history  of  Assyria  is  involv 
ed  in  obscurity.  We  know  from  the  sa 
cred  narrative  that  it  was  a  powerful  na 
tion.  Israel  was  subjugated  by  one  of 
its  monarchs  in  the  period  of  the  Judges, 
and  during  the  reign  of  the  kings  the 
Assyrian  power  was  an  object  of  perpet 
ual  dread.  Pul,  king  of  Assyria,  invaded 
Israel  in  the  reign  of  Menahem.  Tig- 
lath-pileser  assisted  Ahaz  against  a  con 
federate  army  formed  of  the  Syrian  forces 
in  league  with  those  of  the  ten  tribes. 
Shalmanezer  invaded  Israel,  conquered 
Hoshea,  and  made  him  a  vassal,  bound 
to  pay  a  yearly  tribute.  Hoshea  wish- 
43 


AST 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ATI! 


ing  however  to  throw  off  the  yoke,  at 
tempted  to  form  a  league  with  Egypt, 
and  refused  the  tribute.  On  ascertain 
ing  this  secret  design  of  the  Israelitish 
prince,  Shalmanezer  again  invaded  Is 
rael,  reduced  Samaria,  loaded  its  king 
with  fetters,  and  transported  the  people 
of  the  land  into  Media,  and  put  an  end 
to  the  separate  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes. 
The  three  tribes  located  east  of  Jordan 
had  already  been  deported  into  Media  by 
Tiglath-pileser,  when  he  ravaged  Israel 
to  save  Aha/  and  the  kingdom  of  Jtidah. 
Sennacherib  of  Assyria  came  into  Judah 
with  a  powerful  army  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  but  was  miraculously  defeat 
ed.  Esarhaddon,  his  son  and  successor, 
ravaged  Judah  in  the  days  of  Manasseh, 
and  carried  the  conquered  sovereign  in 
chains  to  Babylon.  After  this  period  the 
empire  of  Assyria  suddenly  waned,  and 
its  last  monarch  was  the  effeminate  Sar- 
danapalus,  Num.  24:22.  Its  capital  was 
one  of  the  most  renowned  of  the  eastern 
world.  See  NINEVEH.  But  the  kingdom 
fell  at  length  into  the  hands  of  the 
Medes,  the  monarchy  was  divided  be 
tween  them  and  the  Babylonians,  and 
the  very  name  of  Assyria  was  thence 
forth  forgotten. 

ASTROL'OGERS,  men  who  pretended 
to  foretell  future  events  by  means  of  as 
tronomical  observations.  It  was  fancied 
that  the  stars  and  planets  had  an  influ 
ence,  for  good  or  for  evil,  on  human  af 
fairs,  and  that  certain  aspects  and  rela 
tive  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  were 
full  of  meaning  to  those  who  had  skill  to 
interpret  them,  Dan.  2:2.  These  super 
stitions  were  prevalent  among  the  Chal 
deans,  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Phoenicians, 
and  Arabians,  and  were  closely  connect 
ed  with  the  worship  of  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars.  Deut.  4  :  19  ;  17  :  3  ;  2  Kin. 
23:5,  12  ;  Jer.  19:13  ;  Ezek.  8:16  ;  Zeph. 
1 : 5.  They  were  thus  idolatrous  in  their 
spirit,  robbed  God  of  his  glory,  and  were 
highly  offensive  in  his  sight. 

ASTRON'OMY,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  was  much 
studied  in  Asia  in  ancient  times.  The 
Chaldeans  excelled  in  it.  The  Hebrews 
do  not  appear  to  have  made  great  profi 
ciency  in  it,  though  their  climate  and 
mode  of  life  invited  to  the  contempla 
tion  of  the  heavens.  Revelation  had 
taught  them  who  created  and  governed 
all  the  worlds,  Gen.  1,  and  the  infinite 
presence  of  the  one  living  and  true  God 
44 


filled  the  universe,  to  their  minds,  with 
a  glory  unknown  to  others,  Psa.  19  ;  Isa. 
40:26;  Amos  5:8.  The  Bible  does  not 
aim  to  teach  the  science  of  astronomy, 
but  speaks  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars 
in  the  familiar  language  of  mankind  in 
all  ages.  The  following  heavenly  bod 
ies  are  alluded  to  particularly  in  Scrip 
ture  :  Venus,  the  morning  star,  Isa. 
14:12;  Rev.  2:28;  Orion,  and  the  Plei 
ades,  Job  9:9;  38:31;  Amos  5:8;  the 
Great  Bear,  called  "Arcturus,"  Job  9:9 : 
38:32;  Draco,  "the  crooked  serpent," 
Job  26:13;  and  Gemini,  "the  twins," 
2  Kin.  23 : 5  ;  Acts  28 : 1 1.  The  planets 
Jupiter  and  Venus  were  worshipped  un 
der  various  names,  as  Baal  and  Ashto- 
reth,  Gad  and  Meni,  Isa.  65:11.  Mer 
cury  is  named  as  Nebo,  in  Isa.  46  :  1 ', 
Saturn  as  Chiun.  in  Amos  5  :  26  ;  and 
Mars  as  Nergal,  in  2  Kin.  17:30.  See 
IDOLATRY  and  STARS. 

ASUP'PIM,  collections.  The  "house  of 
Asuppim"  was  probably  a  storehouse 
in  connection  with  the  temple,  1  Chr. 
26:15. 

A'TAD,  a  Canaanite,  at  whose  thresh 
ing-floor  a  solemn  mourning  was  held 
over  the  remains  of  Jacob,  on  their  way 
from  Egypt  to  Hebron,  Gen.  50:10,  11. 
See  ABEL-MIZRAIM. 

ATAROTH.  Several  places  of  this 
name  occur  in  Scripture :  one  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  1  Chr.  2 : 54  ;  one  or  two 
in  Ephraim,  Josh.  16  :  2,  5,  7  ;  18  :  13  ; 
and  one  or  two  in  Gad,  Num.  32 : 3, 34,  35. 
Robinson  found  traces  of  one  of  those  in 
Ephraim,  on  a  high  hill  about  six  miles 
north  by  west  from  Bethel. 

ATHALI'AH,  a  granddaughter  of  Om- 
ri,  2  Chr.  22:2,  and  daughter  of  Ahab 
and  Jezebel,  2  Kin.  11:1.  Strangely 
enough,  she  was  chosen  as  the  wife  of 
Jehoram,  son  of  the  pious  Jehoshaphat 
king  of  Judah.  Her  pernicious  influence 
drew  into  idolatry  and  crime  both  her 
husband  and  her  son  Ahaziah,  2  Chr. 
21  :  6  ;  22  :  3.  After  their  premature 
death,  she  usurped  the  throne,  and 
sought  to  secure  herself  in  it  by  the 
murder  of  all  the  seed  royal.  Only  Jo- 
ash  her  grandson,  then  an  infant,  was 
saved  by  his  aunt  Jehosheba.  Six  years 
afterwards  he  was  brought  from  his  place 
of  refuge,  and  crowned  by  the  bold  and 
faithful  high-priest  Jehoiada,  who  at  the 
same  time  caused  the  blood-stained  Ath- 
aliah  to  be  put  to  death,  2  Kin.  11 ;  2 
Chr.  23. 


ATH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ATH 


THE  ACROPOLIS  AT  ATHENS,   AS  IT  WAS. 


ATH'ENS,  the  city  of  Minerva,  the  chief 
city  of  Attica  in  Greece,  situated  on  the 
Saronic  gulf,  forty-six  miles  east  of  Cor 
inth,  and  about  live  miles  from  the  coast. 
The  city  was  in  a  plain  extending  to  the 
sea  on  the  south-west,  where  it  had  three 
ports,  the  passage  to  which  was  defended 
by  long  and  broad  walls.  Several  rocky 
hills  rose  in  the  plain,  the  largest  of 
which  was  the  citadel,  or  Acropolis. 
Around  this  the  city  was  built,  most  of 
the  buildings  spreading  towards  the  sea. 
The  summit  of  the  hill  was  nearly  level, 
about  eight-hundred  feet  long  and  four 
hundred  wide.  The  only  way  to  the 
Acropolis  was  through  the  Propyleea,  a 
magnificent  gateway  on  the  western  side, 
adorned  with  two  temples  decorated  with 
the  finest  pieces  of  sculpture  and  paint 
ing.  These  splendid  portals  crowned  an 
ascent  by  marble  steps  to  the  summit  of 
the  hill,  on  which  were  erected  the  tem 
ples  of  the  guardian  divinities  of  Athens. 
On  the  left  was  the  temple  of  Pallas 
Athene,  (Minerva,)  regarded  as  the  pro 
tectress  of  the  city.  Under  the  same 
roof  was  the  temple  of  Neptune.  In  the 
area,  on  a  high  pedestal,  stood  a  bronze 
statue  of  Minerva  seventy  feet  high.  On 
the  right  arose  the  Parthenon,  the  glory 
of  Athens,  the  noblest  triumph  of  Gre 
cian  architecture.  From  whatever  quar 
ter  the  traveller  arrived,  the  first  thing 
he  saw  was  the  Parthenon  rearing  its 


lofty  head  above  the  city  and  the  cita 
del.  Its  ruins,  still  sublime  in  decay, 
are  the  first  object  that  attracts  the  eye 
of  a  stranger.  It  was  of  the  Doric  order 
of  architecture,  built  of  beautiful  white 
marble,  and  was  about  one  hundred  feet 
wide,  two  hundred  and  twenty-six  feet 
deep,  and  seventy  feet  high.  There  was 
a  double  portico  of  columns  at  the  two 
fronts,  and  a  single  row  along  each  side. 
There  was  an  architrave,  or  frieze,  along 
the  exterior  of  the  nave,  beautifully 
sculptured,  with  the  representation  of  a 
procession  in  honor  of  Minerva.  Within 
the  temple  was  a  statue  of  Minerva,  by 
Phidias,  celebrated  for  its  exquisite  beau 
ty.  It  was  made  of  gold  and  ivory,  and 
was  nearly  forty  feet  high.  The  goddess 
was  represented  erect,  covered  with  her 
aegis,  holding  in  one  hand  a  lance,  and 
in  the  other  a  figure  of  victory.  At  the 
foot  of  the  Acropolis,  on  one  side  was  the 
Odeum,  or  music-hall,  and  the  theatre 
of  Bacchus :  on  the  other  side  was  the 
Prytaneum,  where  the  chief  magistrates 
and  most  meritorious  citizens  were  en 
tertained  at  a  table  furnished  at  the  pub 
lic  expense.  A  small  valley  lay  between 
the  Acropolis  and  the  hill  on  which  the 
Areopagus  held  its  sessions  ;  it  also  sep 
arated  the  Areopagus  from  the  Pnyx,  a 
small  rocky  hill  on  which  the  general 
assemblies  of  the  people  were  held.  Here 
the  spot  is  yet  pointed  out  from  which 
45 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAA 


the  eminent  orators  addressed  the  peo 
ple.  It  is  cut  in  the  natural  rock.  In 
this  vicinity  also  was  the  agora,  or  mar 
ket-place,  Acts  17 : 17,  an  open  square  sur 
rounded  by  beautiful  structures  ;  while 
on  every  side  altars,  shrines,  and  tem 
ples  were  seen,  some  of  them  exceedingly 
magnificent.  This  beautiful  city  was  also 
celebrated  for  the  military  talents  and 
the  learning,  eloquence,  and  politeness 
of  its  inhabitants.  It  was  the  very  flower 
of  ancient  civilization  ;  its  schools  of  phi 
losophy  were  the  most  illustrious  in  the 
world,  and  its  painters,  sculptors,  and 
architects  have  never  been  surpassed. 
Yet  no  city  was  so  ' '  wholly  given  to 
idolatry."  The  apostle  Paul  visited  it 
about  the  year  A.  D.  52,  and  though  alone 
among  its'  proud  philosophers,  preached 
Jesus  and  the  resurrection  to  them  with 
fidelity  and  success,  Acts  17 : 15-34.  See 
AREOPAGUS.  At  present  Athens  is  com 
paratively  in  ruins,  and  has  a  population 
of  about  28,000  addicted  to  the  supersti 
tions  of  the  Greek  church. 

ATONE'MENT  is  the  satisfaction  of 
fered  to  divine  justice  for  the  sins  of 
mankind  by  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ ; 
by  virtue  of  which  all  true  penitents  be 
lieving  in  Christ  are  reconciled  to  God, 
are  freed  from  the  penalty  of  their  sins, 
and  entitled  to  eternal  life.  The  atone 
ment  by  Jesus  Christ  is  the  great  distin 
guishing  peculiarity  of  the  gospel,  and 
is  presented  in  a  great  variety  of  terms 
and  illustrations  in  both  the  Old  Testa 
ment  and  the  New.  See  REDEMPTION, 
SACRIFICES.  The  English  word  atone 
ment  originally  denoted  the  reconcilia 
tion  of  parties  previously  at  variance. 
It  is  used  in  the  Old  Testament  to  trans 
late  a  Hebrew  word  which  means  a  cov 
ering  ;  implying  that  by  a  Divine  pro 
pitiation  the  sinner  is  covered  from  the 
just  anger  of  God.  This  is  actually  ef 
fected  by  the  death  of  Christ ;  while  the 
ceremonial  offerings  of  the  Jewish  church 
only  secured  from  impending  temporal 
judgments,  and  typified  the  blood  of  Je 
sus  Christ  which  ' '  cleanseth  us  from  all 
sin." 

ATONEMENT,  DAY  OF.     See  EXPIATION. 

ATTA'LIA,  a  seaport  in  Pamphylia,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Catarrhactes,  vis 
ited  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  way 
from  Perga  to  Antioch,  Acts  14 :  25. 
There  is  still  a  village  there  of  a  similar 
name,  with  extensive  ruins  in  the  vicin- 
ity. 

46 


AUGUS'TUS,  venerable,  the  first  peace 
fully  acknowledged  emperor  of  Rome, 
began  to  reign  B.  c.  19.  Augustus  was 
the  emperor  who  appointed  the  enrol 
ment,  Luke  2:1,  which  obliged  Joseph 
and  the  Virgin  to  go  to  Bethlehem,  the 
place  where  the  Messiah  was  to  be  born. 
He  died  A.  D.  14. 

A'VEN,  see  HELIOPOLIS. 

AVEN'GER  or  BLOOD.  See  BLOOD, 
REFUGE. 

A'  VIM,  or  A'VITES,  descendants  of  Ca> 
naan,  Gen.  10:17,  who  occupied  a  por 
tion  of  the  coast  of  Palestine  from  Gaza 
towards  the  river  of  Egypt,  but  were  ex 
pelled  and  almost  destroyed  by  invading 
Philistines  or  Caphtorim,  before  the  time 
of  Moses,  Deut.  2:23.  Some  yet  remain 
ed  in  the  time  of  Joshua,  Josh.  13  :  3. 
They  are  conjectured  to  have  been  the 
same  people  with  the  Hivites,  of  whom 
traces  were  found  in  various  parts  of  Ca 
naan,  Gen.  34:2;  Josh.  9:7;  11:3. 

AZARI'AH,  a  king  of  Judah,  2  Kin. 
15:1-7.  In  2Chr.  26,  and  elsewhere,  he 
is  called  Uzziah.  He  began  to  reign  at 
sixteen  years  of  age,  B.  c.  806.  The  first 
part  of  his  reign  was  prosperous  and 
happy  ;  but  afterwards,  presuming  to 
offer  incense  in  the  temple,  he  was  smit 
ten  with  leprosy,  and  continued  a  leper 
till  his  death,  2  Chr.  26  :  16-23.  This 
name  was  very  common  among  the  Jews, 
and  was  borne  by  many  briefly  referred 
to  in  Scripture. 

AZE'KAH,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Ju 
dah,  about  fifteen  miles  south-west  of 
Jerusalem  ;  mentioned  in  the  narratives 
of  Joshua  and  Saul,  Josh.  10:  10  ;  1  Sam. 
17  :  1  ;  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer. 
34  :  7,  but  afterwards  repeopled  by  the 
Jews,  Neh.  11:30. 

AZ'ZAH,  the  same  as  GAZA. 

AZO'TUS.     See  ASIIDOD. 


. 

BA'AL,  lord,  I.,  in  the  Old  Testament 
denotes  an  idol  of  the  Phoenicians,  and 
particularly  of  the  Tynans,  whose  wor 
ship  was  also  introduced  with  great  so 
lemnities  among  the  Hebrews,  and  espe 
cially  at  Samaria,  along  with  that  of  As- 
tarte,  Judg.  6:25-32;  2  Kin.  10:18,  28. 
See  ASIITORETH.  The  plural,  Baalim,  sig 
nifies  images  or  statues  of  Baal,  Judg. 
2:11;  10.10.  Of  the  extent  to  which 
the  worship  of  this  idol  was  domesticated 


BAA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAA 


HEAD  OF   BAAL,   FROM  A  TVRIAN   COIN. 

among  the  Phoenicians  and  Carthagin 
ians,  we  have  an  evidence  in  the  proper 
names  of  persons ;  as,  among  the  former, 
Ethbaal,  Jerubbaal ;  and  among  the  lat 
ter,  Hannibal,  Asdrubal,  etc.  Among 
the  Babylonians,  the  same  idol  was  wor 
shipped  under  the  name  of  BEL,  which  is 
only  another  form  of  the  word  Baal,  Isa. 
46:1;  Jer.  50:2;  51:44.  The  worship 
of  Baal  was  established  in  Babylon  in  the 
famous  tower  of  Babel,  the  uppermost 
room  of  which  served  at  the  same  time  as 
an  observatory,  and  as  the  repository  of  a 
collection  of  astronomical  observations. 
That  in  the  astronomical,  or  rather, 
astrological  mythology  of  the  East,  we 
are  to  look  for  the  origin  of  this  worship 
in  the  adoration  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
is  conceded  by  all  critics.  The  more 
common  opinion  has  been,  that  Baal,  or 
Bel,  is  the  sun ;  and  that,  under  this 
name,  this  luminary  received  divine  hon 
ors.  But  the  Greek  and  Eoman  writers 
give  to  the  Babylonian  Bel  the  name  of 
Jupiter  Belus,  meaning  the  planet  Jupi 
ter,  which  was  regarded,  along  with  the 
planet  Venus,  as  the  guardian  and  giver 
of  all  good  fortune;  and  formed,  with 
Venus,  the  most  fortunate  of  all  constel 
lations,  under  which  alone  fortunate 
sovereigns  could  be  born.  This  planet, 
therefore,  many  suppose  to  have  been 
the  object  of  worship  under  the  name  of 
Baal ,  as  also  the  planet  Venus  under  that 
of  Astarte.  Not  that  the  sun  was  not  an 
object  of  idolatrous  worship  among  these 
nations,  but  in  that  case  he  is  represent 
ed  under  his  own  name  ;  as  2  Kin.  23 : 11. 


The  temples  and  altars  of  Baal  were 
generally  on  eminences.  Manasseh  placed 
in  the  two  courts  of  the  temple  at  Jeru 
salem  altars  to  all  the  host  of  heaven, 
and  in  particular  to  Astarte,  2  Kin.  21 : 5, 
7.  Jeremiah  threatens  the  Jews  who  had 
sacrificed  to  Baal  on  the  house-top,  Jer. 
32 :  29 ;  and  Josiah  destroyed  the  altars 
which  Ahaz  had  erected  on  the  terrace 
of  his  palace,  2  Kin.  23:12. 

Human  victims  were  offered  to  Baal, 
as  they  were  also  to  the  sun.  Jeremiah 
reproaches  the  inhabitants  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem  with  ' '  building  the  high  plac 
es  of  Baal,  to  burn  their  sons  with  fire 
for  burnt-offerings  unto  Baal,"  Jer.  19 : 5  ; 
an  expression  which  appears  to  be  deci 
sive  as  to  the  actual  slaying  by  fire  of  the 
unhappy  victims  to  Baal.  See  MOLOCH. 

The  children  of  Israel  were  prone  to 
serve  Baal.  See  Num.  25:3  ;  Judg.  2:13  ; 
3  7.  Under  Samuel  they  put  away  their 
idols,  1  Sam.  7:4.  This  continued  under 
David  and  Solomon ;  but  under  Ahab, 
whose  wife  Jezebel  was  a  daughter  of 
the  Zidonian  king  Ethbaal,  the  worship 
of  Baal  was  restored  with  great  pomp, 
IKin.  16:31. 

Joined  with  other  words,  Baal  signi 
fies  also  other  false  gods.  Baal-Berith,  or 
the  "lord  of  the  covenant,"  was  a  god 
of  the  Shechemites,  Judg.  8  : 33  ;  9:4. 
Baal-Peor,  or  "the  lord  of  Peor,"  was  a 
filthy  idol  of  the  Moabites,  Num.  25:3, 
5;  Hos.  9:10.  Baal-Zebub,  "lord  of 
flies,"  was  a  god  of  the  Philistines  at 
Ekron.  See  BEELZEBUB. 

II.  The  word  BAAL  also  occurs  in  many 
compound  names  of  places,  not  always 
having  any  reference  to  the  idol. 

BA'ALAH,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Sime 
on,  Josh.  15:29  ;  19:3  :  called  also  Bilhah, 
1  Chr.  4 : 29.  The  same  as  Kirjathjearim. 

BA'ALATH,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of 
Gad,  Josh.  19:44.  This  lay  not  far  from 
Bethhoron.  It  is  uncertain  whether  it 
is  the  same  as  the  Baalath  rebuilt  by 
Solomon,  1  Kin.  9:18:  2  Chr.  8:6. 

BAAL-GAD',  a  city  in  the  valley  of 
Lebanon,  at  the  foot  of  Hejmon ;  the 
northernmost  point  to  which  the  wars 
of  Joshua  reached,  Josh.  11:17;  12:7; 
13:5.  It  was  perhaps  the  same  as  Baal- 
hermon.  Some  have  supposed  it  was 
Baalbek ;  but  this  lay  further  north. 

BAAL-HA'ZOR,  where  Absalom  kept 
his  flocks,  2  Sam.  13:23,  was  near  Ephra- 
im,  a  city  of  Judah,  some  eight  miles 
east  of  Jerusalem. 

47 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAB 


BA'ALIS,  king  of  the  Ammonites  in 
the  time  of  the  captivity.  He  caused  the 
assassination  of  Gedaliah,  then  governor 
of  Judah,  Jer.  40:14  ;  41:1-10. 

BAAL-ME'ON,  in  Reuben  beyond  the 
Jordan,  Num.  32:38;  called  also  Beth- 
meon,  Jer.  48:23,  and  Beth-baal-meon, 
Josh.  13:17.  Its  ruins  are  found  two 
miles  southeastof  Heshbon.  Ezekiel,25 : 9, 
speaks  of  it  as  then  a  Moabitish  town. 

BAAL-PERA'ZIM,  place  of  breaches,  a 
name  given  by  David  to  the  scene  of  a 
battle  with  the  Philistines,  2  Sam.  5:20  ; 
1  Chr.  14:11 ;  Isa.  28:21.  It  was  in  the 
valley  of  Rephaim,  not  far  south-west  of 
Jerusalem . 

BAAL-ZEPH'ON,  a  town  in  Egypt, 
probably  near  the  modern  Suez.  Its  lo 
cation  is  unknown,  as  are  the  details  of 
the  route  of  the  Hebrews  on  leaving 
Egypt,  They  encamped  ' '  over  against ' ' 
and  "before"  Baal-zephon  before  cross 
ing  the  Red  sea,  Ex.  14:2 ;  Num.  33:7. 


BA'ANAH  and  RECHAB,  sons  of  Run- 
mon,  in  the  service  of  Ish-bosheth  the 
son  of  Saul.  Thinking  to  obtain  a  re 
ward  from  David,  they  secretly  slew  their 
master  while  reposing  at  noon,  and  car 
ried  his  head  to  David  at  Hebron.  They 
suffered,  however,  the  punishment  suit 
able  for  those  whose  "feet  are  swift  to 
shed  blood,"  2  Sam.  4:1-12. 

BA'ASHA,  son  of  Ahijah,  and  com 
mander  of  the  armies  of  Nadab,  king  of 
Israel.  He  killed  his  master  treacher 
ously  at  the  siege  of  Gibbethon.  and 
usurped  the  kingdom,  B.  c.  953,  which 
he  possessed  twenty-three  years.  He 
exterminated  the  whole  race  of  Jerobo 
am,  as  had  been  predicted,  1  Kin.  14:7- 
14  ;  but  by  his  bad  conduct  and  idolatry 
incurred  God's  indignation,  1  Kin.  15 ; 
16: 1-7, 12.  God  sent  him  a  warning  by 
the  mouth  of  Jehu  the  prophet ;  which 
was  fulfilled  in  the  extermination  of  his 
family  two  years  after  his  own  death. 


BIRS   NIMROTTD. 


BA'BEL,  confusion,  the  name  of  a  lofty 
tower,  begun  to  be  built  by  the"  descend 
ants  of  Noah  among  whom  Nimrod  was 
a  leader,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
years  after  the  flood ;  so  called  because 
God  there  confounded  the  language  of 
those  who  were  employed  in  the  under 
taking,  Gen.  10:10;  11:9.  Their  object 
in  building  the  city  and  tower,  was  to 
concentrate  the  population  and  the  do 
minion  at  that  spot ;  and  as  this  was  con- 
48 


trary  to  the  divine  purpose  of  replenish 
ing  the  earth  with  inhabitants,  and  be 
trayed  an  ungodly  and  perhaps  idolatrous 
disposition,  God  frustrated  their  designs 
by  miraculously  giving  to  different  por 
tions  of  the  people  different  languages, 
or  different  modes  of  pronunciation  and 
divergent  dialects  of  the  original  lan 
guage  of  man,  thus  causing  them  to  dis 
perse  over  the  globe.  Compare  Acts 
2:1-11.  The  tower  was  apparently  left 


BAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAB 


incomplete,  but  the  foundation  of  the 
city  was  probably  laid,  and  a  portion  no 
doubt  of  the  builders  continued  to  dwell 
there.  Tho  place  became  afterwards  the 
celebrated  city  of  Babylon.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  tower  of  Babel  was 
afterwards  finished,  and  called  the  tower 
of  Belus,  within  the  city  of  Babylon. 
Herodotus  visited  this  tower,  and  de 
scribes  it  as  a  square  pyramid,  measuring 
half  a  mile  in  circumference  at  the  base  ; 
from  this  rose  eight  towers  one  above 
another  gradually  decreasing  to  the  sum 
mit,  which  was  reached  by  a  broad  road 
winding  up  around  the  outside.  This 
tower  was  used  for  astronomical  purposes, 
but  was  chiefly  devoted  to  the  worship 
of  Bel,  whose  temple  contained  immense 
treasures,  including  several  statues  of 
massive  gold,  one  of  which  was  forty  feet 
in  height.  Here  were  deposited  the  sa 
cred  golden  vessels  brought  from  Jerusa 
lem,  2Chr.  36:7;  Jer.  51:44.  Its  ruins 
are  supposed  to  be  the  present  Birs  Nim- 
roud,  six  miles  south-west  of  Hilleh,  the 
modern  Babylon:  an  immense  mound  of 
coarse  sun-dried  bricks,  laid  with  bit 
umen.  It  is  a  ruinous  heap,  shattered 
by  violence,  furrowed  by  storms,  and 
strown  with  fragments  of  brick,  pottery, 
etc.,  fused  and  vitrified  by  some  intense 
heat.  It  is  190  feet  high,  and  on  the  top 
rises  an  irregular  tower  90  feet  in  cir 
cumference  and  35  feet  high,  built  of  a 
line  brick — with  which  the  whole  mound 
appears  to  have  been  faced.  The  tower 
is  rent  asunder  and  mutilated  at  the  top, 
and  scathed  as  if  by  lightning — a  monu 
ment,  some  have  thought,  of  the  just 
wrath  of  God.  See  NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 

BAB'YLON,  I.,  a  celebrated  city  situ 
ated  on  the  Euphrates,  the  original  foun 
dation  of  which  is  described  under  the 
word  Babel.  With  this  coincide  many 
ancient  traditions,  while  some  speak  of 
Semiramis  as  the  founder,  and  others  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  These  accounts  may 
all  be  reconciled,  by  supposing  that  Sem 
iramis  rebuilt  the  ancient  city,  and  that 
Nebuchadnezzar  afterwards  greatly  en 
larged  and  adorned  it. 

Babylon  lay  in  a  vast  and  fertile  plain 
watered  by  the  Euphrates,  which  flowed 
through  the  city.  Its  walls  are  described 
as  60  miles  in  circumference,  300  feet 
high,  and  75  feet  wide,  Jer.  51:44-58. 
A  deep  trench  ran  parallel  with  the 
walls.  In  each  of  the  four  sides  were  25 
brazen  gates,  from  which  roads  crossed 
3 


to  the  opposite  gates.  On  the  squares 
thus  formed,  countless  houses  and  gar 
dens  were  made.  Nebuchadnezzar's  pal 
ace  was  in  an  inclosure  six  miles  in  cir 
cumference.  Within  this  were  also  "the 
hanging  gardens, ' '  an  immense  artificial 
mound  400  feet  high,  sustained  by  arch 
es  upon  arches,  terraced  off  for  trees  and 
flowers,  the  water  for  which  was  drawn 
from  the  river  by  machinery  concealed 
in  the  mound,  Dan.  4:29,  30. 

Under'Nebuchadnezzar,  Babylon  reach 
ed  the  summit  of  her  greatness  arid  splen 
dor.  She  was  renowned  for  learning, 
especially  in  astronomy,  and  for  skill  in 
various  arts,  as  the  making  of  carpets 
and  cloths,  of  perfumes,  jewelry,  etc. 
Her  location  gave  her  to  a  great  extent 
the  control  of  the  traffic,  by  the  Euphra 
tes  and  by  caravans,  between  Central 
Asia  and  Arabia  and  Egypt.  She  was 
"a  city  of  merchants,"  Isa.  43:14; 
Ezek.  17:4  ;  and  into  her  lap  flowed,  ei 
ther  through  conquest  or  commerce,  the 
wealth  of  almost  all  known  lands.  Just 
ly  therefore  might  the  prophets  call  her 
"the  great,"  Dan.  4:20;  "the  praise 
of  the  whole  earth,"  Jer.  51:41;  "the 
beauty  of  the  Chaldees'  excellency,"  Isa. 
13:19;  "the  lady  of  kingdoms,"  Isa. 
47:5;  but  also  "the  tender  and  deli 
cate,"  and  "given  to  pleasures,"  Isa. 
47  :  1,  8.  In  consequence  of  the  opu 
lence  and  luxury  of  the  inhabitants,  cor 
ruptness  and  licentiousness  of  manners 
and  morals  were  carried  to  a  frightful 
extreme.  Bel,  Nebo,  Nergal,  Merodach, 
Succoth-benoth,  and  other  idols,  were 
there  worshipped  with  rites  in  which 
impurity  was  made  a  matter  of  religion. 
Well  might  we  expect  Jehovah  to  bring 
down  vengeance  on  her  crimes.  Indeed, 
the  woes  denounced  against  Babylon  by 
the  prophets  constitute  some  of  the 
most  awfully  splendid  and  sublime  por 
tions  of  the  whole  Bible,  Isa.  13:1-22; 
14:22  ;  21:9  ;  47  ;  Jer.  25;  50;  51,  etc. 

The  city  did  not  long  remain  the  cap 
ital  of  the  world.  Under  the  reign  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  grandson,  Nabomii- 
dus,  the  Belshazzar  of  the  Scriptures,  it 
was  besieged  and  taken  by  Cyrus.  The 
accounts  of  Greek  historians  harmonize 
here  with  that  of  the  Bible  :  that  Cyrus 
made  his  successful  assault  on  a  night 
when  the  whole  city,  relying  on  the 
strength  of  the  walls,  had  given  them 
selves  up  to  the  riot  and  debauchery  of 
a  grand  public  festival,  and  the  king  and 
49 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAB 


his  nobles  were  revelling  at  a  splendid 
entertainment.  Cyrus  had  previously 
caused  a  canal,  which  ran  west  of  the 
city,  and  carried  off  the  superfluous  wa 
ter  of  the  Euphrates  into  the  lake  of  Ni- 
tocris,  to  be  cleared  out,  in  order  to  turn 
the  river  into  it ;  which,  by  this  means, 
was  rendered  so  shallow,  that  his  soldiers 
were  able  to  penetrate  along  its  bed  into 
the  city,  Dan.  5.  538  B.  c.  From  this 
time  its  importance  declined,  for  Cyrus 
made  Susa  the  capital  of  his  kingdom. 
It  revolted  against  Darius  Hystaspis,  who 
again  subdued  it,  broke  down  all  its 
gates,  and  reduced  its  walls  to  the  height 
of  fifty  cubits.  According  to  Strabo, 
Xerxes  destroyed  the  tower  of  Belus. 
Under  the  Persians,  and  under  Alexan 
der's  successors,  Babylon  continued  to 
decline,  especially  after  Seleucus  Nicator 
had  founded  Seleucia,  and  made  it  his 
residence.  A  great  portion  of  the  inhab 
itants  of  Babylon  removed  thither ;  and 
in  Strabo's  time,  that  is,  under  Augus 
tus,  Babylon  had  become  so  desolate, 
that  it  might  be  called  a  vast  desert. 
There  was  a  town  on  its  site  until  the 
fourth  pentury,  and  many  Jews  dwelt 
there,  1  Pet.  5:13.  But  from  this  time 
onward,  Babylon  ceases  almost  to  be 
mentioned  ;  even  its  ruins  have  not  been 
discovered  until  within  the  last  two  cen 
turies  ;  and  it  is  only  within  the  present 
century  that  these  ruins  have  been  traced 
and  described.  *  These  consist  of  numer 
ous  mounds,  usually  of  brick,  deeply  fur 
rowed  and  decayed  by  time,  strown  with 
fragments  of  brick,  bitumen,  pottery,  etc. 
One  of  these  is  described  above.  See  BA 
BEL.  Another,  four  miles  north-west  of 
Hilleh,  and  called  by  the  natives  Kasr,  is 
thought  to  mark  the  site  of  the  hanging 
gardens.  These  ruins  are  2,400  feet  long, 
and  1,800  broad.  Another  near  by,  call 
ed  Mujellibah,  is  of  similar  dimensions. 
From  these  mounds  thousands  of  bricks 
have  been  dug,  bearing  arrow-headed 
inscriptions  as  ancient  as  the  time  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  whose  name  often  oc 
curs.  The  aspect  of  the  whole  region  is 
dreary  and  forlorn.  It  is  infested  by 
noxious  animals,  and  perhaps  in  no  place 
under  heaven  is  the  contrast  between 
ancient  magnificence  and  present  deso 
lation  greater  than  here.  The  awful 
prophecy  of  Isaiah,  uttered  more  than  a 
century  before,  has  been  most  literally 
fulfilled,  Isa.  13  :  14. 

The  name  of  Babylon  is  used  symbol  - 
50 


A    BABYLOMAN    BRICK. 

ically  in  Rev.  14:8  ;  16  ;  17  ;  18,  to  mark 
the  idolatry,  superstition,  lewdness,  lux 
ury,  and  persecution  of  the  people  of 
God,  which  characterized  heathen  Rome 
and  modern  Antichrist.  Some  thus  in 
terpret  1  Pet.  5:13. 

II.  There  was  also  a  Babylon  in  Egypt, 
a  city  not  far  from  Heliopolis.  Some  sup 
pose  this  to  be  the  Babylon  mentioned 
1  Pet.  5:13  ;  but  this  is  not  probable. 

BABYLO'NIA,  the  province  of  which 
Babylon  was  the  capital ;  now  the  Bab 
ylonian  or  Arabian  I?-ak,  which  consti 
tutes  the  pashaKc  of  Bagdad.  This  cele 
brated  province  included  the  tract  -of 
country  lying  on  the  river  Euphrates, 
bounded  north  by  Mesopotamia  and  As 
syria,  and  south  by  the  Persian  gulf. 
This  gulf  was  indeed  its  only  definite 
and  natural  boundary ;  for  towards  the 
north,  towards  the  east  or  Persia,  and 
towards  the  west  or  desert  Arabia,  its 
limits  were  quite  indefinite.  Both  in 
ancient  and  modern  times,  important 
tracts  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
and  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Euphra 
tes,  and  still  more  on  both  banks  of  their 
united  stream*,  were  reckoned  to  Baby 
lonia,  or  Irak  el-Arab. 

The  most  ancient  name  of  the  country 
isShinar,  Gen.  10:10;  Dan.  1:2.  After 
wards  Babel,  Babylon,  and  Babylonia 
became  its  common  appellation,  with 


BAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAL 


which,  at  a  later  period,  Chaldea,  or  the 
land  of  the  Chaldeans,  was  used  as  sy 
nonymous,  after  this  people  had  got  the 
whole  into  their  possession. 

Babylonia  is  an  extensive  plain,  inter 
rupted  by  no  hill  or  mountain,  consist 
ing  of  a  fatty,  brownish  soil,  and  subject 
to  the  annual  inundations  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates,  more  especially  of  the 
latter,  whose  banks  are  lower  than  those 
of  the  Tigris.  The  Euphrates  commonly 
rises  about  twelve  feet  above  its  ordinary 
level,  and  continues  at  this  height  from 
the  end  of  April  till  June".  These  inun 
dations  of  course  compelled  the  earliest 
tillers  of  the  soil  to  provide  means  for 
drawing  off  the  superabundant  water, 
and  so  distributing  it  over  the  whole  sur 
face,  that  those  tracts  which  were  in 
themselves  less  watered  might  receive 
the  requisite  irrigation.  From  this 
cause,  the  whole  of  Babylonia  came  to 
be  divided  up  by  a  multitude  of  larger 
and  smaller  canals ;  in  part  passing  en 
tirely  through  from  one  river  to  the 
other  ;  in  part  also  losing  themselves  in 
the  interior,  and  serving  only  the  pur 
poses  of  irrigation.  These  canals  seem 
to  be  the  "rivers  of  Babylon"  spoken 
of  in  Psa.  137:1.  Besides  this  multitude 
of  canals,  which  have  long  since  vanished 
without  trace,  Babylonia  contained  sev 
eral  large  lakes,  partly  the  work  of  art 
and  partly  formed  by  the  inundations  of 
the  two  rivers.  Babylonia,  therefore,  was 
a  land  abounding  in  water  ;  and  Jeremi 
ah  might  therefore  well  say  of  it,  that  it 
"dwelt  upon  many  waters,"  Jer.  51:13. 

The  Babylonians  belonged  to  the  She- 
mitic  branch  of  the  descendants  of  Noah, 
and  their  language  had  an  affinity  with 
the  Arabic  and  Hebrew,  nearly  resem 
bling  what  is  now  called  Chaldee.  The 
Babylonian  empire  was  founded  by  Nim- 
rod  twenty  centuries  before  Christ,  and 
then  embraced  the  cities  Babel,  Erech, 
Accad,  and  Calneh,  Gen.  10:10.  After 
the  building  of  Nineveh  by  Ninus,  1237 
B.  c. ,  that  city  became  the  seat  of  power, 
and  continued  so  until  about  606  B.  c., 
when  the  Assyrian  empire  gave  way  to 
the  Chaldean,  and  Babylon  reached  its 
highest  point  in  fame  and  power.  Upon 
the  return  of  the  Jews  from  captivity, 
many  still  remained  in  Babylonia,  and 
to  their  posterity  the  gospel  was  early 
conveyed.  Peter  is  supposed  by  many 
to  have  written  his  first  epistle  there, 
1  Pet.  5:13.  The  Jews  had  thriving  syn 


agogues  in  Babylonia,  and  one  of  their 
Talmuds  was  there  composed.  See  CHAL 
DEANS. 

BA'CA,  tears,  or  weeping,  Psa.  84:6.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  understand  here  that 
there  was  really  a  valley  so  called.  The 
psalmist,  at  a  distance  from  Jerusalem, 
is  speaking  of  the  happiness  of  those  who 
are  permitted  to  make  the  usual  pilgrim 
ages  to  that  city  in  order  to  worship 
Jehovah  in  the  temple :  they  love  the 
ways  which  lead  thither  ;  yea,  though 
they  must  pass  through  rough  and  dreary 
paths,  even  a  ^ale  of  tears,  yet  such  are 
their  hope  and  joy  of  heart,  that  all  this 
is  to  them  as  a  well-watered  country,  a 
land  crowned  with  the  blessings  of  the 
early  rain. 

BAD'GER,  a  small  inoffensive  animal, 
of  the  bear  genus,  which  remains  torpid 
all  winter.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  cold 
countries,  and  is  not  found  in  Palestine. 
Hence  many  think  the  "badgers'  skins " 
mentioned  Exod.  25  :  5  ;  20  :  14  ;  Ezek. 
16  : 10,  and  elsewhere,  as  being  used  for 
covering  the  tabernacle  and  for  shoes, 
were  the  skins  not  of  this  animal,  but 
of  a  species  of  seal  found  in  the  Red  sea. 
Burckhardt  remarks  that  he  "saw  parts 
of  the  skin  of  a  large  fish,  killed  on  the 
coast,  which  was  an  inch  in  thickness, 
and  is  employed  by  the  Arabs  instead  of 
leather  for  sandals."  Others  think  it 
was  an  animal  of  the  antelope  species, 
the  skins  of  which  the  Jews  had  obtained 
in  Egypt. 

BAG,  Deut.  25:13;  Luke  12:33.  East 
ern  money  was  often  sealed  up  in  bags 
containing  a  certain  sum,  for  which  they 
passed  current  while  the  seal  remained 
unbroken,  2  Kin.  12:10. 

BAHU'RIM,  a  town  of  Benjamin,  near 
Jerusalem,  on  the  road  to  the  Jordan.  It 
is  several  times  mentioned  in  the  history 
of  David,  2  Sam.  3:16;  16:5;  17:18. 

BA'JITH,  the  site  of  a  temple  in  Moab, 
where  the  king  offered  vain  supplications 
against  the  Assyrians,  Isa.  15:2. 

BA'LAAM,  a  celebrated  diviner,  of  the 
city  Pethor,  on  the  Euphrates,  Num. 
22:5.  Balak,  king  of  Moab,  having  seen 
the  multitudes  of  Israel,  and  fearing  they 
would  attack  his  country,  sent  for  Ba 
laam,  who  was  famous  for  his  supposed 
supernatural  powers,  to  come  and  curse 
them.  Balaam,  though  eager  for  gain, 
was  led  to  ask  counsel  of  God,  who  for 
bade  his  going.  Balak  afterwards  sent 
other  deputies,  whom  Balaam  finally  ac- 
51 


BAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAP 


companied  without  the  approval  of  God, 
who  sent  an  angel  to  meet  and  warn  him 
in  the  way.  Here  occurred  the  miracle 
of  Balaam's  ass,  Num.  22  :  22,  35.  But 
instead  of  cursing,  he  was  constrained  by 
the  Spirit  of  God  to  bless  the  children  of 
Israel.  This  he  did  a  second  and  a  third 
time,  to  the  extreme  mortification  of  Ba- 
lak,  who  dismissed  him  in  great  anger. 
Balaam  subsequently  foretold  what  Is 
rael  should  in  future  times  do  to  the 
nations  round  about ;  and  after  having 
advised  Balak  to  engage  Israel  in  idola 
try  and  whoredom,  that  they  might  of 
fend  God  and  be  forsaken  by  him,  quitted 
his  territories  for  his  own  land.  This 
bad  counsel  was  pursued ;  the  young 
women  of  Moab  inveigled  the  Hebrews 
to  the  impure  and  idolatrous  worship  of 
Baal-Peor,  for  which  24,000  Israelites 
were  slain,  Num.  25:1-9;  31:16;  2  Pet. 
2:15;  Jude  11 ;  Rev.  2:14. 

Balaam  was  probably  a  descendant  of 
Shem,  and  possessed  many  just  ideas  of 
the  true  God.  He  calls  Him  "  the  LORD 
my  God,"  Num.  22:18  ;  and  yet  he  seems 
to  have  been  only  an  enchanter  and 
false  prophet,  like  many  in  the  times  of 
the  kings  of  Israel,  until  he  came  in  col 
lision  with  the  people  of  God.  In  this 
transaction  he  was  made  a  bearer,  against 
his  own  will,  of  the  sublime  messages  of 
Jehovah  ;  yet  his  heart  remained  un 
changed,  and  he  died  not  "the  death  of 
the  righteous,"  Num.  31:8  ;  Josh.  13:22. 

BA'LAK,  king  of  Moab,  when  the  Is 
raelites  were  drawing  near  the  promised 
land.  He  was  filled  with  terror  lest  they 
should  attack  and  destroy  him,  as  they 
had  Sihon  and  Og,  and  implored  the 
soothsayer  Balaam  to  come  and  curse 
them.  His  fears  and  his  devices  were 
both  in  vain,  Deut.  2  :  9.  See  BALAAM. 
He  found  he  had  nothing  to  fear  from  Is 
rael  if  at  peace  with  them,  and  nothing 
to  hope  if  at  war  with  them. 

BALD'NESS  was  either  natural  or  ar 
tificial.  It  was  customary  among  east 
ern  nations  to  cut  off  the  hair  of  the 
head,  or  to  shave  the  head,  as  a  token 
of  mourning,  on  the  death  of  a  relative, 
Job  1:20;  Jer.  16:6.  This  was  forbid 
den  to  the  Israelites,  in  consequence  of 
its  being  a  heathen  custom,  Deut.  14:1. 
Natural  baldness  was  treated  with  con 
tempt,  because  it  exposed  a  man  to  the 
suspicion  of  leprosy.  The  children  at 
Bethel  cried  after  Elisha,  "Go  up,  thou 
bald-head,"  2  Kin.  2:23.  While  they 
52 


indicated  by  this  epithet  great  contempt 
for  him  as  a  prophet  of  the  Lord,  they 
probably  scoffed  at  the  same  time  at  the 
miracle  of  Elijah's  ascension. 


BALM,  or  more  properly,  BALSAM,  the 
gum  or  inspissated  juice  which  exudes 
from  the  balsam-tree,  the  Opobalsamum, 
which  was  anciently  frequent  in  Judea, 
and  particularly  in  Gilead  ;  hence  called 
the  balm  or  balsam  of  Gilead,  Jer.  8:22  ; 
46:11.  It  was  reckoned  very  valuable 
in  the  cure  of  external  wounds.  The 
true  balsam-tree  is  an  evergreen,  a  na 
tive  of  Southern  Arabia  and  Abyssinia, 
and  is  about  fourteen  feet  high.  It  yields 
its  gum  in  very  small  quantities.  At  the 
present  day,  this  is  collected  chiefly  in 
Arabia,  between  Mecca  and  Medina,* and 
is  therefore  sometimes  called  the  balm  of 
Mecca.  Its  odor  is  exquisitely  fragrant 
and  pungent.  It  is  very  costly,  and  is 
still  in  the  highest  esteem  among  the 
Turks  and  other  oriental  nations,  both 
as  a  medicine  and  as  a  cosmetic  for  beau 
tifying  the  complexion,  Gen.  37:25  ;  Jer. 
51:8;  Ezek.  27:17. 

BAMAH,  plur.  BAMOTH,  Ugh  places, 
Ezek.  20:29.  Bamoth-baal  was  a  station 
of  the  Hebrews,  in  the  border  of  Moab, 
Num.  21:20  ;  22:41 ;  afterwards  assigned 
to  the  tribe  of  Ileuben,  Josh.  13:17. 
Baal  was  worshipped  there,  and  it  was 
perhaps  the  "high  places"  referred  to 
in  Isa.  15:2.  See  HIGH  PLACES. 

BAP'TISM  is  the  holy  ordinance  by 
which  persons  are  admitted  as  members 
of  the  Christian  community.  It  is  ad- 


BAP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAR 


ministered  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ;  and  is  a 
visible  and  public  profession  of  faith  in 
Christ  and  his  salvation,  of  vital  union 
with  him,  of  the  obligation  to  live  a  new 
life  according  to  his  precepts  and  in  his 
service,  arid  of  the  expectation  of  sharing 
in  his  glerious  and  heavenly  immortali 
ty.  It  is  not  by  any  means  to  be  regard 
ed  as  a  regenerating  ordinance,  though 
significant  of  regeneration.  It  was  es 
tablished  in  the  Christian  church  by 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  is  binding 
on  his  followers  to  the  end  of  time.  The 
use  of  water  in  this  ordinance  is  ground 
ed  in  part  on  its  qualities  as  the  great 
element  of  purification,  and  on  the  rites 
of  the  ancient  dispensation,  in  which 
' '  water  and  blood ' '  were  the  divinely 
appointed  symbols  of  moral  renovation 
and  atonement. 

BAPTISM  "WITH  THE  HOLY  GHOST  AND 
WITH  FIRE,"  Matt.  3:11;  Luke  3:16. 
Christ  is  speaking  in  these  places  of  the 
wheat  and  the  chaff — the  men  who  re 
ceive  him  and  those  who  reject  him.  The 
former  class  shall  be  abundantly  endued 
with  the  teachings  and  consolations  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  but  "the  chaff  he  will 
burn  with  fire  unquenchable."  Many 
here  understand  "fire"  in  the  widest 
sense  of  purification  :  the  purification  of 
Christ's  people  by  the  destruction  of  the 
ungodly  from  among  them,  and  their 
purification  from  sin  by  the  discipline  to 
which  he  subjects  them.  "  He  shall  sit 
as  a  refiner's  fire." 

BARAB'BAS,  a  noted  robber  in  Christ's 
time,  who  was  imprisoned  and  awaiting 
death  for  the  crimes  of  sedition  and  mur 
der.  It  was  a  custom  of  the  Koman  gov 
ernment,  for  the  sake  of  conciliating  the 
Jews,  to  release  one  Jewish  prisoner, 
whom  they  might  choose,  at  the  yearly 
Passover.  Pilate  desired  thus  to  release 
Jesus,  but  the  Jews  demanded  Barabbas, 
Matt.  27:16-26. 

BA'RAK,  the  son  of  Abinoam,  of  Ke- 
desh  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  God  sum 
moned  him,  by  means  of  Deborah  the 
prophetess,  to  release  Israel  from  the 
yoke  of  Jabin  king  of  Canaan.  Having 
first  secured  the  attendance  of  the  proph 
etess,  he  gathered  10,000  men,  and  sta 
tioned  them  on  mount  Tabor,  perhaps  to 
avoid  the  enemies'  900  chariots  of  iron, 
Judg.  4:3.  God  fought  for  Israel  in 
the  battle  which  ensued,  and  the  song 
of  Deborah  and  Barak,  Judg.  5,  chroni 


cles  their  victory.  The  name  of  Barak 
is  enrolled  among  those  illustrious  for 
faith,  Heb.  12:82. 

BARBARIAN.  According  to  the 
Greek  idiom,  all  other  nations,  however 
!  learned  and  polite  they  might  be,  were 
I  ' '  barbarians. ' '  Hence  Paul  comprehends 
i  all  mankind  under  the  names  of  ' '  Greeks 
and  barbarians,"  Rom.  1:14.  Luke  calls 
the  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Malta, 
"barbarians,"  Acts  28  :  2,  4.  Indeed, 
' '  barbarian ' '  is  used  in  Scripture  for  ev 
ery  stranger  or  foreigner  who  does  not 
speak  the  native  language  of  the  writer, 
Psa.  114:1,  and  includes  no  implication 
whatever  of  savage  nature  or  manners  in 
those  respecting  whom  it  is  used. 
BAR-JE'SUS.  .  See  ELYMAS. 
BAR'LEY  was  sown  in  Palestine  in  au 
tumn,  and  reaped  in  the  spring,  that  ig, 
at  the  Passover.  The  Hebrews  frequent 
ly  used  barley  bread,  2  Sam.  17  : 28 ;  2 
Kin.  4:42;  John  6:9.  Barley  also  was 
much  used  as  food  for  cattle,  1  Kin.  4:28. 
BAR'NABAS,  son  of  consolation,  or  Jo- 
SES,  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  and  a  companion 
of  the  apostle  Paul.  He  was  a  Levite, 
and  a  native  of  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  and  is 
said  to  have  sold  all  his  property,  and 
laid  the  price  of  it  at  the  apostles'  feet, 
Acts  4:36,  37.  When  Paul  came  to  Je 
rusalem,  three  years  after  his  conver 
sion,  about  A.  D.  38,  Barnabas  introduced 
him  to  the  other  apostles,  Acts  9:26,  27. 
Five  years  afterwards,  the  church  at  Je 
rusalem,  being  informed  of  the  progress 
of  the  gospel  at  Antioch,  sent  Barnabas 
thither,  who  beheld  with  great  joy  the 
wonders  of  the  grace  of  God,  Acts  11 :20- 
24.  He  afterwards  went  to  Tarsus,  to 
seek  Paul  and  bring  him  to  Antioch, 
where  they  dwelt  together  two  years,  and 
great  numbers  were  converted.  They 
left  Antioch  A.  D.  45,  to  convey  alms 
from  this  church  to  that  at  Jerusalem, 
and  soon  returned,  bringing  with  them 
John  Mark,  Acts  11:28-30;  12:25. 
While  they  were  at  Antioch,  the  Holy 
Ghost  directed  that  they  should  be  set 
apart  for  those  labors  to  which  he  had 
appointed  them,  the  planting  of  new 
I  churches  among  the  Gentiles.  They  vis- 
j  ited  Cyprus  and  some  cities  of  Asia  Mi- 
'  nor,  Acts  13:2-14,  and  after  three  years 
returned  to  Antioch.  In  A.  D.  50,  he 
and  Paul  were  appointed  delegates  from 
the  Syrian  churches  to  consult  the  apos 
tles  and  elders  at  Jerusalem  respecting 
certain  questions  raised  by  Jewish  zeal- 
53 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAR 


ots ;  and  having  obtained  the  judgment 
of  the  brethren  at  Jerusalem,  they  re 
turned  with  it,  accompanied  by  Silas  and 
Barnabas.  At  Antioch  he  was  led  into 
dissimulation  by  Peter,  and  was,  in  con 
sequence,  reproved  by  Paul.  While  pre 
paring  for  a  second  missionary  tour,  Paul 
and  Barnabas  having  a  dispute  relative 
to  Mark,  Barnabas'  nephew,  they  sepa 
rated,  Paul  going  to  Asia,  and  Barnabas 
with  Mark  to  Cyprus,  Acts  13-15 ;  Gal. 
2:13.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  subse 
quent  histoiy.  There  is  a  spurious  gos 
pel,  in  Arabic,  ascribed  to  him  ;  and  an 
epistle,  treating  mainly  of  the  connec 
tion  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation  with  the 
gospel,  but  evidently  written  by  some 
other  hand.  The  name  of  Barnabas 
stands  high  in  the  annals  of  the  early 
church.  When  he  gave  all  his  estates 
to  Christ,  he  gave  himself  also,  as  his 
life  of  generous  self-devotion  and  mis 
sionary  toil  clearly  shows.  He  was  a 
beloved  fellow-laborer  with  Paul,  some 
what  as  Melancthon  was  with  Luther, 
and  a  true  "son  of  consolation"  to  the 
church. 

BARRENNESS  was  an  affliction  pe 
culiarly  lamented  throughout  the  East, 
Gen.  16:1;  30:1-23;  1  Sam.  1:6,  19; 
Isa.  47:9;  49:21;  Luke  1:25,  especially 
by  the  Jewish  women,  who  remembered 
the  promised  Messiah,  Gen.  3  :  15,  and 
hoped  for  the  honor  of  his  parentage. 
The  strength  of  this  feeling  is  evinced  by 
the  extraordinary  and  often  unjustifiable 
measures  it  led  them  to  adopt,  Gen. 
16  :  2  ;  19  :  31 ;  38  :  14  ;  Deut.  25  :  5-10. 
Professed  Christians  are  charged  with 
barrenness,  if  they  are  destitute  of  the 
fruits  of  the  Spirit,  and  do  not  abound 
in  good  works,  Luke  13:6-9  ;  2  Pet.  1:8. 

BAR'SABAS,  I.  Joseph  Barsabas,  sur- 
named  The  Just,  was  one  of  Christ's  early 
disciples,  and  probably  among  the  sev 
enty.  He  was  one  of  the  two  candidates 
nominated  to  fill  the  vacancy  left  by  Ju 
das  Iscariot  in  the  apostleship,  Acts  1. 

II.  Judas  Barsabas  was  "a  prophet," 
and  a  distinguished  member  of  the  Jeru 
salem  church.  He  was  deputed,  with 
Silas,  to  accompany  Paul  and  Barnabas 
in  a  mission  of  importance  to  the  Gentile 
converts  in  the  Syrian  churches,  Acts 
15:22-33. 

BARTHOL'OMEW,  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles,  Matt.  10:3;  Mark  3: 18;  Luke 
6:14;  Acts  1:13.  He  is  named  in  con 
nection  with  Philip,  and  seems  to  have 
54 


been  the  same  person  whom  John  calls 
Nathanael,  John  1  :  45-51,  and  mentions 
among  the  other  apostles,  John  21 :  2. 
Nathanael  may  have  been  his  real  name, 
and  Bar-tholomew,  that  is,  son  of  Tolmai, 
his  patronymic  and  best  known  name. 
See  APOSTLE  and  NATHANAEL. 

BARTIME'US,  son  of  Timeus,  a  blind 
man,  to  whom  Christ  gave  sight,  by 
the  wayside  near  Jericho,  Matt.  20:29- 
34  ;  Mark  10  :  46-52  ;  Luke  18  :  35-43. 
There  were  two  healed,  according  to 
Matthew  ;  but  Mark  and  Luke  only  men 
tion  Bartimeus,  who  bore  his  father's 
name,  as  though  of  a  well  known  fam 
ily.  There  is  an  apparent  disagreement 
as  to  the  time  of  the  occurrence,  which 
has  led  some  to  suppose  there  were  two 
cases  at  different  times,  one  as  Christ 
entered  Jericho  and  the  other  as  he  left 
it.  We  may  rather  suppose  that  Bar 
timeus  heard  the  approach  of  Christ, 
Luke  18:35,  and  learned  who  he  was  on 
the  first  day ;  and  encouraged  by  the 
mercy  of  the  Saviour  to  Zaccheus,  and 
being  joined  by  another  blind  man,  call 
ed  to  him  for  help  as  he  again  passed  by 
on  his  way  to  Jerusalem.  The  touch 
ing  narrative  of  his  steadfast  faith,  and 
Christ's  ready  compassion,  should  en 
courage  all  to  go  boldly  unto  Jesus. 

BA'RUCH,  I.,  the  son  of  Neriah,  of  a 
distinguished  family  in  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah.  He  was  the  faithful  friend  of  Jer 
emiah.  About  COS  B  c.  he  wrote  down, 
from  the  lips  of  Jeremiah,  all  the  divine 
messages  to  that  prophet,  and  subse 
quently  read  them  to  the  people,  and 
again  to  certain  princes.  These  last  took 
the  book,  and  soon  made  known  its  con 
tents  to  king  Jehoiakim,  who  impiously 
destroyed  it.  Baruch  wrote  it  down  a 
second  time  as  before,  with  some  addi 
tions,  Jer.  36.  He  is  supposed  by  some 
to  have  accompanied  his  brother  Seraiah 
to  Babylon,  with  the  predictions  of  Jer 
emiah  respecting  that  city,  Jer.  51:59- 
64.  He  afterwards  shared  the  persecu 
tions  of  the  prophet,  was  imprisoned  with 
him,  and  forced  to  go  to  Egypt  with  the 
rebellious  Jews,  Jer.  43.  After  the  death 
of  Jeremiah,  the  rabbins  say,  he  returned 
to  Babylon.  An  apocryphal  book  is  as- 
scribed  to  him. 

II.  Another  Baruch  is  mentioned 
among  the  friends  of  Nehemiah,  Neh. 
3:20;  10:6;  11:5. 

BARZILLAI,  I.,  of  Meholah  in  Sim 
eon  ;  father  of  Adriel,  who  married  Me- 


BAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BAY 


rab  the  daughter  of  Saul,  1  Sain.  18:19  ; 
2  Sam.  21:8. 

II.  An  aged  and  wealthy  Gileadite,  a 
friend  of  David  when  he  was  in  exile 
during  Absalom's  rebellion.     He  sent  a 
liberal  supply  of  provisions,  beds,  and 
other  conveniences  for  the  use  of  the 
king's  followers,  2  Sam.  17:27;    19:32. 
On  David's  return,   Barzillai  accompa 
nied  him  as  far  as  Jordan,  but  declined, 
in  consequence  of  his  great  age,  to  pro 
ceed  to  Jerusalem,  and  receive  the  favors 
the  king  had  intended  for  him.     David, 
in  his  final  charge  to  Solomon,  enjoined 
upon  him  to  show  kindness  to  Barzillai' s 
family,  and  to  make  them  members  of 
the  royal  household,  1  Kin.  2:7. 

III.  A  priest  who  married  a  daughter 
of  the  above,  Ezra  2:61 ;  Neh.  7:63. 

BA$'HAN,  fat,  fruitful,  Num.  21:33,  a 
rich  hilly  district  lying  east  of  the  Jor 
dan,  and  between  the  mountains  of  Her- 
mon  on  the  north,  and  those  of  Gilead 
and  Ammon  on  the  south.  The  country 
takes  its  name  from  its  soft  and  sandy 
soil.  It  is  celebrated  in  Scripture  for 
its  stately  oaks,  its  fine  breed  of  cattle, 
and  its  rich  pasturage:  "Rams  of  the 
breed  of  Bashan,"  Deut.  32:14;  "Rams,  I 
bulls,  goats,  all  of  them  failings  of  Ba-  i 
shan,"  Ezek.  39:18.  The  oaks  of  Ba 
shan  are  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  Isa.  2:13.  Mod 
ern  travellers  describe  the  country  as 
still  abounding  with  verdant  and  fertile 
meadows,  valleys  traversed  by  refreshing 
streams,  hills  crowned  with  forests,  and 
pastures  offering  an  abundance  to  the 
flocks  that  wander  through  them.  In 
the  time  of  Joshua,  Argob,  one  of  its 
chief  districts,  contained  sixty  walled 
towns,  Deut.  4:43;  Josh.  20:8;  21:27. 
Bashan  was  assigned,  after  the  conquest 
of  Og  and  his  people,  Josh.  12:4,  to  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  David  drew  sup-  i 
plies  from  this  region,  1  Kin.  4:13.  It 
was  conquered  by  Hazael,  but  Joash  re 
covered  it,  2  Kin.  10:33  ;  13:25.  From 
Bashan  came  the  Greek  name  Batamea, 
in  modern  Arabic  El-Bottein.  But  this 
latter  only  included  its  southern  part. 
The  ancient  Bashan  covered  the  Roman 
provinces  named  Gaulonitis,  Trachonitis, 
Auranitis,  Batancea,  and  Iturasa. 

BATH,  or  EPHAH,  a  Hebrew  measure, 
containing  seven  gallons,  four  pints,  liq 
uid  measure  ;  or  three  pecks,  three  pints, 
dry  measure. 

BATH'-SHEBA.  the  wife  of  Uriah,  and 


probably  granddaughter  of  AHITHOPHEL, 
which  see.  David  first  committed  adul 
tery  with  her,  then  caused  her  husband 
to  be  slain,  and  afterwards  took  her  to 
wife.  These  sins  displeased  Jehovah, 
who  sent  the  prophet  Nathan  to  David, 
with  the  parable  of  the  ewe  lamb,  2  Sam. 
12:1.  David  bitterly  repented,  but  was 
yet  punished,  2  Sam.  11 ;  12.  Bath-sheba 
was  the  mother  of  Solomon,  whose  suc 
cession  to  the  throne  she  took  pains  to 
secure,  1  Kin.  1:15.  She  is  afterwards 
mentioned  in  the  history  of  Adonijah, 
1  Kin.  2:13,  in  the  title  of  Psa.  51,  and 
among  the  ancestors  of  Christ,  Matt.  1 : 6. 


BATTERING-KAM   AND  TOWER. 

BATTERING-RAM,  a  military  engine 
for  battering  walls.  A  long  and  solid 
beam,  armed  at  one  end  with  a  metallic 
ram's-head,  was  suspended  by  the  mid 
dle,  and  swung  violently  and  repeatedly 
against  the  walls  of  a  city  or  castle,  till 
a  breach  was  made.  It  was  sometimes 
in  the  lower  part  of  a  wooden  tower  built 
upon  wheels,  and  was  worked  by  more 
than  a  hundred  men ;  while  the  upper 
part  of  the  tower  was  filled  with  archers 
and  slingers,  Ezek.  4:2  ;  21:22. 

BAT'TLEMENT,  a  balustrade  around 
the  roofs  of  ancient  houses,  which  were 
flat,  and  were  much  resorted  to  for  fresh 
air,  amusement,  or  retirement  by  day, 
and  for  sleep  at  night.  The  Mosaic  law 
required  a  battlement  for  each  house, 
Deut.  22:8. 

BAY-TREE.  The  bay-tree  is  the  Lau 
rel  of  North  Africa  and  the  south  of  Eu 
rope  ;  an  evergreen  tree,  a  wreath  from 
which  has  been  from  time  immemorial 
the  symbolical  crown  of  poets  and  war- 
55 


BDE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BEA 


riors.  The  word  rendered  "bay-tree" 
in  Psa.  37 : 35,  seems  to  mean  simply  a 
native  tree,  green  and  vigorous. 

BDEL'LIUM  is  commonly  supposed  to 
mean  the  aromatic  gum  of  a  tree  grow 
ing  near  the  Persian  gulf,  etc.  It  is 
transparent,  and  bitter  to  the  taste,  yet 
very  fragrant  while  burning.  But  the 
substance  so  called,  whatever  it  was,  is 
mentioned  in  connection  with  gold  and 
gems ;  while  a  gum  is  certainly  not  so 
remarkable  a  gift  of  nature  as  to  deserve 
this  classification,  or  as  that  the  produc 
tion  of  it  should  confer  on  Havilah  a  pe 
culiar  celebrity,  Gen.  2:12.  Hence  the 
opinion  of  the  Jewish  writers  is  not  to 
be  contemned,  namely,  that  pearls  are  to 
be  here  understood,  of  which  great  quan 
tities  are  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Per 
sian  gulf  and  in  India,  and  which  might 
not  inaptly  be  compared  with  manna,  as 
in  Num.  11:7. 


ORIENTAL  HEADS,  WITH  BEARDS. 

insult  it  by  word  or  act  was  the  grossest 
indignity  ;  to  take  it  respectfully  in  the 
right  hand  and  kiss  it,  was  a  mode  of 
expressing  high  esteem  and  love  permit- 


THE    SYRIAN   BEAR. 

BEAK.  That  bears  were  common  in 
Palestine  appears  from  several  passages 
in  the  Old  Testament,  1  Sam.  17:34,  36, 
37  ;  2  Sam.  17 : 8  ;  2  Kin.  2 : 24.  The  spe 
cies  known  in  Syria  resembles  the  com 
mon  brown  bear ;  it  is  still  met  in  the 
recesses  of  Lebanon.  To  a  sullen  and 
ferocious  disposition,  the  bear  joins  im 
mense  strength,  considerable  sagacity, 
and  the  power  of  climbing  trees.  Her 
ferocity,  especially  when  her  young  are 
injured,  is  proverbial.  See  2  Sam.  17:8  ; 
Prov.  17:12;  Isa.  11:7;  Hos.  13:8. 

BEARD.  The  Hebrews  regarded  a 
thin,  scanty  beard  as  a  great  deformity  ; 
while  a  long,  full,  flowing  beard  was  es 
teemed  the  noblest  ornament  of  person 
al  beauty  and  dignity.  A  man's  honor 
was  lodged,  as  it  were,  in  his  beard.  To  | 
56 


ted  only  to  the  nearest  friends.  It  was 
cherished  with  great  care,  Psa.  133 : 2 ; 
Dan.  10:3.  To  neglect,  tear,  or  cut  it, 
indicated  the  deepest  grief,  Ezra  9:3; 
Isa.  15:2;  Jer.  41:5;  48:37;  while  to 
be  deprived  of  it  was  a  mark  of  servility 
and  infamy.  Many  would  prefer  death 
to  such  a  mutilation.  These  facts  ex 
plain  many  passages  of  Scripture  :  as  the 
gross  insult  offered  to  David's  ambassa 
dors,  2  Sam.  10:4-14  ;  the  zealous  indig 
nation  of  Nehemiah,  Neh.  13  :  25 ;  the 
mode  in  which  the  feigned  insanity  of 
David  was  expressed,  1.  Sam.  21 : 13,  and 
the  grief  of  Mephibosheth,  2  Sam.  19 : 24  ; 
the  treachery  of  Joab,  2  Sam.  20:9,  and 
perhaps  of  Judas ;  also  several  passages 
in  the  prophets,  Isa.  7:20;  50:6 ;  Ezek. 
5:1-5.  See  SHAVING. 

BEASTS.  This  word,  used  in  contra 
distinction  to  man,  denotes  all  animals 
besides,  Psa.  36 : 6  ;  sometimes  it  means 
quadrupeds,  and  not  creeping  things, 


BED 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BEE 


Lev.  11  :  2-7  ;  and  sometimes  domestic 
cattle,  in  distinction  from  wild  creatures, 
Gen.  1:25.  They  were  all  brought  to 
Adam  to  be  named.  Few  are  mentioned 
in  the  Bible  but  such  as  lived  in  Pales 
tine  and  the  countries  adjacent.  Beasts 
suffer  with  man  under  the  penalties  of 
the  fall,  Gen.  3  :  14 ;  Ex.  9  :  6  ;  13  :  15  ; 
Ezek.  38  '  20 ;  Hos.  4  :  3.  Yet  various 
merciful  provisions  for  them  were  made 
in  the  Jewish  law,  Ex.  20: 10  ;  23 : 11, 12  ; 
Lev.  22:28;  25:7.  Animals  were  class 
ed  in  the  law  as  clean  or  unclean,  with 
a  primary  reference  to  animal  sacrifices, 
Gen.  7:2;  Lev.  11.  See  CLEAN. 

The  word  beasts  is  figuratively  used 
to  symbolize  various  kings  and  nations, 


Psa.  74:14  ;  Isa.  27:1 ;  Ezek.  29:3  ;  Dan. 
7,  8  ;  Rev.  12  ;  13.  It  also  describes  the 
character  of  violent  and  brutal  men,  Psa. 
22 : 12, 16  ;  1  Cor.  15 : 32  ;  2  Pet.  2 : 12.  The 
Hebrew  word  commonly  rendered  beast 
signifies  living  creatures.  In  Ezekiel's  vis 
ion,  Ezek.  1,  this  is  applied  to  human 
beings  or  their  symbols.  In  the  book 
of  Revelation  two  distinct  words  are 
employed  symbolically,  both  rendered 
"  beast "  in  our  version.  One  is  applied 
to  persecuting  earthly  powers,  Rev.  11:7; 
13  :  1,  etc.  ;  the  other  to  superhuman 
beings  or  their  symbols,  Rev.  4:6,  etc. 
This  latter  might  be  appropriately  ren 
dered,  "  living  creature,"  as  the  corre 
sponding  Hebrew  word  is  in  Ezekiel. 


AN  EASTERN   DIVAN,   OR    BED. 


BED,  in  the  East,  is,  and  was  ancient 
ly,  a  divan,  or  broad  low  step  around  the 
sides  of  a  room,  like  a  low  sofa,  which 
answered  the  purpose  of  a  sofa  by  day 
for  reclining,  and  of  a  bed  by  night  for 
sleeping,  Ex.  8:3;  2 Sam.  4:5-7.  Some 
times  it  was  raised  several  steps  above 
the  floor,  2  Kin.  1:4;  Psa.  132:4.  It  was 
covered  very  differently,  and  with  more 
or  less  ornament,  according  to  the  rank 
of  the  owner  of  the  house.  The  poor  had 
but  a  simple  mattress  or  sheep-skin ;  or 
a  cloak  or  blanket,  which  also  answered 
to  wrap  themselves  in  by  day,  Ex.  22:2"'  ; 
Deut.  24:13.  Hence  it  was  easy  for  the 
3*  • 


persons  whom  Jesus  healed,  to  take  up 
their  bed  and  walk,  Mark  4:21.  Bed 
steads,  however,  were  not  unknown, 
though  unlike  those  of  modern  times. 
See  Deut.  3:11;  1  Sam.  19  :  15 ;  Amos 
6:4.  The  Jews  only  laid  off  their  san 
dals  and  outer  garments  at  night. 

BEEL'ZEBUB,  "  the  prince  of  the  dev 
ils,"  Matt.  12:24.  This  name  is  derived 
from  Baal-zebub,  an  idol  deity  among 
the  Ekronites,  signifying  lord  of  flies, 
fly-baal,  fly-god,  whose  office  was  to  pro 
tect  his  worshippers  from  the  torment  of 
the  gnats  and  flies  with  which  that  re 
gion  was  infested,  2  Kin.  1:2,  3,  16.  It 
57 


BEE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BELI 


is  also  sometimes  written  Beel-zebul, 
which  signifies  probably  the  dung-god. 
The  Jews  seem  to  have  applied  this  -ip- 
pellation  to  Satan,  as  being  the  author 
of  all  the  pollutions  and  abominations  of 
idol-worship. 

BE'ER,  a  well,  I.,  a  station  of  the  He 
brews  in  Moab,  whe're  God  gave  them 
water,  Num.  21:16-18;  Isa.  15:8. 

II.  A  town  in  Judah,  according  to 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  a  few  miles  west 
of  Jerusalem,  near  Beth-shemesh.  Jo- 
tham  took  refuge  there  from  his  brother 
Abimelech,  Judg.  9:21. 

BE'ER-LAHAI'-ROI,  well  of  him  living, 
and  seeing  me,  on  the  south-west  border  of 
Canaan,  where  Hagar  was  visited  by  an 
angel,  Gen.  16:14. 

BEE'ROTH,  wells,  a  city  of  Benjamin, 
near  Gibeon,  Josh.  9:17  ;  2  Sam.  4:2,  3. 
It  is  now  El-Bireh,  a  village  of  700  in 
habitants,  on  a  ridge  seven  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem. 

BE'ER-SHE'BA,  the  ivell  of  the  oath,  Gen. 
21: 31;  26: 31, 33,  a  city  twenty-eight  miles 
south-west  of  Hebron,  at  the  southern  ex 
tremity  of  the  Holy  Land.  Dan  lay  at  the 
northern  extremity  ;  so  that  the  phrase, 
"from  Dan  to  Beersheba,"  means,  the 
whole  length  of  the  land,  Judg.  20 :  1. 
At  Beersheba,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob 
often  dwelt,  Gen.  21:31;  22:19;  26:23; 
28: 10 ;  46 : 1.  The  town  that  afterwards 
rose  here  was  first  assigned  to  Judah,  and 
then  to  Simeon,  Josh.  15:28  ;  19:2.  Here 
Samuel  established  his  sons  as  judges, 
1  Sam.  8 : 2.  Elijah  rested  here  on  his  way 
to  Horeb,  1  Kin.  19:3.  It  was  a  seat  of 
idolatry  in  the  time  of  Uzziah,  Amos 
5:5;  8:14.  After  the  captivity,  it  was 
repeopled  by  the  Jews,  Nch.  11:27,  30, 
and  continued  a  large  village  many  cen 
turies  after  the  coming  of  Christ.  Dr. 
Robinson  found  its  site  at  Bir-es-Seba, 
on  the  border  of  the  great  desert  south  of 
Canaan — the  ruins  of  a  small  straggling 
city,  and  two  deep  stone  wells  of  excellent 
water,  surrounded  by  stone  troughs,  and 
bearing  the  marks  of  great  antiquity. 

BEESH'TERAH,  a  Levitical  city,  in 
Manasseh  beyond  the  Jordan,  Josh. 
21 : 27.  It  is  also  called  Ashtaroth,  1  Chr. 
6:71,  and  is  perhaps  a  contraction  of 
Beth-Ashtaroth. 

BEE'TLE,  in  Lev.  11:22,  a  species  of 
locust. 

BEEVES,  cattle,  including  the  larger 
antelopes,  Lev.  22:19.    It  is  the  old  plu 
ral  of  beef.     See  CATTLE. 
58 


HIPPOPOTAMUS,   OR    BEHEMOTH. 

BEHE'MOTH,  a  huge  amphibious  ani 
mal,  described  in  Job  40 : 15-24.  Com 
mentators  are  now  generally  agreed  that 
it  is  the  hippopotamus,  or  river-horse, 
which  is  found  only  in  the  Nile  and  other 
great  rivers  of  Africa.  This  is  a  very 
large,  powerful,  and  unwieldy  animal, 
which  lives  in  the  water,  but  comes  out 
upon  the  banks  to  feed  on  grass,  grain, 
green  herbs,  and  branches  of  trees.  The 
appearance  of  the  hippopotamus  when 
on  the  land  is  altogether  uncouth,  the 
body  being  extremely  large,  flat,  and 
round,  the  head  enormously  large  in  pro 
portion,  and  the  legs  as  disproportionate 
ly  short.  The  length  of  a  male  has  been 
known  to  be  seventeen  feet,  the  height 
seven  feet,  and  the  circumference  fifteen  ; 
the  head  three  feet  and  a  half,  and  the 
girt  nine  feet ;  the  mouth  in  width  about 
two  feet.  The  general  color  of  the  ani 
mal  is  brownish ;  the  ears  small  and 
pointed  ;  the  eyes  small  and  black  ;  the 
lips  very  thick  and  broad ;  the  nostrils 
small.  The  armament  of  teeth  in  its 
mouth  is  truly  formidable  ;  more  partic 
ularly  the  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw,  which 
are  of  a  curved  form,  somewhat  cylindri 
cal:  these  are  so  strong  and  hard  that 
they  will  strike  fire  with  steel,  are  some 
times  more  than  two  feet  in  length,  and 
weigh  upwards  of  six  pounds  each.  The 
other  teeth  are  much  smaller.  The  tail 
is  short  and  thick ;  and  the  whole  body 
is  protected  by  a  thick  and  tough  hide, 
which  swords  and  arrows  cannot  pene 
trate,  thickly  covered  with  short  hair. 

Mr.  Riippell  gives  the  following  graph 
ic  account  of  a  combat  on  the  upper  Nile. 

' '  One  of  the  hippopotami  which  we 
killed  was  a  very  old  male,  and  seemed 
to  have  reached  his  utmost  growth.  He 
measured,  from  the  snout  to  the  end  of 
the  tail,  about  fifteen  feet ;  and  his  tusks, 
from  the  root  to  the  point,  along  the  ex- 


BEK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


BEN 


ternal  curve,  twenty-eight  inches.  We 
had  a  battle  with  him  four  hours  long, 
and  that  too  in  the  night.  Indeed,  he 
came  very  near  destroying  our  large 
bark ;  and  with  it,  perhaps,  all  our  lives. 
The  moment  he  saw  the  hunters  in  the 
small  canoe,  as  they  were  about  to  fasten 
the  long  rope  to  the  buoy  in  order  to 
draw  him  in,  he  threw  himself  with  one 
rush  upon  it,  dragged  it  with  him  under 
water,  and  shattered  it  to  pieces.  Out  of 
twenty-five  musket  balls,  which  were 
fired  into  the  monster's  head  at  the  dis 
tance  of  five  feet,  only  one  penetrated  the 
hide  and  the  bones  near  the  nose ;  so 
that,  every  time  he  breathed,  he  snorted 
a  stream  of  blood  upon  the  bark.  All  the 
other  balls  remained  sticking  in  the 
thickness  of  the  hide.  We  had  at  last  to 
employ  a  small  cannon  ;  but  it  was  only 
after  five  of  its  balls,  fired  at  the  distance 
of  a  few  feet,  had  mangled  most  shock 
ingly  the  head  and  body  of  the  monster, 
that  he  died.  This  gigantic  hippopota 
mus  dragged  our  large  bark  at  his  will, 
in  every  direction  of  the  stream." 

BE'KAH,  a  half-shekel;  in  weight, 
five  pennyweights ;  in  money,  about 
twenty-live  cents.  This  sum  each  Isra 
elite  over  twenty  years  old  was  to  pay  as 
a  poll-tax  for  the  temple  service,  Ex. 
80:13. 

BEL,  the  chief  idol  of  the  Babyloni 
ans.  See  BAAL. 

BE'LA,  Gen.  14:2.     See  ZOAR. 

BE'LIAL,  worthlessness,  always  so  used 
in  a  moral  sense.  A  man  or  son  of  Be 
lial  is  a  wicked,  worthless  man  ;  one  re 
solved  to  endure  no  subjection  ;  a  rebel ; 
a  -disobedient,  uncontrollable  fellow, 
Judg.  19  :  22  ;  1  Sam.  2  :  12.  In  later 
writings,  Belial  is  put  for  the  power  or 
lord  of  evil,  Satan,  2  Cor.  6:15. 

BELSHAZ'ZAR,  the  last  king  of  the 
Chaldees  at  Babylon,  B.  c.  588,  who 
made  an  impious  feast,  at  \vhich  he  and 
his  courtiers  drank  out  of  the  sacred  ves 
sels  which  had  been  carried  away  from 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchad 
nezzar  his  grandfather.  He  was  terrified 
by  the  apparition  of  the  hand  which 
m-ote  upon  the  wall ;  and  in  the  same 
night  was  slain,  and  the  city  taken  by 
the  Medes,  under  Darius  and  Cyrus,  Dan. 
6.  See  BABYLON,  MENE. 

BELTESHAZ'ZAR.  prince  of  Bel,  the 
Chaldean  name  given  to  Daniel  at  the 
court  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  Dan.  1:7; 
4:8. 


BENAI'AH,  son  of  Jehoiada,  and  com- 
mander  of  David's  body-guards.  Several 
instances  of  his  rare  bravery  are  record 
ed,  2  Sam.  8:18  ;  23:20-23.  He  adhered 
to  Solomon  when  some  favored  the  pre 
tensions  of  Adonijah,  slew  Joab  at  the 
command  of  Solomon,  and  was  made 
general  of  the  army  in  his  stead,  1  Kin. 
1:36;  2:29-3<>. 

BEN-HADAD,  I.,  a  king  of  Dama 
scene  Syria,  hired  by  Asa  king  of  Judah 
to  make  war  upon  Baasha  king  of  Isra 
el,  1  Kin.  15:18-22.  He  ravaged  a  large 
part  of  Naphtali. 

II.  Son  and  successor  of  the  preceding-, 
In  two  successive  years  he  raised  large 
armies,  and  made  war  upon  Ahab  king 
of  Israel.     He  was   utterly   routeed  by 
the  aid  of  Jehovah,  God  of  the  hills  and 
the  plains  also,  1  Kin.  20      Ahab  spared 
him,  contrary  to  the  command  of  God, 
and  gave  him  conditions  of  peace.    Thes;e 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  fulfilled ;  for 
three  years  after,  Ahab  renewed  the  war 
and  was  slain,  1  Kin.  22.     After  abo:it 
nine  years,  Ben-hadad  again  invaded  Is 
rael,  and  the  prophet  Elisha  was  instru 
mental  in  frustrating  his  plans,  2  Kin. 
6:8-23.      But  once  more  renewing  the 
war,  he  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  and  re 
duced  it  to  extremities  by  famine.     God 
sent  a  sudden  panic  upon  his  army  by 
night,  and  they  lied  precipitately,  2  Kin. 
6  : 17  ;  7:6;  Prov.   28  : 1.      Shortly  .be 
fore  his  death,   Ben-hadad,  being  sick, 
sent  Hazael  to  ask  the  prophet  Elisha, 
then  at  Damascus,  what  the  issue  would 
be.     The  prophet  answered  that  the  dis 
ease  was  not  mortal,  and  yet  he  would 
surely  die  ;  a  paradox  which  Hazael  soon 
after  solved,   by  stifling  his  master  in 
bed,  2  Kin.  8:7-15. 

III.  Son  of  the  Hazael  just  named. 
His  father  had  greatly  afflicted  and  op 
pressed  Israel ;  but  he  lost  all  that  his 
father  had  gained,  being  thrice  defeated 
by  king  Jehoash,  2  Kin.  13. 

BENJAMIN,  the  youngest  son  of  Ja 
cob  and  Rachel,  Gen.  35:16-18.  Rachel 
died  immediately  after  he  was  born,  and 
with  her  last  breath  named  him  Ben-oni, 
the  son  of  my  sorrow  ;  but  Jacob  called 
him  Benjamin,  son  of  my  right  hand. 
He  was  a  great  comfort  to  his  father, 
who  saw  in  him  the  beloved  wife  he 
had  buried,  and  Joseph  whose  loss  he 
mourned.  He  could  hardly  be  persuad 
ed  to  let  him  go  with  his  brethren  to 
Egypt,  Gen.  42 ;  43.  The  tribe  of  Ben- 
59 


BER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BET 


jarain  was  small  at  first,  and  was  almost 
exterminated  in  the  days  of  the  Judges, 
Judg.  20,  but  afterwards  greatly  increas 
ed,  2  Chr.  14:8  ;  17:17.  It  was  valiant, 
Gen.  49:27,  and  "beloved  of  the  Lord," 
dwelling  safely  by  him,  Deut.  33:12; 
for  its  territory  adjoined  Judah  and  the 
Holy  City  on  the  north.  At  the  revolt 
of  the  ten  tribes,  Benjamin  adhered  to 
the  cause  of  Judah ;  and  the  two  tribes 
ivere  ever  afterwards  closely  united, 
1  Kin.  11  : 13 ;  12  :  20 ;  Ezra  4  : 1 ;  10  :  9. 
King  Saul  and  Saul  of  Tarsus  were  both 
Benjamites,  Phil.  3:5. 

BE'RA,  king  of  Sodom  in  the  days  of 
Abraham,  Gen.  14. 

BERA'CHAH,  blessing,  a  beautiful  val 
ley  between  Tekoa  and  Etham,  where 
Jehoshaphat  and  all  Judah  held  a  thanks 
giving  for  their  miraculous  victory  over 
the  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  2  Chr. 
20:26. 

BEREA,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  not  far 
from  Pella  towards  the  south-west,  and 
near  mount  Bormius.  It  was  afterwards 
called  Irenopolis,  and  is  now  called  by 
the  Turks,  Boor ;  by  others,  Cara  Veria. 
Paul  preached  the  gospel  here  with  suc 
cess;  the  ingenuous  Bereans  examined 
his  doctrine  by  the  Old  Testament  scrip 
tures,  and  many  believed,  Acts  17:10, 
14;  20:4. 

BERNI'CE,  or  BERENI'CE,  eldest  daugh 
ter' of  king  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  and  sister 
to  the  younger  Agrippa,  Acts  25:13,  23  ; 
23:30.  She  was  first  married  to  her 
uncle  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis  ;  and  after 
his  death,  in  order  to  avoid  the  merited 
suspicion  of  incest  with  her  brother 
Agrippa,  she  became  the  wife  of  Pole- 
mon,  king  of  Cilicia.  This  connection 
being  soon  dissolved,  she  returned  to 
her  brother,  and  afterwards  became  mis 
tress  of  Vespasian  and  Titus. 

BERO'THAH,  BEROTPIAI,  a  Syrian 
town,  conquered  by  David,  2  Sam.  8:8  ; 
1  Chr.  18:8;  Ezek.  47 : 16.  Some  find  it 
in  the  modern  Bcyrout ;  but  aside  from 
the  similarity  of  the  name,  the  indica 
tions  point  to  an  inland  site,  nearer  Ha- 
math  or  Damascus. 

BER' YL,  the  name  of  a  precious  stone 
of  a  sea-green  color,  found  principally  in 
India,  Dan.  10:6;  Rev.  21:20. 

BE'SOM,  a  broom  or  brush  for  sweep 
ing.  Before  ' '  the  besom  of  destruction/ ' 
the  hosts  of  God's  enemies  are  like  the 
dust  of  the  floor,  Isa.  14:23. 

BiySOR,  a  brook  flowing  into  the  Med- 
GO 


it'erranean  five  miles  south  of  Gaza.  A 
part  of  David's  troops  in  pursuit  of  Ama- 
lekites  halted  there,  1  Sam.  30:9-21.  The 
stream  dries  up  in  spring. 

BE'TAH,  or  TIB'HATH,  a  city  of  Syria- 
Zobah,  taken  by  David,  2  Sam.  8:8; 
1  Chr.  18 :  8 ;  perhaps  the  modern  Tai- 
beh,  between  Aleppo  and  Tadmor. 

BETH,  house,  forms  a  part  of  many 
compound  names  of  places,  and  some 
times  means  the  place  or  dwelling ;  and  at 
others  the  temple.  This  word  becomes  Beti 
in  modern  Arabic. 

BETH-AB'ARA,  place  of  the  ford,  a  town 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Jordan,  where 
John  baptized,  John  1:28.  It  was  per 
haps  the  same  asBeth-barah,  Judg.  7 : 24  ; 
but  the  true  site  is  unknown.  Many  of 
the,  best  Greek  manuscripts  and  recent 
editions  have  Bethany,  also  unknown, 
instead  of  Beth-abara. 

BETHANY,  a  village  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  mount  Olivet,  about  two  miles 
east-south-east  of  Jerusalem,  and  on  the 
road  to  Jericho.  It  was  often  visited  by 
Christ,  Matt.  21  : 17  ;  Mark  11:1,  12  ; 
Luke  19:29.  Here  Martha  and  Mary 
dwelt,  and  Lazarus  was  raised  from  the 
dead,  John  11.  Here  Mary  anointed  the 
Lord  against  the  day  of  his  burying,  John 
12  ;  and  from  the  midst  of  his  disciples, 
near  this  village  which  he  loved,  he  as 
cended  to  heaven,  Matt.  24:50.  Its 
modern  name,  Aziriyeh,  is  derived  from 
Lazarus.  It  is  a  poor  village  of  some 
twenty  families. 

BETH-AR'BEL,  probably  Arbela,  now 
Irbid.  One  place  of  this  name  lay  twen 
ty-five  miles  south-east  of  the  sea  of  Gal 
ilee.  Another  was  in  Galilee,  near  Mag- 
dala.  Here  were  some  large  and  almost 
inaccessible  fortified  caverns,  in  the  sides 
of  precipices,  Hos.  10:14. 

BETH- A  YEN,  a  place  and  desert  near 
Bethel  on  the  east,  Josh.  7:2;  18:12; 
1  Sam.  13:5 ;  14:23.  It  seems  to  be  re 
proachfully  used  at  times  for  Bethel  itself, 
ifter  the  golden  calves  were  there  set  up, 
Hos.  4:15;  10 : 5  :  Beth-el  meaning  the 
house  of  God :  and  Beth-aven,  the  hqnse 
of  sin,  or  of  an  idol. 

BETH-CAR',  in  Dan,  near  Mizpeh ; 
noted  for  the  defeat  of  the  Philistines, 
and  the  Eben-Ezer  set  up  by  Samuel, 
ISam.  7:11. 

BETH'EL,  house  of  God,  the  name  of  a 
city  west  of  Hai,  on  the  confines  of  the 
:ribes  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin,  Gen. 
12:8;  28:10-22,  and  occupying  the  spot 


BET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BET 


where  Jacob  slept  and  had  his  memora 
ble  dream,  the  name  he  then  gave  it 
superseding  the  old  name  Luz,  Judg. 
1 :23.  Thirty  years  after,  he  again  pitch 
ed  his  tent  there,  Gen.  35:1-15.  It  was 
captured  by  Joshua,  and  given  to  Benja 
min,  Josh.  12:9;  18:22.  The  Ephraim- 
ites,  however,  expelled  the  Canaanites, 
Judg.  1:22-26.  Here  the  ark  of  the 
covenant,  and  probably  the  tabernacle, 
long  remained,  Judg.  20  : 26 ;  1  Sam. 
10:3.  Samuel  held  his  court  here  in 
turn,  1  Sam.  7:16.  After  Solomon,  it 
became  a  seat  of  gross  idolatry ;  Jerobo 
am  choosing  it  as  the  place  for  one  of  his 
golden  calves,  from  the  sacredness  pre 
viously  attached  to  it,  1  Kin.  12  :  29. 
The  prophets  were  charged  with  mes 
sages  against  Bethel,  1  Kin.  13  : 1,  2 ; 
Jer.  48 : 13  ;  Amos  3 : 14 ;  7 : 10.  The  first 
of  these  was  fulfilled  by  Josiah,  2  Kin. 
23 : 13  ;  and  the  others  in  the  later  deso 
lation  of  Bethel,  where  nothing  but  ruins 
can  now  be  found.  Its  site  was  identi 
fied  by  Dr.  Robinson,  in  the  place  now 
called  Beitin.  It  is  twelve  miles  from  Je 
rusalem  towards  Shechem,  on  the  south 
ern  side  of  a  hill,  with  a  narrow  and  fer 
tile  valley  on  the  east,  and  the  long- 
travelled  road  on  the  west.  At  the  bot 
tom  of  the  hill  are  the  remains  of  a  vast 
stone  reservoir,  of  an  ancient  Hebrew 
age.  See  BETIIAVEN. 

BETHES'DA,  house  of  mercy,  the  name 
of  a  pool  or  fountain  near  the  temple  in 
Jerusalem,  with  an  open  building  over 
or  near  it,  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
sick  who  came  to  try  the  healing  effica 
cy  of  the  water,  John  5:2.  Tradition 
locates  this  pool  in  what  is  now  a  large 
dry  reservoir,  along  the  outside  of  the 
north  wall  of  the  temple  area.  Robin 
son,  however,  shows  the  probability  that 
this  is  but  a  portion  of  the  trench,  which 
separated  mount  Moriah  from  the  adja 
cent  hill  on  the  north.  He  suggests  that 
the  true  Bethcsda  may  perhaps  be  ' '  The 
Fountain  of  the  Virgin,"  so  called,  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
eight  hundred  and  fifty  feet  south  of  the 
temple  area.  This. pool  is  of  great  an 
tiquity,  and  seems  to  be  fed  from  ancient 
reservoirs  under  the  temple.  Two  flights 
of  steps,  sixteen  and  thirteen  in  number, 
with  a  platform  of  twelve  feet  between 
them,  lead  down  to  the  pool ;  this  is  fif 
teen  feet  long,  and  five  or  six  feet  wide. 
Its  waters  rise  and  fall  at  irregular  in 
tervals,  and  flow  down  by  a  subterrane 


ous  channel  to  the  pool  of  Siloam.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  the  ''king's  pool"  of 
Neh.  2 : 14.  Bethesda,  even  if  known  and 
accessible  to  us,  has  lost  its  healing  pow 
er  ;  but  the  fountain  Christ  has  opened 
for  sin,  guilt,  and  death,  is  nigh  to  all  and 
of  never  failing  virtue.  See  SILOAM. 

BETH-HAC'CEREM,  conjectured  to  be 
the  Frank  mountain,  between  Tekoa  and 
Bethlehem,  Neh.  3:14;  Jer.  6:1.  This 
is  a  solitary  conical  hill,  on  which  the 
crusaders  had  a  strong  fortress. 

BETH-HOG'LAH,  a  town  of  Benjamin, 
on  the  border  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:6 ;  18:19, 
21.  Robinson  traced  this  name  at  a  place 
three  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan, 
on  the  way  to  Jericho  ;  here  was  a  fine 
grove,  watered  by  a  sweet  and  limpid  foun 
tain  the  best  in  the  valley  of  the  Jordan. 

BETH-HO'RON,  now  Beit-ur,  the  name 
common  to  two  neighboring  towns  in  the 
north-west  corner  of  Benjamin,  still  dis 
tinguished  as  the  Upper  and  the  Lower. 
These  lay  on  two  ridges,  with  valleys  on 
each  side  ;  Beth-horon  the  Nether  being 
separated  from  the  Upper  by  a  small  val 
ley,  and  a  rocky  and  rough  pass  up  the 
ridge  on  which  Upper  Beth-horon  stood. 
The  latter  was  nearest  to  Jerusalem, 
about  twelve  miles  from  it ;  and  both 
were  on  the  usual  route  to  the  seacoast. 
Down  this  pass  Joshua  drove  the  Amo- 
rites,  and  here  Paul  passed  by  night  on 
his  way  to  Antipatris,  Josh.  10  : 1-11 ; 
Acts  23: 31,  32. 

BETH-JESH'IMOTH,  a  city  of  Reuben, 
taken  from  the  Moabitcs,  Num.  33:49; 
Josh.  12 : 3  ;  13 : 20 ;  but  retaken  by  them 
after  the  captivity,  Ezek.  25:9.  It  lay 
not  far  cast  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan. 

BETH'LEHEM,  house  of  bread,  I.,  a  cel 
ebrated  city,  the  birthplace  of  David  and 
of  Christ.  It  was  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
six  miles  south  by  west  of  Jerusalem,  and 
probably  received  its  appellation  from 
the  fertility  of  the  circumjacent  country. 
This  also  gave  it  its  ancient  name  Eph- 
rath,  fruitful,  Gen.  48:7;  Mic.  5:2.  It 
was  beautifully  situated  on  an  oblong 
ridge,  twenty-seven  hundred  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  affording  a  fine 
view  in  every  direction.  The  hills  around 
it  were  terraced,  and  clothed  with  vines, 
fig-trees,  and  almonds ;  and  the  valleys 
around  it  bore  rich  crops  of  grain.  It 
was  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:6, 
but  was  comparatively  an  unimportant 
place,  Mic.  5:1,  and  is  not  mentioned  by 
Joshua  or  Nehemiah  among  the  cities  of 
61 


BET  BIBLE  DICTIONARY.  6ET 


BETHLEHEM,   AS   IT   NOW   IS. 


Judah.  Its  memory  is  delightfully  asso 
ciated  with  the  names  of  Boaz  and  Ruth  ; 
it  is  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  and  city 
of  David,  1  Sam.  17:12, 15  ;  20:6  ;  2  Sam. 
23 : 14-17  ;  but  above  all,  it  is  hallowed  as 
the  place  where  the  Redeemer  was  born. 
Over  that  lovely  spot  the  guiding  star 
hovered ;  there  the  eastern  sages  wor 
shipped  the  King  of  kings,  and  there 
where  David  watched  his  flock  and  prais 
ed  God,  wrere  heard  the  songs  of  the  an 
gelic  host  at  the  Saviour's  birth,  Luke 
2 : 8.  Bethlehem  is  now  called  Beit-lahm, 
and  contains  about  three  thousand  in 
habitants,  almost  exclusively  nominal 
Christians.  Half  a  mile  north  is  the  spot 
pointed  out  by  tradition  as  Rachel's 
tomb,  Gen.  35  : 16-20 ;  and  about  two 
miles  south-west  are  the  great  reservoirs 
described  under  SOLOMON'S  POOLS. 

II.  An  unknown  place  in  Zebulun, 
Josh.  19:15;  Judg.  12:10,  in  distinction 
from  which  the  city  of  David  was  often 
called  Bethlehem- Judah. 

BETH-NIM'RAH,  Num.  32:3,  36; 
Jo«h.  13:27,  andNiMRiM,  Isa.  15:6  ;  Jer. 
48:34;  a  town  in  Gad,  a  little  east  of 
the  Jordan,  on  a  water-course  leading, 
from  near  Ramoth-Gilead,  south-west 
into  that  river. 

62 


BETH-PE'OR,  a  town  of  Moab,  in  the 
limits  assigned  to  Reuben,  and  conquered 
from  the  Amorites,  Josh.  13:20.  It  was 
infamous  for  the  worship  of  Baal-peor. 
In  the  adjacent  valley  Moses  rehearsed 
the  law  to  Israel,  and  was  buried  Deut 
4:44-46;  34  r  6. 

BETH'PHAGE,  place  of  figs,  a  little  vil 
lage  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  mount  of 
Olives,  near  to  Bethany,  Matt.  21:1; 
Mark  11:1;  Luke  19:29. 

BETHSAI'DA,  place  of  fishing,  I.,  a  city 
in  Galilee,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth,  a  little  north  of 
Capernaum  ;  it  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
apostles  Philip,  Andrew,  and  Peter,  and 
was  often  visited  by  our  Lord,  Matt. 
11.:  21;  Mark  6: 45;  8:22. 

II.  A  city  in  Gaulonitis,  north  of  the 
same  lake,  and  east  of  the  Jordan.  Near 
this  place  Christ  fed  the  five  thousand 
It  lay  on  a  gentle  hill  near  the  Jordan, 
separated  from  the  isea  of  Galilee  by  a 
plain  three  miles  wide,  of  surpassing 
fertility,  Luke  9  :  10.  Compare  Matt. 
14:13-22  ;  Mark  6:31-45.  This  town  was 
enlarged  by  Philip,  tetrarch  of  that  re 
gion,  Luke  3:1,  and  called  Julias  in 
honor  of  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augus 
tus.  It  is  now  little  but  ruins. 


BET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BIB 


BETH-SHEAN,  or  BETH-SHAN,  more 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  Scy- 
thopolis,  was  situated  two  miles  west  of 
the  Jordan,  at  the  extremity  of  the  val 
ley  of  Jezreel,  an  arm  of  the  great  plain 
of  Esdrselon,  running  down  from  it  to 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan  in  a  south-east 
erly  direction.  It  stood  on  the  brow, 
just  where  the  former  valley  drops  down 
by  a  rather  steep  descent  to  the  level  of 
the  latter.  Bethshean  was  assigned  to 
Manasseh,  though  not  at  once  subdued, 
Josh.  17:11,  16;  Judg.  1:27.  The  dead 
body  of  Saul  was  fastened  to  its  walls, 
ISam.  31:10,  12 ;  2  Sam.  21:12;  1  Kin. 
4 :  12.  The  place  is  now  called  Beisan, 
and  is  about  twenty-four  miles  south  of 
Tiberias.  The  present  village  contains 
seventy  or  eighty  houses,  the  inhabit 
ants  of  which  are  in  a  miserable  condi 
tion,  owing  to  the  depredations  of  the 
Bedaween.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city 
are  of  considerable  extent,  along  the 
banks  of  the  rivulet  which  ran  by  it,  and 
on  the  side  of  the  valley ;  and  bespeak 
it  to  have  been  nearly  three  miles  in  cir 
cuit. 

BETH-SHE'MESH,  house  of  the  sun,  I.,  a 
city  of  Judah  given  to  the  priests,  Josh. 
21:10;  1  Chr.  6:59;  1  Sam.  6:15.  It 
lay  fifteen  miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  near 
the  border  of  Dan  and  of  the  Philistines, 
Josh.  15:10;  1  Sam.  6:12.  Probably  the 
same  as  Irshemesh,  Josh.  19:41.  It  is 
memorable  for  a  battle  between  Judah 
and  Israel,  in  which  Amaziah  was  de 
feated,  2  Kin.  14  :  12-14 ;  and  for  the 
return  of  the  ark  from  among  the  Phil 
istines,  and  the  punishment  of  those 
who  then  profaned  it,  1  Sam.  6.  There 
is  reason  to  suppose  the  numbers  in  ver. 
19  should  be  translated  "threescore  and 
ten  men,  even  fifty  out  of  one  thousand," 
or  one  in  two  hundred  of  the  men  of  the 
city. 

II.  A  celebrated  city  in  Egypt,  Jer. 
43 : 13.  See  HELIOPOLIS. 

BETHU'EL,  son  of  Abraham's  uncle 
Nahor,  and  father  of  Rebekah,  Gen. 
22:22,  23;  24:50. 

BETH-ZUR',  a  city  in  the  hill  country 
of  Judah,  near  Hebron,  Josh.  15:58.  It 
was  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11:7, 
and  assisted  in  rebuilding  Jerusalem, 
Neh.  3:16.  Josephus  calls  it  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Judea ;  but  its  site 
has  not  yet  been  identified. 

BETROTH'ING,  the  engagement  of  a 
man  and  woman  to  marry  each  other  at 


a  future  time.  Parents  anciently  often 
betrothed  their  daughters  without  their 
consent,  and  even  while  very  young, 
as  is  still  the  case  in  oriental  countries. 
Sometimes  a  regular  written  contract 
was  made,  in  which  the  bridegroom 
bound  himself  to  give  a  certain  sum  as 
a  portion  to  his  bride.  The  marriage 
was  not  completed  until  the  bride  was 
at  least  twelve  years  old ;  yet  the  be 
trothal  could  be  dissolved  only  by  divorce 
or  death,  Matt.  1  :  18-25 ;  Luke  2  :  27. 
God  speaks  of  betrothing  his  people  to 
himself,  in  bonds  of  tender  affection, 
and  pledging  his  word  that  all  his  gra 
cious  promises  will  be  fulfilled  to  them, 
Jer.  2:2;  Hos.  2:19,  20.  Of  this,  min 
isters  are  the  instruments,  through  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel,  2  Cor.  11  :  2. 
Hence  the  following  word, 

BEU'LAH,  married,  a  term  applied  to 
the  Israel  of  God,  in  Isa.  62:4,  to  signify 
his  intimate  and  vital  union  with  them. 

BEZALEEL,  an  artificer,  endued  by 
God  with  special  skill  for  constructing 
and  adorning  the  tabernacle,  Ex.  31:2; 
35:30. 

BE'ZEK,  a  city  of  the  Canaanites,  of 
which  Adoni-zedek  was  king.  The  ac 
count  of  its  capture  by  Judah  is  in  Judg. 
1:1-8.  Here  Saul  reviewed  his  forces, 
before  going  to  raise  the  siege  of  Jabesh- 
gilead,  1  Sam.  11:8. 

BE'ZER,  a  city  of  refuge,  in  the  plain 
country  of  Reuben  beyond  Jordan.  Its 
exact  site  is  not  known,  Deut.  4  :  43 ; 
Josh.  20:8;  21:36. 

BIBLE.  This  word  signifies  the  Book, 
by  way  of  distinction,  the  Book  of  all 
books.  It  is  also  called  Scripture,  or  the 
Scriptures,  that  is,  the  writings.  It 
comprises  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
or  more  properly,  Covenants,  Ex.  24:7; 
Matt.  26:28.  The  former  was  written 
mostly  in  Hebrew,  and  was  the  Bible  of 
the  ancient  Jewish  church  ;  a  few  chap 
ters  of  Daniel  and  Ezra  only  were  writ 
ten  in  Chaldee.  The  latter  was  wholly 
written  in  Greek,  which  was  the  lan 
guage  most  generally  understood  in  Ju 
dea  and  the  adjacent  countries  first  vis 
ited  by  the  gospel.  The  entire  Bible  is 
the  rule  of  faith  to  all  Christians,  and 
not  the  New  Testament  alone ;  though 
this  is  of  especial  value  as  unfolding  the 
history  and  doctrines  of  our  divine  Re 
deemer  and  of  his  holy  institutions.  The 
fact  that  God  gave  the  inspired  writings 
to  men  in  the  languages  most  familiar 
63 


BIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BIB 


to  the  mass  of  the  people  who  received 
them,  proves  that  he  intended  they 
should  be  read  not  by  the  learned  alone, 
but  by  all  the  people,  and  in  their  own 
spoken  language. 

The  Old  Testament  contains  thirty- 
nine  books.  Josephus  and  the  church 
fathers  mention  a  division  into  twenty- 
two  books,  corresponding  with  the  twen 
ty-two  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 
But  we  have  no  sufficient  evidence  that 
such  a  division  obtained  among  the  Jews 
themselves.  They  arranged  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  three  divisions, 
called,  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the 
Writings,  that  is,  the  Holy  Writings. 
The  Law  embraces  the  five  books  of 
Moses.  These  are  divided  into  conven 
ient  sections  to  be  read  through  once  a 
year  in  their  synagogues.  The  second 
division,  the  Prophets,  is  subdivided  into 
the  former  prophets,  namely,  the  histor 
ical  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel, 
and  Kings ;  and  the  later,  that  is,  the 
prophets  proper,  with  the  exception  of 
the  book  of  Daniel.  The  later  prophets 
are  once  more  distributed  into  the  great 
er —  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  (not  including 
Lamentations,)  and  Ezekiel ;  and  the 
less — the  twelve  minor  prophets.  Selec 
tions  from  both  the  earlier  and  the  later 
prophets  are  read  in  the  synagogues 
along  with  the  sections  of  the  Law ;  but 
these  do  not  embrace  the  whole  of  the 
prophets,  and  the  arrangement  of  them 
differs  among  different  divisions  of  the 
Jews.  The  Holy  Writings  (Hagiogra- 
pha)  embrace  all  the  remaining  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  namely,  (accord 
ing  to  the  Masoretic  arrangement,) 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Canticles,  Ruth, 
Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  Esther,  Dan 
iel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Chronicles.  In  the 
arrangement  of  the  Old  Testament  books 
now  prevalent,  the  historical  books  come 
iirst,  then  the  devotional  and  didactic, 
and  lastly  the  prophetical.  The  Jews 
ascribe  to  Ezra  the  honor  of  arranging 
and  completing  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  books,  being  inspired  for  this 
work  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  aided  by 
the  learned  and  pious  Jews  of  his  day. 
The  New  Testament  writings  were  re 
ceived  each  one  by  itself  from  the  hands 
of  the  apostles,  and  were,  as  their  inspir 
ed  works,  gradually  collected  into  one 
volume  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others. 

The  division  into  chapters  and  verses 
was  not  made  until  comparatively  mod- 
64 


ern  times,  though  there  appears  to  have 
been  a  more  ancient  separation  into 
short  sections  or  paragraphs.  The  chap 
ters  now  used  were  arranged  probably 
by  Cardinal  Hugo,  about  the  year  1240. 
The  division  into  verses  was  made  in  the 
Old  Testament  in  1450,  and  recognized  in 
the  Hebrew  Concordance  of  Rabbi  Na 
than.  The  arrangement  of  the  verses  of 
the  New  Testament  as  we  now  have 
them  was  perfected  in  the  Latin  Vulgate, 
an  edition  of  which  with  verses  was  pub 
lished  by  Robert  Stephens,  a  learned 
French  printer,  in  1551.  He  also  mod 
ified  and  completed  the  division  of  the 
Old  Testament  into  verses,  in  an  edition 
of  the  whole  Bible,  the  Vulgate,  in  1555. 
This  division  into  verses,  and  even  into 
chapters,  having  regard  more  to  conven 
ience  of  refereneis  than  to  the  meaning, 
must  often  be  disregarded  in  reading  in 
order  to  get  the  true  sense. 

The  genuineness,  authenticity,  and 
divine  origin  of  the  Scriptures  cannot  be 
here  discussed.  The  reader  is  referred 
to  the  treatises  of  Bogue,  Gregory,  Keith, 
Mcllvaine,  Nelson,  Spring,  etc.,  pub 
lished  by  the  American  Tract  Society, 
and  numerous  other  valuable  and  stand 
ard  works. 

The  first  well-known  English  transla 
tion  of  the  New  Testament  was  that  of 
Wiclifle,  made  about  1370,  before  the  in 
vention  of  printing  ;  though  others  had 
been  made,  one  as  early  as  king  Alfred, 
of  parts  of  the  Bible  into  Saxon.  In  the 
time  of  Edward  I.,  1250,  it  required  the 
earnings  of  a  day-laborer  for  fifteen  years 
to  purchase  a  manuscript  copy  of  the  en 
tire  Bible.  Now,  a  printed  copy  may  be 
had  for  the  earnings  of  a  few  hours.  The 
iirst  printed  English  Testament  was  that 
of  Tyndal,  in  1526,  which  was  afterwards 
followed  by  his  translation  of  the  Penta 
teuch.  The  first  complete  English  Bible 
is  that  of  Myles  Coverdale,  in  1535.  Mat 
thew's  Bible  appeared  in  1537.  Cover- 
dale  and  some  other  prelates,  who  resid 
ed  at  Geneva  during  the  bloody  reign  of 
Mary,  published  there  another  edition  in 
1560,  hence  called  the  Geneva  Bible.  At 
the  accession  of  queen  Elizabeth  a  new 
revision  was  made,  which  appeared  in 
1568,  and  is  called  the  Bishop's  Bible. 
This  continued  in  use  till  our  present 
English  version,  made  by  order  of  James 
I.,  was  published  in  1611.  The  first  copy 
of  this  was  made  by  forty-seven  of  the 
most  learned  men  in  England,  divided 


BIG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BIR 


into  six  companies.  Tins  first  copy  was 
then  revised  by  a  committee  of  twelve, 
or  two  from  each  of  the  six  companies ; 
and  then  again  by  two  others.  The  work 
of  translation  and  revision  occupied  be 
tween  four  and  five  years  ;  and  the  faith 
ful,  clear,  and  vigorous  standard  Bible 
thus  secured,  is  an  enduring  monument 
of  the  learning,  wisdom,  and  fidelity  of 
the  translators. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  move 
ments  of  modern  times,  and  that  which 
holds  out  the  greatest  promise  of  good 
for  the  coming  triumphs  of  the  Redeem 
er's  kingdom,  and  the  temporal  as  well 
as  spiritual  welfare  of  future  generations, 
is  the  mighty  effort  which  is  making  to 
circulate  the  holy  Scriptures,  not  only  in 
Christian,  but  also  in  heathen  lands.  In 
the  year  1804,  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  was  formed  ;  and  the  suc 
cess  which  has  attended  this  glorious  ob 
ject  has  by  far  exceeded  the  most  san 
guine  expectations  of  its  founders  and 
supporters.  ' '  Their  voice  has  gone  out 
through  all  the  earth,  and  their  words 
to  the  end  of  the  world."  During  the 
first  fifty  years  of  this  society,  it  printed 
or  assisted  in  printing  the  Scriptures  in 
148  languages,  in  about  sixty  of  which 
they  had  never  before  been  printed,  and 
issued  upwards  of  29,000,000  copies  of 
the  sacred  writings.  The  Scriptures  have 
now  been  published  in  about  220  differ 
ent  languages  and  dialects.  Other  simi 
lar  associations  have  followed  nobly  this 
glorious  example  ;  and  of  these  none  has 
labored  with  more  effect  than  the  Amer 
ican  Bible  Society,  which  was  formed  in 
1816,  and  has  now,  1859,  issued  thirteen 
millions  of  Bibles  and  Testaments. 

BIG'THAN,  a  eunuch  at  the  court  of 
Ahasuerus,  whose  conspiracy  against  that 
king  was  frustrated  by  the  vigilance  of 
Mordecai,  Esther  2:21. 

BIL'DAD,  a  descendant  of  Abraham 
by  Keturah,  Gen.  25:1,  2.  Shuah  and 
his  brethren  were  located  in  Arabia  Pe- 
trasa ;  and  thus  Bildad  the  Shuhite  was 
a  neighbor  and  friend  of  Job,  and  came 
to  condole  with  him  in  his  affliction,  Job 
2:11 ;  8  ;  18  ;  25.  His  chief  topics  are, 
the  suddenness,  swiftness,  and  terrible- 
ness  of  God's  wrath  upon  hypocrites  and 
oppressors. 

BIL'HAH,  the  handmaid  of  Rachel; 
given  by  her  to  her  husband  Jacob  when 
herself  childless,  that  she  might  become 
a  mother  through  her  handmaid.  Bil- 


hah  was  the  mother  of  Dan  and  Naph« 
tali,  Gen.  30:1-8. 

BIRDS,  like  other  animals,  were  di 
vided  by  Moses  into  clean  and  unclean; 
the  former  might  be  eaten,  the  latter 
not.  The  general  ground  of  distinction 
is,  that  those  which  feed  on  grain  or 
seeds  are  clean ;  while  those  which  de 
vour  flesh,  fish,  or  carrion,  are  unclean. 
Turtledoves,  young  pigeons,  and  per 
haps  some  other  kinds  of  birds,  were 
prescribed  in  the  Mosaic  law  as  offerings, 
Lev.  5:7-10;  14:4-7;  Luke  2:24. 

There  is  great  difficulty  in  accurately 
determining  the  different  species  of  birds 
prohibited  in  Levit.  11:13-19;  Deut. 
14:11-20,  and  the  proper  version  of  the 
Hebrew  names.  The  information  we 
have  respecting  them  may  be  found 
under  the  names  by  which  they  are 
translated  in  our  Bible. 

Moses,  to  inculcate  humanity  on  the 
Israelites,  ordered  them,  if  they  found  a 
bird's  nest,  not  to  take  the  dam  with  the 
young,  but  to  suffer  the  old  one  to  fly 
away,  and  to  take  the  young  only,  Deut. 
22:6,  7. 

Cages  for  singing-birds  are  alluded  to 
in  Jer.  5 : 27  ;  and  snares  in  Prov.  7 : 23  ; 
Eccl.  9:12.  Birds  of  prey  are  emblems 
of  destroying  hosts,  Isa.  46  :  11 ;  Jer. 
12:9;  Ezek.  32:4;  Rev.  19:17-19;  and 
the  Lord  comes  to  the  defence  of  his  peo 
ple  with  the  swiftness  of  the  eagle,  Isa. 
31:5. 

BIRTH'RIGHT,  the  privilege  of  the 
first-born  son.  Among  the  Hebrews,  as 
indeed  among  most  other  nations,  the 
first-born  enjoyed  particular  privileges ; 
and  wherever  polygamy  was  tolerated, 
it  was  highly  necessary  to  fix  them, 
Deut.  21  :  15-17.  Besides  the  father's 
chief  blessing,  Gen.  27,  and  various  mi 
nor  advantages,  the  first-born  son  was, 
first,  specially  consecrated  to  the  Lord, 
Ex.  13:11-16;  22:29  ;  and  the  first-born 
son  of  a  priest  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  priestly  office.  Among  the  sons  of 
Jacob,  Reuben  the  first-born  forfeited 
the  right  of  the  first-born,  Gen.  35:22; 
49:3,  4,  and  God  gave  it  to  Levi,  Num. 
3 : 12,  13  ;  8:18.  Secondly,  the  first-born 
was  entitled  to  a  share  of  his  father's 
estate  twice  as  large  as  any  of  the  other 
brethren  received,  Deut.  21:17.  Third 
ly,  he  succeeded  to  the  official  digni 
ties  and  rights  of  his  father,  2  Chr.  21:3. 
In  some  of  these  privileges  there  is  an 
allusion  to  Him  who  is  "the  first-born 
65 


BIS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BLA 


among  many  brethren,"  Rom.  8:29; 
Col.  1:18;  Heb.  1:2-6.  Universal  do 
minion  is  his,  and  an  everlasting  priest 
hood.  See  FIRST-BORN. 

BISH'OP,  an  overseer,  one  who  has  the 
charge  and  direction  of  any  thing.  The 
most  common  acceptation  of  the  word  in 
the  New  Testament,  is  that  which  occurs 
Acts  20:28;  Phil.  1:1,  where  it  signifies 
the  pastor  of  a  church.  Peter  calls  Jesus 
Christ  "the  Shepherd  and  Bishop  of  your 
souls,"  1  Pet.  2:25.  Paul  describes  the 
qualities  requisite  in  bishops,  1  Tim.  3:2  ; 
Tit.  1  :  7,  etc. ;  Christ  himself  is  their 
great  exemplar. 


BIT'TERN,  a  fowl  about  the  size  ot  a 
heron,  and  of  the  same  genus.  Nineveh 
and  Babylon  became  a  possession  for  ' '  the 
bittern"  and  other  wild  birds,  Isa.  14:23  ; 
34:11;  Zeph.  2:14.  According  to  some 
critics,  the  more  probable  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  word  is  hedge-hog,  or  porcupine; 
and  Mr.  Rich  says  he  found  ' '  great  quan 
tities"  of  porcupine  quills  among  the 
ruins  of  Babylon  ;  but  others  think  this 
inconsistent  with  Zeph.  2:14,  and  under 
stand  the  word  as  referring  to  the  com 
mon  night-heron,  a  bird  like  the  bittern 
found  among  the  marshes  of  Western 
Asia,  resorting  to  ruined  buildings,  and 
uttering  a  peculiar  harsh  cry  before  and 
after  its  evening  flight. 
66 


BITHYN'IA,  1  Pet.  1:1,  a  province  in 
the  northern  part  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
shore  of  the  Black  sea,  having  Paphla- 
gonia  on  the  east,  Phrygia  and  Galatia 
on  the  south,  and  Mysia  on  the  south 
west.  It  was  directly  opposite  to  Con 
stantinople.  It  is  famous  as  being  one 
of  the  provinces  to  which  the  apostle 
Peter  addressed  his  first  epistle  ;  also  as 
having  been  under  the  government  of 
Pliny,  who,  in  a  letter  to  the  emperor 
Trajan,  makes  honorable  mention  of  the 
number,  character,  and  customs  of  the 
persecuted  Christians  there,  about  A.  D. 
106  ;  also  for  the  holding  of  the  most 
celebrated  council  of  the  Christian  church 
in  the  city  of  Nice,  its  metropolis,  about 
A.  D.  325.  It  may  be,  with  some  justice, 
considered  as  a  province  taught  by  Peter ; 
and  we  read  that  when  Paul  attempted  to 
go  into  Bithynia,  the  Spirit  suffered  him 
not,  Acts  16:7. 

BLAINS,  Ex.  9:8-10,  burning  ulcerous 
eruptions,  miraculously  caused  by 
the  ashes  which  Moses  threw  up 
among  the  Egyptians.  If  these  ash 
es  came  from  the  brick-kilns  where 
the  Hebrews  had  toiled,  the  pains 
which  the  Egyptians  suffered  would 
naturally  remind  them  of  those 
•which  they  had  inflicted. 

BLAS'PHEMY.  A  man  is  guilty 
of  blasphemy,  when  he  speaks  of 
God,  or  his  attributes,  injuriously ; 
when  he  calumniously  ascribes  such 
qualities  to  him  as  do  not  belong  to 
him,  or  robs  him  of  those  which  do. 
The  law  sentenced  blasphemers  to 
death,  Lev.  24:12-16.  In  a  lower 
sense,  men  are  said  to  be  blasphemed 
'when  abused  by  calumnious  and  re 
viling  words,  1  Kin.  21 : 10 ;  Acts6: 11. 
BLASPHEMY  AGAINST  THE  HOLY  GHOST, 
Matt.  12:31,  32;  Mark  3:28;  Luke 
12:10.  This  sin  was  committed  by  the 
Pharisees  when  they,  in  violation  of  their 
own  convictions,  wilfully  and  malicious 
ly  ascribed  the  miracles  of  the  Son  of  God 
and  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the 
evil  one.  It  is  often  inquired  whether 
this  was  the  "sin  unto  death"  spoken 
of  1  John  5.16,  and  whether  it  is  com 
mitted  in  these  days.  However  these 
questions  may  be  answered,  certain  it  is 
that  when  one  can  ridicule  religion  and 
its  ordinances,  when  he  can  make  sport 
with  the  work  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  tho 
human  heart,  when  he  can  persist  in  a 
wilful  disbelief  of  the  Gospel,  and  cast 


BLA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BLO 


contempt  upon  Christianity  and  "the 
ministration  of  the  Spirit,"  he  is  go 
ing  to  a  fearful  extremity  of  guilt,  and 
provoking  the  final  withdrawment  of 
divine  grace.  While  on  the  other  hand 
the  vilest  blasphemer,  who  feels  the  re- 
lentings  of  godly  sorrow  for  his  sins,  and 
.the  desire  to  confess  them  at  the  Sav 
iour's  feet,  may  be  sure  of  realizing  the 
truth  of  Christ's  word.  "Him  that  com- 
eth  unto  me  I  will  in  no  wise  cast  out." 

BLAS'TUS,  a  chamberlain  of  Herod 
Agrippa,  bribed  to  favor  the  men  of  Tyre 
andSidon,  Acts  12:20. 

BLEM'ISHES,  imperfections  or  de 
formities  which  unfitted  men  for  the 
priesthood,  and  animals  for  sacrifice.  Of 
these  we  have  a  particular  enumeration 
in  Lev.  21  : 18-20 ;  22  ;  20-24.  In  this 
provision  of  the  law  there  was  an  allu 
sion  to  the  great  High-priest  of  our  pro 
fession,  who  offered  himself  without  spot 
to  God. 

BLESS'ING  is  referred  both  to  God  and 
to  man.  When  God  blesses,  he  bestows 
that  efficacy  which  renders  his  blessing 
effectual.  His  blessings  are  either  tem 
poral  or  spiritual,  bodily  or  mental ;  but 
in  every  thing  they  really  convey  the 
good  which  they  import,  Num.  6:23-27. 
The  blessings  of  men  to  other  men,  un 
less  they  be  inspired  prophecies,  as  in 
Gen.  32,  49;  Deut.  33,  are  only  good 
wishes,  personal  or  official,  and  as  it 
were  a  peculiar  kind  of  prayer  to  the 
Author  of  all  good  for  the  welfare  of  the 
subject  of  them.  Blessing,  on  the  part 
of  man  towards  God,  is  an  act  of  thanks 
giving  for  his  mercies,  Psa.  103:1;  or 
rather,  for  that  special  mercy  which  at 
the  time  occasions  the  act  of  blessing  : 
as  for  food,  for  which  thanks  are  ren 
dered  to  God,  or  for  any  other  good, 
Psa.  116:13;  1  Cor.  10:16. 

BLIND'NESS.  This  distressing  mala 
dy  is  very  prevalent  in  the  East.  Many 
physical  causes  in  those  countries  unite 
to  injure  the  organs  of  vision.  The  sun 
is  hot,  and  in  the  atmosphere  floats  a 
very  fine  dust,  which  enters  and  frets  the 
eye.  The  armies  of  France  and  Eng 
land,  which  were  so  long  in  Egypt  dur 
ing  the  French  war,  suffered  severely 
from  ophthalmic  disease.  In  the  cities 
of  Egypt,  blindness  is  perpetuated  as  a 
contagious  disease  by  the  filthy  habits 
of  the  natives.  It  is  of  frequent  occur 
rence  also  on  the  coast  of  Syria.  In  an 
cient  times,  the  eyes  of  persons  hated  or 


feared  were  often  torn  out,  Judg.  16 : 21 ; 
1  Sam.  11  :  2  ;  2  Kin.  25  :  7.  Blindness 
was  sometimes  inflicted  as  a  punishment, 
Gen.  19 : 1 1 ;  Acts  13:6;  and  it  was  often 
threatened  as  a  penalty,  Deut.  28  :  28. 
The  Jews  were  enjoined  by  the  humane 
laws  of  Moses  to  show  all  kindness  and 
consideration  to  the  blind,  Lev.  19:14; 
Deut.  27 : 18.  No  one  affected  with  this 
infirmity  could  officiate  as  priest,  Lev. 
21:18. 

Our  Saviour  miraculously  cured  many 
cases  of  blindness;  both  that  which  was 
caused  by  disease  and  that  which  had 
existed  from  birth.  In  these  cases  there 
was  a  double  miracle  ;  for  not  only  was 
the  organ  of  sight  restored,  but  also  the 
faculty  of  using  it,  which  is  usually  gain 
ed  only  by  long  experience,  Mark  8. '22- 
25.  The  touching  of  the  eyes  of  the 
blind,  and  anointing  them  with  clay, 
Matt.  9:29  ;  John  9:6,  can  not  have  had 
any  medicinal  or  healing  effect.  The 
healing  was  miraculous,  by  the  power  of 
God. 

"Blindness"  is  often  used  for  igno- 
/ance  and  error,  especially  our  sinful 
want  of  discernment  as  to  spiritual 
things,  Matt.  15:14;  2  Cor.  4:4.  The 
abuse  of  God's  mercy  increases  this 
blindness,  John  12:40.  Blessed  are  the 
eyes  that  fix  their  adoring  gaze  first  of 
all  on  their  Redeemer. 

BLOOD.  The  life  of  all  animals  was 
regarded  as  especially  in  the  blood,  which 
was  a  sacred  and  essential  part  of  the 
sacrifices  offered  to  God,  Heb.  9:22.  It 
was  solemnly  sprinkled  upon  the  altar 
and  the  mercy -seat,  "for  it  is  the  blood 
that  maketh  atonement  for  the  soul," 
Lev.  17— the  life  of  the  victim  for  the 
life  of  the  sinner.  It  was  therefore  most 
sacredly  associated  with  the  blood  of  the 
Lamb  of  God,  which  ' '  cleanseth  us  from 
all  sin,"  Eph.  1:7  ;  1  John  1:7.  Hence 
the  strict  prohibition  of  the  Israelites  to 
eat  blood,  or  any  meat  in  which  blood 
remained ;  a  prohibition  renewed  in  Acts 
15:29.  In  direct  opposition  to  this  are 
the  heathen  customs  of  drinking  the 
blood  of  animals  and  even  of  men — of 
eating  raw  flesh,  with  the  blood,  and  even 
fresh  cut  from  the  living  animal,  1  Sam. 
14:32;  Psa.  16:4;  Ezek.  33:25. 

Besides  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the 
word  blood,  it  often  signifies  the  guilt  of 
murder,  2  Sam.  3:28;  Acts  27: 25;  also 
relationship  or  consanguinity.  "Flesh 
and  blood ' '  are  placed  in  contrast  with  a 
67 


BLO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BOO 


spiritual  nature,  Matt.  16 : 17,  the  glorified 
body,  1  Cor.  15:50,  and  evil  spirits,  Eph. 
6:12.  The  cause  "between  blood  and 
blood,"  Deut.  17 :8,was  one  where  life  was 
depending  on  the  judgment  rendered. 

BLOOD-AVEN'GER.  The  sacredness- 
of  human  life,  and  the  justice  of  punish 
ing  a  murderer  by  death,  are  grounded 
on  the  fact  that  man  was  made  in  the 
image  of  God,  Gen.  9:6.  With  justice, 
the  passion  for  revenge  often  conspired 
to  secure  the  death  of  the  criminal. 
Among  the  Arabs,  the  nearest  male  rela 
tive  of  a  murdered  person  was  to  pursue 
the  homicide  until  by  force  or  craft  he 
put  him  to  death .  The  law  of  Moses  ex 
pressly  forbade  the  acceptance  of  any 
ransom  for  a  life  thus  forfeited,  Num. 
35:31 ;  but  it  interfered  between  an  ac 
cused  person  and  his  pursuer,  by  pro 
viding  a  sanctuary — at  the  altar  of  God 
and  in  the  cities  of  refuge — where  the 
accused  might  be  safe  until  it  was  proved 
that  he  had  committed  the  act,  wilfully 
or  accidentally,  Josh.  20:6,  9.  In  the 
former  case,  he  was  at  once  given  up  to 
his  pui'suer  for  death,  Ex.  21 : 14  ;  1  Kin.» 
2:29,  34.  In  the  latter  case,  he  might 
dwell  with  safety  in  the  city  of  refuge ; 
but  should  he  go  elsewhere  before  the 
death  of  the  high-priest,  he  was  liable 
to  be  slain  by  the  avenger  of  blood,  Num. 
35:25-28.  See  REFUGE. 

BLUE      See  PURPLE. 

BOANER'GES,  sons  of  thunder,  a  name 
given  by  our  Saviour  to  James  and  John 
the  sons  of  Zebedee,  Mark  3:17,  perhaps 
on  account  of  their  power  as  preachers. 
Some  suppose  it  Avas  given  on  the  occa 
sion  of  their  request  that  Christ  would 
call  for  fire  from  heaven,  and  destroy  a 
village  of  the  Samaritans,  which  had  re 
fused  to  entertain  them,  Luke  9 '53,  54. 


BOAR.    The  wild  boar  is  considered 
as  the  parent  stock  of  the  common  hog. 
He  is  a  furious  and  formidable  animal. 
68 


The  tusks  are  larger  and  stronger  than 
in  the  tame  herds.  The  color  is  iron- 
grey,  inclining  to  black.  His  snout  is 
long,  and  his  ears  are  short.  At  present 
wild  boars  frequent  the  marshes  around 
the  upper  Jordan,  and  have  been  found 
on  mount  Carmel,  and  in  large  herds 
near  the  sea  of  Tiberias.  They  were  fre 
quent  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  Rich 
ard  Coeur  de  Lion  encountered  one,  ran 
him  through  with  a  lance,  and  while  the 
animal  was  still  endeavoring  to  gore  his 
horse,  leaped  over  him,  and  slew  him 
with  his  sword.  The  destructive  rav 
ages  of  the  animal  are  referred  to  in  Psa. 
80:13. 

BOAZ,  Ruth  2 :  1,  a  wealthy  Bethle- 
hemite,  a  descendant  of  Judah,  through 
whom  is  traced  the  regular  succession  of 
Jewish  kings,  Matt.  1:5.  His  conduct 
in  the  case  of  Ruth  proves  him  to  have 
been  a  man  of  fine  spirit  and  of  strict 
integrity.  He  admitted  the  claim  which 
Ruth  had  upon  him  as  a  near  kinsman  : 
under  the  obligations  of  the  Levitical 
law,  he  married  the  poor  gleaner,  and 
thus  became  one  of  the  ancestors  of  Da 
vid,  and  also  of  David's  Son  and  Lord. 
He  was  the  father  of  Obed,  Obed  was  the 
father  of  Jesse,  and  Jesse  of  David.  The 
whole  narrative  is  a  beautiful  picture  of 
the  simplicity  of  the  age,  when  artificial 
courtesies  had  not  usurped  the  place  of 
natural  and  sincere  expressions  of  love. 

BOAZ  was  also  the  name  of  one  of  the 
two  brazen  pillars  which  Solomon  erect 
ed  in  the  porch  of  the  temple,  the  other 
being  called  JACHIN.  These  columns 
were  about  thirty-five  feet  high,  1  Kin. 
7:15,  16,  21. 

BO'CHIM,  weepings,  a  place  near  Gil- 
gal,  where  the  angel  of  the  Lord  reprov 
ed  Israel  for  their  remissness,  Judg. 
2:1-5. 

BOOK.  Several  sorts  of  materials  were 
anciently  used  in  making  books.  Plates 
of  lead  or  copper,  the  bark  of  trees,  brick, 
stone,  and  wood,  were  originally  em 
ployed  to  engrave  such  things  and  docu 
ments  upon  as  men  desired  to  transmit 
to  posterity,  Deut.  27:2,  3;  Job  19:23, 
24.  God's  laws  were  written  on  stone 
tablets.  Inscriptions  were  also  made  on 
tiles  and  bricks,  which  were  afterwards 
hardened  by  fire.  Many  of  these  are 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Babylon.  See  BAB 
YLON,  NEBUCHADNEZZAR.  Tablets  of  wood, 
box,  and  ivory  were  common  among  the 
ancients :  when  they  were  of  wood  only, 


BOO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BOO 


ANCIENT   BOOKS,    PENS,    AND   INKSTAND. 

they  were  oftentimes  coated  over  with 
wax,  which  received  the  writing  inscrib 
ed  on  them  with  the  point  of  a  style,  or 
iron  pen,  Jer.  17:13 ;  and  what  was  writ 
ten  might  be  effaced  by  the  broad  end 
of  a  style,  Luke  1:63.  Afterwards,  the 
leaves  of  the  palm-tree  were  used  instead 
of  wooden  tablets,  and  also  the  finest 
and  thinnest  bark  of  trees,  such  as  the 
lime,  the  ash,  the  maple,  the  elm:  hence 
the  word  liber,  which  denotes  the  inner 
bark  of  trees,  signifies  also  a  book.  As 
these  barks  were  rolled  up,  to  be  more 
readily  carried  about,  the  united  rolls 
were  called  volumen,  a  volume  ;  a  name 
given  likewise  to  rolls  of  paper  or  of 
parchment.  The  ancients  wrote  like 
wise  on  linen.  But  the  oldest  material 
commonly  employed  for  writing  upon, 
appears  to  have  been  the  papyrus,  a  reed 
very  common  in  Egypt  and  other  places, 
and  still  found  in  Sicily  and  Chaldea. 
From  this  comes  oar  word  paper.  At  a 
later  period,  parchment  from  skins  was  in 
vented  in  Pergamos,  and  was  there  used 
for  rolls  or  volumes.  The  pen  for  writing 
on  these  soft  materials  A^as  a  small  brush, 
or  a  reed  split  at  the  end,  Jer.  36:23. 
The  ink  was  prepared  with  lampblack, 
coal  of  ivory,  various  gums,  etc.,  and 
the  writing  was  sometimes  permanently 
fixed  by  fire.  Scribes  carried  their  ink- 
horns  hanging  to  their  girdles,  Ezek. 
9:2.  The  making  of  paper  from  linen,  in 
its  modern  form,  was  first  known  in  Eu 
rope  about  A.  D.  1300.  The  art  of  print 
ing  was  introduced  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  later. 

An  ancient  book  therefore  had  the  ap 
pearance  of  a  thick  roll  of  some  paper- 
like  substance,  written  usually  in  paral 
lel  columns  on  one  side  only,  and  read 
by  gradually  unrolling  it  by  means  of 
two  small  rollers,  one  at  the  beginning 
and  the  other  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 


A  roll  was  sometimes  sealed,  be* 
ing  first  tied  or  wrapped  about 
with  a  cord,  on  which  the  wax  was 
dropped,  and  stamped  by  a  signet, 
Isa.  29:11;  Rev.  5:1-3. 

That  writing  was  practised  very 
early,  may  be  inferred  from  allu 
sions  to  the  art  in  Gen.  5:1 ;  Ex. 
17:14;  Job  9:25;  19:23;  31:5. 
The  Egyptians  were  accustomed 
to  it  from  the  earliest  ages. 

Ancient  writers,  instead  of  writ 
ing  their  books,  etc.,  with  their  own  hand, 
often  employed  amanuenses.  St.  Paul 
notes  it  as  a  particular  circumstance,  in 
the  epistle  to  the  Galatians,  that  he  had 
written  it  with  his  own  hand,  Gal.  6:11. 
To  other  letters  he  only  affixed  his  salu 
tation  with  his  own  hand,  1  Cor.  16:21 ; 
Col.  4:18;  2Thess.  3:17.  The  amanu 
ensis  who  wrote  the  epistle  to  the  Ro 
mans,  has  mentioned  himself  at  the  close, 
Rom.  16:22.  See  LETTER. 

BOOK  OF  THE  GENERATION,  is  used  in 
Gen.  5:1  ;  Matt.  1:1,  in  the  sense  of  a 
genealogical  record.  See  GENERATION. 

BOOK  OF  THE  WARS  OF  THE  LORD,  Num. 

21 : 14,  was  probably  a  sort  of  military 
journal,  formed  of  detached  odes. 

THE  BOOK  OF  JASIIER,  2  Sam.  1 : 18,  may 
perhaps  have  been  a  collection  of  na 
tional  ballads,  one  of  the  forms  most 
used  for  perpetuating  the  history  of  an 
cient  times. 

THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  CHRONICLES  of  the 
kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  were  apparent 
ly  public  journals,  1  Kin.  14:19,  29. 

BOOK  OF  LIFE,  OR  OF  THE  LIVING,  Psa. 
69:28.  It  is  probable  that  these  descrip 
tive  phrases  are  taken  from  the  custom 
observed  in  the  courts  of  princes,  of  keep 
ing  a  list  of  persons  who  are  in  their 
service,  of  the  provinces  which  they 
govern,  of  the  officers  of  their  armies, 
of  the  number  of  their  troops,  and  some 
times  even  of  the  names  of  their  soldiers. 
In  the  figurative  style  of  oriental  poetry, 
God  is  represented  as  inscribing  the 
names,  acts,  and  destinies  of  men  in  vol 
umes  ;  and  the  volume  in  which  are 
thus  entered  the  names  of  those  who  are 
chosen  to  salvation,  is  ' '  the  book  of  life, ' ' 
Phil.  4:3. 

BOOTH,  a  shelter,  made  usually  of 
poles  fixed  upright  in  the  ground,  and 
covered  over  with  green  boughs,  Gen. 
33:17.  The  great  feast  of  tabernacles, 
or  booths,  had  its  name  from  the  cir 
cumstance  that  the  Jews  were  directed 


BOO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BOW 


by  their  law  to  dwell  in  booths  during 
the  seven  days  of  this  feast,  Lev.  23:40- 
42  ;  Neh.  8 : 14.  See  TABERNACLE. 

BOO'TY.  Spoils  taken  in  war  were  to 
be  shared  equally  by  those  who  fought 
and  those  who  guarded  the  camp,  Num. 
31:27-32.  The  Lord's  portion  was  first 
deducted  from  the  whole  ;  and  in  after- 
times  the  king  appropriated  a  large  part 
to  himself. 

BOR'ROW.  The  Hebrews  are  said  to 
have  "borrowed"  of  the  Egyptians,  Ex. 
3 : 22  ;  12 : 35.  The  original  word  denotes 
simply  asked.  As  they  were  known  to  be 
taking  a  linal  leave  of  Egypt,  it  is  plain 
that  the  Egyptians  did  not  expect  the 
thing  asked  for  to  be  returned.  They 
asked  for  them  by  divine  direction,  and 
they  undoubtedly  received,no  more  than 
a  fair  compensation  for  their  many  years 
of  hard  service. 

BO'SOM,  the  front  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  body,  the  breast.  The  orientals  gen 
erally  wore  long,  wide,  and  loose  gar 
ments  ;  and  Avhen  about  to  carry  any 
thing  away  that  their  hands  would  not 
contain,  they  used  for  the  pm-pose  a  fold 
in  the  bosom  of  their  robe  above  the  gir 
dle,  Luke  6:38.  Our  Saviour  is  said  to 
carry  his  lambs  in  his  bosom,  which 
beautifully  represents  his  tender  care 
and  watchfulness  over  them,  Isa.  40:11. 
See  ABRAHAM'S  BOSOM. 

BOS'SES,  the  thickest  and  strongest 
parts,  the  projecting  points,  of  a  shield. 
Job  15:26. 


GOAT-SKIN   WATER    BOTTLES. 

BOT'TLE.  The  accompanying  engrav 
ing  shows  the  form  and  nature  of  an  an 
cient  goat-skin  bottle,  out  of  which  a 
water-carrier  is  offering  to  sell  a  draught 
of  water.  After  the  skin  has  been  strip 
ped  off  from  an  animal,  and  properly 
dressed,  the  places  where  the  legs  had 
been  are  closed  up  ;  and  where  the  neck 
70- 


was,  is  the  opening  left  for  receiving  and 
discharging  the  contents  of  the  bottle. 
These  were  readily  borne  upon  the  shoul 
der,  Gen.  21:14.  See  also  Josh  .9:4,13; 
Psa.  119:83;  Jer.  13:12. 

By  receiving  the  liquor  poured  into  it, 
a  skin  bottle  must  be  greatly  swelled  and 
distended ;  and  still  more,  if  the  liquor 
be  wine,  by  its  fermentation  while  ad 
vancing  to  ripeness ;  so  that  if  no  vent 
be  given  to  it,  the  liquor;  may  overpower 
the  strength  of  the  bottle,  or  if  it  find 
any  defect,  it  may  ooze  out  by  that. 
Hence  the  propriety  of  putting  new  wine 
into  new  bottles,  Which  being  in  the 
prime  of  their  strength,  may  resist  the 
expansion  of  their  contents,  and  pre 
serve  the  wine  to  maturity ;  while  old 
bottles  may,  without  danger,  contain  old 
wine,  whose  fermentation  is  already  past, 
Matt.  9:17;  Luke  5:38;  Job  32:19. 

Such  bottles,  or  skins,  are  still  univer 
sally  employed  in  travelling  in  the  East, 
as  well  as  by  the  public  water-carriers, 
and  for  domestic  uses.  They  were  made, 
for  storage  in  wine-cellars,  of  the  hides 
of  oxen  or  camels.  But  the  smaller  ones 
of  goat-skins  were  more  generally  used 
for  water  as  well  as  wine.  The  ancients, 
however,  were  acquainted  with  the  art 
of  making  earthenware,  and  had  a  va 
riety  of  elegant  small  bottles  and  vases 
for  toilet  purposes,  made  of  the  precious 
metals,  of  stone,  glass,  porcelain,  and 
alabaster,  Jer.  19:1,  10,  11.  See  CRUSE, 
VINE,  TEARS. 

BOW,  a  weapon  much  used  in  ancient 
times,  both  for  hunting  and  for  Avar.  It 
was  made  of  wood,  horn,  or  steel,  Gen. 
27:3  ;  Psa.  18:34  ;  and  the  foot  was  some 
times  used  in  bending  it.  It  was  carried 
in  a  case,  when  not  used,  Hab.  3  :  19. 
The  Benjamites  were  celebrated  for  their 
skill  in  the  use  of  this  weapon,  1  Chr. 
12:2  ;  2  Chr.  14  :  8  ;  17  :  17.  See  ARMS. 
The  phrase,  "a  deceitful  bow,"  to  which 
the  people  of  Israel  are  compared,  Psa. 
78:57  ;  Hos.  7:16,  means  an  ill-made  or 
twisted  bow,  which  does  not  shoot  the 
arrow  as  it  is  aimed.  In  2  Sam.  1 : 18,  we 
read,  "Also  he  bade  them  teach  the  chil 
dren  of  Judah  the  use  of  the  bow. "  Hire 
the  words,  "the  use  of,"  are  not  in  the 
Hebrew.  The  use  of  the  bow  in  war  had 
long  been  common  among  the  Jews,  Gen. 
48:22 ;  and  to  "teach  them  the  bow,"  is 
by  some  supposed  to  mean,  teach  them 
the  song  of  THE  BOW,  the  lamentation 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan,  which  follows  ; 


BOW 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BRE 


so  called  from  the  mention  of  the  weapon 
in  verse  22,  as  the  first  four  books  in  the 
Bible  take  their  title  in  Hebrew  from  the 
tirst  word  in  each.  See  ARROW 

BOWELS  are  often  put  by  the  He 
brew  writers  for  the  internal  parts  gen 
erally,  the  inner  man,  just  as  we  often 
use  the  word  heart.  Hence  the  bowels 
are  often  represented  as  the  seat  of  mer 
cy,  tenderness,  compassion,  etc.,  1  Kin. 
8:26  ;Isa.  63:15;  Jer.  31:20;  Col.  3:12; 
1  John  3:17. 

BOX-TREE,  a  well-known  beautiful 
evergreen,  growing  in  many  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  Its  wood  is  highly 
prized  by  engravers.  The  word  employ 
ed  in  Isa.  60":  13,  is  thought  by  many  to 
have  been  a  species  of  cedar.  It  is  used 
as  an  emblem  of  the  abiding  grace  and 
prosperity  of  the  church  of  God. 

BOZ'RAH,  Gen.  36:33,  a  city  of  Edom, 
Isa.  34:6;  63:1,  and  the  region  around 
it,  Jer.  49:13,  22.  It  is  associated  with 
Teman,  and  with  the  Red  sea,  Jer. 
49:20-22 ;  Amos  1:12.  Its  site  is  found 
in  the  modern  El-Busaireh,  midway  be 
tween  Kir  Moab  and  mount  Hor,  south 
by  east  of  the  Dead  sea.  This  is  a  vil 
lage  of  about  fifty  houses,  on  a  hill 
crowned  by  a  small  castle.  The  ruins 
are  those  of  a  considerable  city.  Bozrah 
of  Moab,  Jer.  48:24,  may  be  the  same 
place  with  this,  or  perhaps  with  Bezer, 

BRACE'LET,  properly  an  ornament 
for  the  wrist,  or  for  the  arm  above  or  be 
low  the  elbow ;  but  sometimes  used  also 
in  the  Bible  to  signify  an  ornament  worn 
on  the  leg,  Num.  31 : 50  ;  Isa.  3:19.  Arm 
lets  were  worn  by  men,  sometimes  as  a 
badge  of  royalty,  2  Sam.  I'lO.  Brace 
lets  were  of  a  great  variety  of  materials 
and  forms  ;  were  usually  large,  and  often 
of  great  value,  Gen.  24:22. 

The  women  of  Syria  and  Arabia  at 
this  day  wear  rings  round  their  legs, 
to  which  are  fastened  many  other  lesser 
rings,  which  make  a  tinkling  noise,  like 
little  bells,  when  they  walk.  These 
rings  are  fixed  above  the  ankle,  and  are 
of  gold,  silver,  copper,  glass,  or  even  of 
varnished  earth,  according  to  the  con 
dition  of  the  wearer.  The  princesses 
wear  large  hollow  rings  of  gold,  within 
which  are  enclosed  little  pebbles,  that 
tinkle.  See  RINGS. 

BRANCH  As  trees  denote,  in  figura 
tive  language,  great  men  and  princes,  so 
branches,  boughs,  and  plants  denote 
their  offspring.  'Christ  is  called  "the 


Branch,"  the  "rod  out  of  the  stem  of 
Jesse,"  and  the  "branch  out  of  his 
roots,"  Isa.  11:1 ;  53:2  ;  Zech.  8:8;  6:12  ; 
being  a  royal  descendant  of  the  princely 
house  of  David,  Jer.  23:5  ;  33:15.  The 
word  branch  also  illustrates  the  union  of 
believers  with  Christ,  John  15:5,  6.  It 
is  used  in  Ezek.  8: 17  as  a  symbol  of  idol 
atrous  worship,  probably  in  allusion  to 
the  carrying  of  fragrant  boughs  in  honor 
of  idols. 

BRASS  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
English  Bible,  Gen.  4:22;  Deut.  8:9; 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  copper  is 
intended,  brass  being  a  mixed  metal — 
two-thirds  copper  and  one-third  zinc — 
for  the  manufacture  of  which  we  are  in 
debted  to  the  Germans.  The  ancients 
knew  nothing  of  that  particular  com 
pound,  though  well  acquainted  with 
bronze,  of  which  arms,  mirrors,  and  or 
naments  were  made.  Copper  was  used 
for  many  purposes  about  the  temple, 
Lev.  6  :  28  ;  Num.  16 : 39 ;  2  Chr.  4  : 16  ; 
for  filters,  Judg.  16:21 ;  2  Kin.  25:7  ;  for 
armor,  1  Sam.  17:5,  6,  38  ;  for  musical  in 
struments,  1  Chr.  15:19 ;  and  for  money, 
Matt.  10:9.  "  Brass ' '  is  used  to  describe 
drought,  insensibility,  baseness,  and  ob 
stinacy  in  sin,  Lev.  26:19;  Deut.  28:23; 
Isa.  48:4;  Jer.  6:28;  Ezek  22:18.  It  is 
also  a  symbol  of  strength,  Psa.  107:16; 
Dan.  2:39;  Zech.  6:1.  See  COPPER. 

BRA'ZEN  SERPENT,  an  image  in  brass 
prepared  by  Moses,  resembling  the  fiery 
serpents  so  destructive  to  Israel  in  the 
desert,  and  set  up  in  the  midst  of  the 
camp  in  the  view  of  all,  that  whosoever 
would  evince  penitence,  faith,  and  obe 
dience  by  looking  to  it,  might  live,  Num. 
21 : 6-9.  Our  Saviour  has  shown  us  that 
this  was  typical  of  himself  and  of  salva 
tion  through  him — a  gratuitous  salva 
tion,  free  to  all,  on  the  easy  terms  of 
faith  and  obedience,  John  3 '14,  15.  The 
brazen  serpent  was  long  preserved,  as  a 
memorial  of  the  gracious  miracle  wrought 
in  connection  with  it ;  but  being  regard 
ed  as  an  object  of  worship,  it  was  broken 
to  pieces  by  king  Plezekiah,  as  Nehush- 
tan — a  mere  piece  of  brass,  2  Kin.  18:4. 

BREAD,  a  word  which  in  Scripture  is 
often  put  for  food  in  general,  Gen.  3:19  ; 
18:5;  28:20;  Ex.  2:20;  Lev.  11:3  Man 
na  is  called  bread  horn  heaven,  Ex.  16:4. 
Bread,  in  the  proper  and  literal  sense, 
usually  means  cakes  made  of  wheaten 
flour ;  barley  being  used  chiefly  by  the 
poor  and  for  feeding  horses.  The  wheat 
7i 


BRE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BRE 


was  ground  daily,  in  small  stone  mills 
the  flour  was  made  into  dough  in  a  wood 
en  trough,  and  subsequently  leavened, 
Ex.  12:34  ;  Hos.  7:4.    It  was  then  made 
into  cakes,  and  baked. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  had  several  ways 
of  baking  bread:  they  often  baked  it 
under  the  ashes  upon  the  earth,  upon 
round  copper  or  iron  plates,  or  in  pans  or 
stoves  made  on  purpose.  The  Arabians 
and  other  oriental  nations,  among  whom 
wood  is  scarce,  often  bake  their  bread 
between  two  fires  made  of  cow-dung, 
which  burns  slowly.  The  bread  is  good, 
if  eaten  the  same  day,  but  the  crust  is 
black  and  burnt,  and  retains  a  smell  of 
the  fuel  used  in  baking  it.  This  explains 
Ezek.  4:9,  15. 

The  Hebrews,  in  common  with  other 
eastern  people,  had  a  kind  of  oven,  (tan- 
noor,)  which  is  like  a  large  pitcher,  open 
at  top,  in  which  they  made  a  lire.  When 
it  was  well  heated,  they  mingled  flour  in 
water,  and  this  paste  they  applied  to  the 
outside  of  the  pitcher.  Such  bread  is 
baked  in  an  instant,  and  is  taken  off  in 
thin,  fine  pieces,  like  our  wafers,  Lev.  2. 
Bread  was  also  baked  in  cavities  sunk  in 
the  ground,  or  the  floor  of  the  tent,  and 
well  lined  with  compost  or  cement.  A 
fire  was  built  on  the  floor  of  this  oven ; 
and  the  sides  being  sufficiently  heated, 
thin  cakes  were  adroitly  stuck  upon 
them,  and  soon  baked.  In  the  large 
towns  there  were  public  ovens,  and  bak 
ers  by  trade,  Jer.  37:21 ;  Hos.  7:4. 

As  the  Hebrews  generally  made  their 
bread  thin,  and  in  the  form  of  flat  cakes, 
or  wafers,  they  did  not  cut  it  with  a 
knife,  but  broke  it,  Lam.  4 : 4,  which 
gave  rise  to  that  expression  so  usual  in 
Scriptuje,  of  "breaking  bread,"  to  sig 
nify  eating,  sitting  down  to  table,  taking 
a  repast.  In  the  institution  of  the  Lord's 
supper,  our  Saviour  broke  the  bread 
which  he  had  consecrated;  whence  "to 
break  bread,"  and  "  breaking  of  bread," 
in  the  New  Testament  are  used  for  cele 
brating  the  Lord's  supper.  See  under 
EATING. 

SHOW-BREAD,  Heb.  bread  of  presence, 
was  bread  offered  every  Sabbath-day  to 
God  on  the  golden  table  which  stood  in 
the  holy  place,  Ex.  25:30;  twelve  cakes 
of  unleavened  bread,  offered  with  salt 
and  frankincense,  Lev.  2  :  13 ;  24  :  5-9. 
The  show-bread  could  be  lawfully  eaten 
by  none  but  the  priests ;  nevertheless, 
David  having  received  some  of  these 
72 


THE   TABLE   OF   SHOW-BREAD. 

loaves  from  the  high-priest  Abimelech, 
ate  of  them  without  scruple  in  his  neces 
sity,  1  Sam.  21 : 1-6 ;  and  our  Saviour 
quotes  his  example  to  justify  the  disci 
ples,  who  had  bruised  ears  of  corn,  and 
were  eating  them  on  the  Sabbath-day, 
Matt.  12:1-4. 

BREAST'PLATE,  a  piece  of  embroid 
ery,  about  ten  inches  square,  fix.  28:15- 
30,  of  very  rich  work,  which  the  high- 
priest  wore  on  his  breast.  It  was  made 
of  two  pieces  of  the  same  rich  embroid 
ered  stuff  of  which  the  ephod  was  made, 
having  a  front  and  a  lining,  and  forming 
a  kind  of  purse  or  bag,  in  which,  accord 
ing  to  the  rabbins,  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim  were  enclosed.  The  front  of  it  was 


set  with  twelve  precious  stones,  on  each 
of  which  was  engraved  the  name  of  one 
of  the  tribes.  They  were  placed  in  four 
rows,  and  divided  from  each  other  by 
the  little  golden  squares  or  partitions  in 
which  they  were  set.  At  each  corner 
was  a  gold  ring  answering  to  a  ring  upon 


BRI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BUL 


the  ephod,  thege  four  pairs  of  rings  serv 
ing  to  hold  the  breastplate  in  its  place 
on  the  front  of  the  ephod,  by  means  of 
four  blue  ribands,  one  at  each  corner. 

BRICKS  were  usually  made  of  clay, 
dried  and  hardened  in  the  sun,  Gen. 
11:3,  though  brick-kilns  were  sometimes 
used,  2  Sam.  12:31;  Nah.  3:14.  The 
tower  of  Babel  was  constructed  of  brick, 
cemented  with  bitumen.  The  bricks 
used  were  often  a  foot  square ;  and  great 
numbers  of  them  are  found,  both  in 
Babylonia  and  Egypt,  impressed  with 
some  royal  or  priestly  stamp.  The  prin 
cipal  subject  of  interest  connected  with 
brick-making  is  the  fact  that  it  was  the 
labor  in  which  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt 
were  most  oppressed.  On  the  monu 
ments  of  Egypt,  all  the  parts  of  this 
hard  and  ancient  task-work  are  paint 
ed  —the  carrying,  tempering,  and  mould 


ing  of  the  clay,  and  the  drying  and  pil 
ing  of  the  bricks— all  done  by  foreigners 
under  the  orders  of  taskmasters.  The 


BRICKMAKING,  UNDER  A  TASKMASTER. 

straw  was  probably  mixed  with  the  clay 
to  compact  it.  See  Wilkinson's  "An 
cient  Egyptians." 


BRIDE  and  BRIDE'GROOM,  see  MAR. 
RIAGE  and  SOLOMON'S  SONG. 

BRIG'ANDINE,  a  coat  of  mail,  Jer. 
46:4;  51:3. 

BRIM'STONE,  a  mineral  substance, 
highly  inflammable,  and  burning  with  a 
sutfocating  smell.  Sodom  and  the  other 
cities  of  the  plain  were  destroyed  ' '  by 
brimstone  and  fire,"  Gen.  ]9:24;  and 
this  awful  catastrophe  is  often  used  in 
Scripture,  as  an  emblem  of  temporal  and 
eternal  judgments  of  God  upon  the  wick 
ed,  Job  18  : 15 ;  Psa.  11:6;  Isa.  30 :  33  ; 
34:9;  Rev.  21:8. 
BROOK,  see  RIVER. 
BROTH'ER  signifies  in  Scripture  the 
son  of  the  same  parent  or  parents,  Matt. 
1:2;  Luke  6:14;  a  cousin  or  near  kins 
man,  Gen.  13:8;  14:16;  John  7:3;  Acts 
1 : 14 ;  one  of  the  same  stock  or  country, 
Matt.  5 : 47 ;  Acts  3 : 22 ;  Heb.  7:5;  a  fel 
low-man,  an  equal,  Matt.  5:23  ;  7:3 ;  one 
beloved,  2  Sam.  1:26 ;  Christians,  as  sons 
ofGod,Acts9:30;  11:29.  In  Matt.  12:46- 
50 ;  13 : 55,  56 ;  Mark  3 : 31-35,  the  broth 
ers  of  Christ  are  so  mentioned,  in  con 
nection  with  his  mother  and  sisters,  as 
almost  to  require  us  to  believe  they  were 
children  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  younger 
than  Jesus.  Yet  this  is  not  quite  cer 
tain,  as  it  may  be  that  the  James,  Joses, 
and  Judas  in  Matt.  13 :55,  are  the  neph 
ews  of  Christ  alluded  to  in  Matt.  27:56 ; 
Luke  6  : 15,  16 ;  John  19  :  25 ;  Cleophas 
and  Alphaius  being  probably  the  same. 
BRUIT,  rumor  or  report,  Jer.  10:22; 
Nah.  3:19. 

BUL,  occurring  only  in  1  Kin.  6:38, 
applied  to  the  eighth  month,  usually 
called  Marcheshvan,  which  see.  Solo 
mon's  temple  was  finished  in  Bui. 

BULLS  of  Bashan,  pasturing  in  a  fer 
tile  region  and  with  but  few  keepers, 
became   strong  and  fierce,    and   might 
' '  compass  about ' '  an  intruder,  and  tram 
ple  him  under  foot.      They  are  symbols 
of  powerful,    fierce,    and  numerous 
foes,  Psa.  22:12;  68:30;  Isa.  34:7. 
See  Ox. 

BUL'RUSH,  see  next  page. 
BUR'DEN,  a  weight  or  load,  on 
body  or  soul ;  often  used  figuratively, 
to  denote  afflictions,  failings,  sins, 
Psa.  38:4;  55:22;  Gal.  6:2;  services 
under  the  law,  Matt.  23:4;  official  re 
sponsibilities,  Ex.  18:22;  Deut  1:12; 
and  especially  prophetic  messages,  not 
always  of  a  threatening  character,  Isa. 
19:1.  In  this-  last  sense  the  Hebrew  word 
73 


BUR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


BUR 


may  be  rendered  ' '  oracle, "  "  divine  dec 
laration,"  or  "prophecy,"  as  in  Prov. 
80:1;  31:1, 


BUL'RUSH,  or  papyrus,  a  reed  grow 
ing  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  in  marshy 
ground,  Job  8 : 1 1,  to  the  height  of  twelve 
or  fifteen  feet,  Isa.  35:7.  The  stalks  are 
pliable,  and  capable  of  being  interwoven 
very  closely,  as  is  evident  from  their 
being  used  in  the  construction  of  arks, 
Ex.  2:3,  5;  and  also  vessels  of  larger 
dimensions,  Isa.  18  •  2.  Boats  of  this 
material  were  very  common  in  Egypt. 
Being  exceedingly  light  and  small,  they 
sailed  with  great  velocity,  and  might 
easily  be  borne  on  the  shoulders  around 
rapids  and  Mis  The  inner  bark  of  this 
plant,  platted  and  cemented  together, 
furnished  a  writing  material ;  and  the 
pith  was  sometimes  used  for  food.  See 
BOOK. 

BUR'IAL.  The  Hebrews  were  at  all 
times  very  careful  in  the  burial  of  their 
dead,  Gen.  25  9  ;  35:29.  To  be  deprived 
of  burial  was  thought  one  of  the  greatest 
marks  of  dishonor,  or  causes  of  unhappi- 
ness,  Eccl.  6:3  ;  Jer.  22:18,  19  ;  it  being 
denied  to  none,  not  even  to  enemies. 
Good  men  made  it  a  part  of  their  piety 
to  inter  the  dead.  Indeed,  how  shock- 
74 


ing  must  the  sight  of  unburied  corpses 
have  been  to  the  Jews,  when  their  land 
was  thought  to  be  polluted  if  the  dead 
were  in  any  manner  exposed  to  view, 
2  Sam.  21 : 14 ;  and  when  the  very  touch 
of  a  dead  body,  or  of  any  thing  that 
had  touched  a  dead  body,  was  esteemed 
a  defilement,  and  required  a  ceremonial 
ablution,  Num.  19:11-22. 

Only  two  cases  of  burning  the  bodies 
of  the  dead  occur  in  Scripture  :  the  man 
gled  remains  of  Saul  and  his  sons,  1  Sam. 
31:12,  and  the  victims  of  some  plague, 
Amos  6:10.  It  was  customary  for  the 
nearest  relatives  to  close  the  eyes  of  the 
dying  and  give  them  the  parting  kiss, 
and  then  to  commence  the  wailing  for 
the  dead,  Jer.  46:4;  50:1 ;  in  this  wail 
ing,  which  continued  at  intervals  until 
after  the  burial,  they  were  joined  by 
other  relatives  and  friends,  John  11:19, 
whose  loud  and  shrill  lamentations  are 
referred  to  in  Mark  5:38.  It  is  also  a 
custom  still  prevailing  in  the  East  to 
hire  wailing  women ,  Jer.  9:17;  Amos 
5:16,  who  praised  the  deceased,  Acts 
9:39,  and  by  doleful  cries  and  frantic 
gestures,  aided  at  times  by  melancholy 
tones  of  music,  Matt.  9:23,  strove  to  ex 
press  the  deepest  grief,  Ezek.  24:17,  18. 

Immediately  after  death  the  body  was 
washed,  and  laid  out  in  a  convenient 
room,  Acts  9  :  39  ;  it  was  wrapped  in 
many  folds  of  linen,  with  spices,  and  the 
head  bound  about  with  a  napkin,  Matt. 
27  :  59  ;  John  11  :  44.  Unless  the  body 
was  to  be  embalmed,  the  burial  took 
place  very  soon,  both  on  account  of  the 
heat  of  the  climate  and  the  ceremonial 
uncleanness  incurred.  Rarely  did  twen 
ty-four  hours  elapse  between  death  and 
burial,  Acts  5  :  6,  10.  The  body  being 
shrouded,  was  placed  upon  a  bier — a 
board  resting  on  a  simple  handbarrow, 
borne  by  men — to  be  conveyed  to  the 
tomb,  2  Sam.  3:31;  Luke  7: 14.  Some 
times  a  more  costly  bier  or  bed  was  used, 
2  Chr.  16:14;  and  'the  bodies  of  kings 
and  some  others  may  have  been  laid  in 
coffins  of  wood,  or  stone  sarcophagi.  The 
relatives  attended  the  bier  to  the  tomb, 
which  was  usually  without  the  city.  A 
banquet  sometimes  followed  the  funeral, 
Jer  16:7,  8  ;  and  during  subsequent  days 
the  bereaved  friends  were  wont  to  go  to 
the  grave  from  time  to  time,  to  weep  and 
to  adorn  the  place  with  fresh  flowers, 
John  11:31,  a  custom  observed  even  at 
this  day.  See  EMBALMING,  SEPULCIIKE. 


BUR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


CJES 


BURNT  -  OFFERINGS.  See  SACRI 
FICE. 

BUSH' EL,  used  in  the  New  Testament 
to  express  the  Greek  modi  us,  which  was 
about  a  peck  by  our  measure. 

BUTTER.  The  Hebrew  word  usually 
rendered  butter  denotes,  properly,  sour  or 
curdled  milk,  Gen.  18  :  8  ;  Judg.  5  :  25  ; 
Job  20: 17.  This  last  is  a  favorite  bever 
age  in  the  East  to  the  present  day.  Burck- 
hardt,  when  crossing  the  desert  from  the 
country  south  of  the  Dead  sea  to  Egypt, 
says,  ' '  Besides  flour,  I  carried  some  but 
ter  and  dried  leben,  (sour  milk,)  which, 
when  dissolved  in  water,  not  only  forms 
a  refreshing  beverage,  but  is  much  to  be 
recommended  as  a  preservative  of  health 
when  travelling  in  summer."  Yet  but 
ter  may  have  been  known  to  the  He 
brews.  It  is  much  used  by  the  Arabs  and 
Syrians  at  the  present  day,  and  is  made 
by  pouring  the  milk  into  the  common 
goat-skin  bottle,  suspending  this  from 
the  tent-poles,  and  swinging  it  to  and 
fro  with  a  jerk,  until  the  process  is  com 
pleted.  Still  it  is  not  certain  that  the 
Hebrew  word  rendered  butter  ever  de 
notes  that  article.  Even  in  Prov.  80:33 
we  may  render,  "The  pressing  of  milk 
bringeth  forth  cheese  ;"  and  everywhere 
else  the  rendering  "curd,"  or  "curdled 
milk,"  would  be  appropriate. 

BUZ,  son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah,  and 
ancestor  of  the  Buzites,  who  lived  in 
Mesopotamia  or  Ram,  and  afterwards 
perhaps  in  Arabia  Deserta,  Gen.  22  :  21 ; 
Job  32: 2;  Jer.  25:23. 


C. 


CAB,  a  Hebrew  measure,  the  'sixth 
part  of  a  seah,  and  the  eighteenth  part 
of  an  ephah.  A  cab  contained  three 
pints  and  one  third,  of  our  wine  meas 
ure,  or  two  pints  and  five  sixths,  of  our 
corn  measure,  2  Kin.  6:25. 

CA'BUL,  probably  meaning  displeasing, 
I.,  a  name  given  by  Hiram  king  of  Tyre 
to  a  district  in  Northern  Galilee  contain 
ing  twenty  cities,  which  Solomon  gave 
him  for  his  help  in  building  the  temple, 
1  Kin.  9:13  ;  the  term  implying  his  dis 
satisfaction  with  the  gift. 

II.  A  city  of  Asher,  Josh.  19:27. 

C^E'SAR,  originally  the  Surname  of  the 
Julian  family  at  Rome.  After  being  dig 
nified  in  the  person  of  Julius  Caesar,  it 
became  the  usual  appellation  of  those  of  j 


his  family  who  ascended  the  throne.  The 
last  of  tl>ese  was  Nero,  but  the  name  was 
still  retained  by  his  successors  as  a  sort 
of  title  belonging  to  the  imperial  dignity. 
The  emperors  alluded  to  by  this  title  in 
the  New  Testament,  are  Augustus,  Luke 
2:1;  Tiberius,  Luke  3:1;  20:22;  Clau 
dius,  Acts  11:28;  and  Nero,  Acts  25:8; 
Phil.  4:22.  Caligula,  who  succeeded  Ti 
berius,  is  not  mentioned. 

C^ESARE'A,  often  called  Ciesarea  of 
Palestine,  situated  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  between  Joppa  and 
Tyre.  It  was  anciently  a  small  place, 
called  the  Tower  of  Strato,  but  was  re 
built  with  great  splendor,  and  strongly 
fortified  by  Herod  the  Great,  who  formed 
a  harbor  by  constructing  a  vast  break 
water,  adorned  the  city  with  many  state 
ly  buildings,  and  named  it  Caesarea,  in 
honor  of  Augustus.  It  was  inhabited 
chiefly  by  Greeks,  and  Herod  established 
in  it  quinquennial  games  in  honor  of  the 
emperor.  This  city  was  the  capital  of 
Jtidea  during  the  reign  of  Herod  the 
Great  and  of  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  and  was 
also  the  seat  of  the  Roman  power  while 
Judea  was  governed  as  a  province  of  the 
empire.  It  was  subject  to  frequent  com 
motions  between  the  Greeks,  Romans, 
and  Jews,  so  that  on  one  occasion  20,000 
persons  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  one 
day. 

It  is  noted  in  gospel  history  as  the 
residence  of  Philip  the  evangelist,  Acts 
8:40  ;  21:8  ;  and  of  Cornelius  the  centu 
rion,  the  first-fruits  from  the  Gentiles, 
Acts  10  ;  11 : 1-18.  Here  Herod  Agrippa 
was  smitten  bv  the  angel  of  God,  Acts 
12 : 20-23.  Paul  several  times  visited  it, 
Acts  9:30;  18:22;  21:8,  16;  here  he  ap 
peared  before  Felix,  who  trembled  under 
his  appeals,  Acts  23  :  23 ;  24 ;  here  he 
was  imprisoned  for  two  years ;  and  after 
pleading  before  Festus  and  Agrippa,  he 
sailed  hence  for  imperial  Rome,  Acts 
25: 26  ;  27 : 1.  It  is  now  a  heap  of  ruins. 

C^ESARE'A-PHILIP'PI,  a  city  three  or 
four  miles  east  of  Dan,  near  the  eastern 
source  of  the  Jordan ;  anciently  called 
Pancas,  now  Banias,  from  an  adjacent 
grotto  dedicated  to  Pan,  from  which  one 
of  the  sources  of  the  Jordan  flowed.  It 
stood  where  the  mountains  south-west  of 
Hermon  join  the  plain  above  lake  Hu- 
leh,  on  an  elevated  plateau  surrounded 
by  ravines  and  water-courses ;  and  its 
walls  were  thick  and  strong.  It  was  en 
larged  and  embellished  by  Philip  the  te- 


CAI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAL 


trarch  of  Trachonitis,  and  called  Caesarea 
in  honor  of  Tiberius  Ccesar  ;  and  the  name 
Philippi  was  added  to  distinguish  it  from 
Cassarea  on  the  Mediterranean.  Our  Sav 
iour  visited  this  place  shortly  before  his 
transfiguration,  Matt.  16:13-28;  Mark 
8:27-38;  Luke  9:18,  27.  After  the  de 
struction  of  Jerusalem,  Titus  here  made 
the  captive  Jews  fight  and  kill  each  other 
in  gladiatorial  shows.  In  the  time  of  the 
crusades  it  underwent  many  changes, 
and  is  now  a  paltry  village  amid  exten 
sive  ruins. 

CAI'APIIAS,  high-priest  of  the  Jews, 
A.  i>  27  to  36.  He  was  a  Sadducee,  and 
a  bitter  enemy  of  Christ.  At  his  palace 
the  priests,  etc.,  met  after  the  resurrec 
tion  of  Lazarus,  to  plot  the  death  of  the 
Saviour,  lest  all  the  people  should  be 
lieve  on  him.  On  one  of  these  occasions, 
John  11:47-54,  he  counselled  the  death 
of  Christ  for  the  political  salvation  of 
the  nation  ;  and  his  words  were,  uncon 
sciously  to  him,  an  inspired  prediction  of 
the  salvation  of  a  lost  world.  These 
plots  against  Christ,  Matt.  26 : 1-5 ;  Mark 
14:1 ;  Luke  22:2,  led  to  his  seizure,  and 
he  was  brought  first  before  Annas,  for 
merly  high-priest,  who  sent  him  to  Cai- 
aphas  his  son-in-law.  See  ANNAS.  Cai- 
aphas  examined  Christ  before  the  as 
sembling  of  the  Sanhedrim,  after  which 
the  trial  went  on,  and  Christ  was  con 
demned,  mocked,  and  transferred  to  Pi 
late  for  sentence  and  execution,  Matt. 
26:57-68  ;  Mark  14:53-72  ;  Luke  22:54- 
71;  John  18:13-27.  Not  content  with 
procuring  the  death  of  the  Saviour,  Cai- 
aphas  and  his  friends  violently  persecut 
ed  his  followers,  Acts  4:1-6;  5:17,  33. 
But  a  few  years  after  the  ascension  of 
Christ,  and  soon  after  the  degradation  of 
Pilate,  Caiaphas  also  was  deposed  from 
office  by  the  Roman  proconsul  Vitellius. 
Like  Balaam  of  the  Old  Testament,  he 
is  a  melancholy  instance  of  light  resist 
ed,  privilege,  station,  and  opportunity 
abused,  and  prophetic  words  concerning 
Christ  joined  with  a  life  of  infidelity  and 
crime  and  a  fearful  death. 

CAIN,  the  first-born  of  the  human 
race,  Gen.  4:1,  and  the  first  murderer. 
See  ABEL.  His  crime  was  committed 
against  the  warnings  of  God,  and  he  de 
spised  the  call  of  God  to  confession  and 
penitence,  Gen.  4:6-9.  The  punishment 
inflicted  upon  him  included  an  increase 
of  physical  wants  and  hardships,  distress 
of  conscience,  banishment  from  society, 
76 


and  loss  of  God's  manifested  presence 
and  favor,  Gen.  4:16.  But  God  mingled 
mercy  with  judgment ;  and  appointed 
for  Cain  some  sign  that  he  should  not 
suffer  the  death-penalty  he  had  incurred 
at  the  hand  of  man,  thus  signifying  that 
God  only  was  his  judge.  He  withdrew 
into  the  land  of  Nod,  east  of  Eden,  and 
built  a  city  which  he  named  Enoch,  after 
one  of  his  sons. 

CAIN' AN,  I.,  son  of  Enos,  and  father 
of  Mahalaleel,  Gen.  5:9;  1  Chr.  1:2. 

II.  Son  of  Arphaxad  and  father  of  Sa- 
lah,  Luke  3:36.  This  Cainan,  however, 
is  not  named  in  the  three  Old  Testament 
genealogies,  Gen.  10:24;  11:12;  1  Chr. 
1:24,  nor  in  any  ancient  version.  The 
name  occurs  in  two  places  in  the  Septua- 
gint,  an  early  Greek  version ;  and  some 
suppose  that  copyists  of  Luke's  gospel 
inserted  the  name,  in  order  to  agree  with 
the  Septuagint. 

CA'LAH,  a  city  of  Assyria,  built  by 
Ashur  or  by  Nimrod,  Gen.  10:11, 12.  It 
was  at  some  distance  from  Nineveh,  and 
Resen  lay  between  them.  It  is  thought 
to  have  been  near  the  river  Lycus,  the 
great  Zab,  which  empties  into  the  Ti 
gris. 

CALAMUS.     See  CANE. 

CALEB,  I.,  son  of  Jephunneh,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  who  was  sent,  with  one 
man  from  each  of  the  other  tribes,  to 
search  out  the  promised  land,  Num.  13  ; 
14.  Of  all  the  twelve,  Caleb  and  Joshua 
acted  the  part  of  true  and  faithful  men  ; 
and  they  only,  of  all  the  grown  men  of 
Israel,  were  permitted  to  enter  Canaan, 
Num.  14:6-24,  38  ;  26:65,  He  was  one 
of  the  princes  appointed  to  divide  the 
conquered  territory  among  the  tribes, 
Num.  34:19.  Hebron  was  given  to  him 
as  a  reward  of  his  fidelity,  according  to 
the  promise  of  God,  Deut.  1:36;  Josh. 
14.  Though  eighty-five  years  old,  he 
still  retained  his  vigor,  and  soon  drove 
out  the  Anakim  from  his  inheritance. 
He  gave  a  portion  also  with  his  daugh 
ter  Achsah  to  Othniel  his  nephew,  who 
had  earned  the  reward  by  his  valor  in  the 
capture  of  Debir,  Josh.  15 : 13-19  ;  21 : 12. 
This  region  was  for  some  time  called  by 
his  name,  1  Sam.  30:14. 

II.  Son  of  Hur,  whose  children  peo 
pled  the  country  about  Bethlehem,  etc., 
IChr.  2:50-55. 

CALF,  the  young  of  the  cow,  a  clean 
animal  much  used  in  sacrifice  ;  hence  the 
expression,  "  So  will  we  render  the  calves 


CAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAL 


of  our  lips,"  Hos.  14:2,  meaning,  we  will 
offer  as  sacrifices  the  prayers  and  praises 
of  our  lips,  Heb.  13 : 15.  The  fatted  calf 
was  considered  the  choicest  animal  food, 
Gen.  18:7;  Amos  6:4;  Luke  15:23. 

In  Jer.  34:  18,  "they  cut  the  calf  in 
twain,  and  passed  between  the  parts 
thereof,"  there  is  an  allusion  to  an  an 
cient  mode  of  ratifying  a  covenant ;  the 
parties  thus  signifying  their  willingness 
to  be  themselves  cut  in  pieces  if  unfaith 
ful,  Gen.  15:9-18. 

THE  GOLDEN  CALF  worshipped  by  the 
Jews  at  mount  Sinai,  while  Moses  was 
absent  in  the  mount,  was  cast  by  Aaron 
from  the  earrings  of  the  people.  Its  wor 
ship  was  attended  with  degrading  ob 
scenities,  and  was  punished  by  the  death 
of  three  thousand  men. 

The  golden  calves  of  Jeroboam  were 
erected  by  him,  one  at  each  extreme  of 
his  kingdom,  that  the  ten  tribes  might 
be  prevented  from  resorting  to  Jerusa 
lem  to  worship,  and  thus  coalescing  with 
the  men  of  Judah,  1  Kin.  12  :  26-29. 
Thus  the  people  ' '  forgot  God  their  Sav 
iour,"  and  sank  into  gross  idolatry.  Jer 
oboam  is  scarcely  ever  mentioned  in 
Scripture  without  the  brand  upon  him, 
"who  made  Israel  to  sin,"  2  Kin.  17:21. 
The  prophet  Hosea  frequently  alludes  to 
the  calf  at  Bethel,  to  the  folly  and  guilt 
of  its  worshippers,  and  to  the  day  when 
both  idol  and  people  should  be  broken 
in  pieces  by  the  Assyrians. 

CAL'NEH,  called  Calno,  Isa.  10:9,  and 
Canneh,  Ezek.  27  :  23,  one  of  Nimrod's 
cities,  Gen.  10 :  10,  afterwards  called 
Ctesiphon ;  it  lay  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Tigris  opposite  Seleucia,  twenty  miles 
below  Bagdad.  Ctesiphon  was  a  winter 
residence  of  the  Parthian  kings.  Noth 
ing  now  remains  but  the  ruins  of  a  pal 
ace  and  mounds  of  rubbish. 

CAL'VARY,  or  GOL'GOTIIA,  the  latter 
being  the  Hebrew  term,  place  of  a  skull, 
the  place  where  our  Saviour  was  cruci 
fied,  near  by  Jerusalem,  John  19:20,  but 
outside  of  its  walls,  Matt.  27  :  33 ;  Mark 
15:22;  John  19:17;  Heb.  13:12.  In  the 
same  place  was  a  private  garden,  and  a 
tomb  in  which  the  body  of  Christ  lay 
until  the  resurrection,  John  19  :  41,  42. 
The  expression,  "mount  Calvary,"  has 
no  evidence  to  support  it  beyond  what 
is  implied  in  the  name  Golgotha  which 
might  well  be  given  to  a  slight  elevation 
shaped  like  the  top  of  a  skull,  and  the 
probability  that  such  a  place  would  be 


chosen  for  the  crucifixion.  It  is  very 
doubtful  whether  the  true  localities  of 
Calvary  and  the  tomb  are  those  covered 
by  the  present  ' '  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,"  a  vast  structure  north  of 
mount  Zion  and  within  the  modern  city, 
built  on  the  site  which  was  fixed  under 
the  empress  Helena,  A.  D.  335,  by  tradi 
tion  and  a  pretended  miracle.  Some 
biblical  geographers  adhere  to  this  loca« 
tion  ;  but  llobinson  and  many  others 
strongly  oppose  it,  on  the  ground  cf  the 
weakness  of  the  tradition,  and  the  diffi 
culty  of  supposing  that  this  place  lay 
outside  of  the  ancient  walls.  See  JERU 
SALEM.  Dr.  Fisk,  while  visiting  the  spot 
under  the  natural  desire  to  identify  the 
scene  of  these  most  sacred  events,  felt  it 
to  be  just  possible,  and  that  was  all, 
that  the  spot  shown  him  might  be  the 
actual  scene  of  the  crucifixion ;  that  the 
rock  shown  him  might  be  a  part  of  the 
rock  riven  by  the  earthquake;  that  the 
stone  column  he  saw,  half  concealed  by 
iron-work,  might  have  been  that  to 
which  our  Lord  was  bound  when  scourg 
ed  ;  that  the  small  fragment  of  rude 
stone  seen  by  the  light  of  a  small  taper, 
through  a  kind  of  iron  filigree,  might 
have  been  the  stone  on  which  he  sat  to 
be  crowned  with  thorns ;  that  the  spot 
overhung  with  lamps,  and  covered  with 
a  white  marble  sarcophagus,  with  a  kind 
of  domed  structure  in  the  centre,  might 
have  been  the  place  of  our  Lord's  burial 
and  resurrection:  but  when  he  saw  the 
near  juxtaposition  of  all  these  things, 
and  knew  that  in  order  to  provide  for 
the  structure  of  the  church  the  site  had 
to  be  cut  down  and  levelled ;  when  he 
reflected  that  on  the  very  spot  a  hea 
then  temple  had  stood,  till  removed  by 
the  empress  Helena,  to  make  room  for 
this  church ;  and,  moreover,  when  he 
considered  the  superstitious  purpose  all 
these  things  were  to  serve,  and  the  spirit 
of  that  church  which  thus  paraded  these 
objects  of  curiosity,  he  could  not  bring 
himself  to  feel  they  were  what  they  pro 
fessed  to  be. 

Let  us  be  thankful  that  though  the 
exact  scene  of  Christ's  death  is  now  un 
known,  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the 
fact.  "  He  died,  and  was  buried,  and  the 
third  day  rose  again,  according  to  the 
Scriptures."  Then  the  old  ritual  passed 
away,  Satan  was  despoiled,  man  was 
redeemed,  God  reconciled,  and  heaven 
opened  to  all  believers. 

77 


CAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


CAM 


THE  SWIFT  CAMEL,  OR  DROMEDARY. 

CAM'EL,  carrier,  a  beast  of  burden 
very  common  in  the  East,  where  it  is 
called  ' '  the  land-ship, ' '  and  ' '  the  car 
rier  of  the  desert."  It  is  six  or  seven 
feet  high,  and  is  exceedingly  strong, 
tough,  and  enduring  of  labor.  The  feet 
are  constructed  with  a  tough  elastic  sole, 
which  pi-events  the  animal  from  sinking 
in  the  sand ;  and  on  all  sorts  of  ground 
it  is  very  sure-footed.  The  Arabian  spe 
cies,  most  commonly  referred  to  in  Scrip 
ture,  has  but  one  hump  on  the  back  ; 
while  the  Bactrian  camel,  found  in  cen 
tral  Asia,  has  two.  While  the  animal  is 
well  fed,  these  humps  swell  with  accu 
mulated  fat,  which  is  gradually  absorbed 
imder  scarcity  and  toil,  to  supply  the 
lack  of  food.  The  dromedary  is  a  light 
er  and  swifter  variety,  otherwise  not  dis 
tinguishable  from  the  common  camel, 
Jer.  2  :  23.  Within  the  cavity  of  the 
stomach  is  a  sort  of  paunch,  provided 
with  membranous  cells  to  contain  an 
extra  provision  of  water:  the  supply 
with  which  this  is  filled  will  last  for 
many  days  while  he  traverses  the  des 
ert.  His  food  is  coarse  leaves,  twigs, 
thistles,  which  he  prefers  to  the  tendcr- 
est  grass,  and  on  which  he  performs  the 
longest  journeys.  But  generally,  on  a 
inarch,  about  a  pound  weight  of  dates, 
beans,  or  barley,  will  serve  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  camel  kneels  to  re 
ceive  its  load,  which  varies  from  500  to 
1,000  or  1,200  pounds.  Meanwhile  it 
is  wont  to  utter  loud  cries  or  growls  of 
anger  and  impatience.  It  is  often  obsti 
nate  and  stupid,  and  at  times  ferocious  ; 
78 


the  young  are  as  dull  and  ungainly  as 
the  old  Its  average  rate  of  travel  is 
about  two  and  one  third  miles  an  hour  ; 
and  it  jogs  on  with  a  sullen  pertinacity 
hour  after  hour  without  fatigue,  seem 
ing  as  fresh  at  night  as  in  the  morning. 
No  other  animal  could  endure  the  severe 
and  continual  hardships  of  the  camel,  his 
rough  usage,  his  coarse  and  scanty  food. 
The  Arabians  well  say  of  him,  "Job's 
beast  is  a  monument  of  God's  mercy." 

This  useful  animal  has  been  much  cm- 
ployed  in  the  East,  from  a  very  early 
period.  The  merchants  of  those  sultry 
climes  have  found  it  the  only  means  of 
exchanging  the  products  of  different 
lands,  and  from  time  immemorial  long 
caravans  have  traversed  year  after  year 
the  almost  pathless  deserts,  Gen.  37:25. 
The  number  of  one's  camels  was  a  token 
of  his  wealth.  Job  had  3,000,  and  the 
Midianites'  camels  were  like  the  sand  of 
the  sea,  Judg.  7:12;  1  Chr.  5.21;  Job 
1:3.  Rebekah  came  to  Isaac  riding  upon 
a  camel,  Gen.  24:64  ;  the  queen  of  Sheba 
brought  them  to  Solomon,  and  Hazael 
to  Elisha,  laden  with  the  choicest  gifts, 
1  Kin.  10'2  ;  2  Kin.  8:9 ;  and  they  were 
even  made  serviceable  in  war,  1  Sam. 
30.17.  The  camel  was  to  the  Hebrews 
an  unclean  animal,  Lev.  11:4;  yet  its 
milk  has  ever  been  to  the  Arabs  an 
important  article  of  food,  and  is  highly 
prized  as  a  cooling  and  healthy  drink. 
Indeed,  no  animal  is  more  useful  to  the 
Arabs,  while  living  or  after  death.  Out 
of  its  hair  they  manufacture  carpets,  tent 
cloth,  and  large  sacks  for  corn.  Of  its 
skin  they  make  huge  water-bottles  and 
leather  sacks,  also  sandals,  ropes,  and 
thongs.  Its  dung,  dried  in  the  sun,  serves 
them  for  fuel. 

CAMELS'  HAIR  was  woven  into  cloth  in 
the  East,  some  of  it  exceedingly  line  and 
soft,  but  usually  coarse  and  rough,  used 
for  making  the  coats  of  shepherds  and 
camel-drivers,  and  for  covering  tents. 
It  was  this  that  John  the  Baptist  wore, 
and  not  "soft  raiment,"  Matt.  11:8. 
Modern  dervishes  wear  garments  of  this 
kind ;  and  this  appears  to  be  meant  in 
2  Kin  1  8. 

The  expression,  "  It  is  easier  for  a 
camel  to  go  through  the  eye  of  a  nee 
dle,"  etc.,  Matt.  19  :  24,  was  a  proverb 
to  describe  an  impossibility.  The  same 
phrase  occurs  in  the  Koran  ;  and  a  simi 
lar  one  in  the  Talmud,  respecting  an  el 
ephant's  going  through  a  needle's  eye. 


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See  also  the  proverb  in  Matt  23  :  24, 
which  illustrates  the  hypocrisy  of  the 
Pharisees  by  the  custom  of  passing  wine 
through  a  strainer.  The  old  versions  of 
the  New  Testament,  instead  of,  "strain 
at"  a  gnat,  have,  "strain  out,"  which 
conveys  the  true  meaning. 

CAMP,  ENCAMPMENTS,  These  terms 
usually  refer  to  the  movements  of  the 
Israelites  between  Egypt  and  Canaan  ; 
and  many  passages  of  the  Levitical  law 
relate  to  things  done  "within"  or 
"without  the  camp."  The  whole  body 
of  the  people  consisted  of  six  hundred 
thousand  lighting  men,  besides  women 
and  children,  Num.  1:2;  and  was  dis 
posed  into  four  battalions,  so  arranged 
as  to  enclose  the  tabernacle  in  a  square, 
and  each  under  one  general  standard, 
Num.  2  :  3.  The  mode  in  which  this  vast 
mass  of  people  was  arranged,  with  the 
most  perfect  order  and  subordination, 
must  excite  general  surprise.  Balaam, 
standing  on  the  heights  of  Moab,  viewed 
the  imposing  spectacle  with  admiration 
and  awe:  "How  goodly  arc  thy  tents, 
0  Jacob!  the  Lord  his  God  is  with  him," 
Num.  23;  24. 

The  order  appointed  for  the  removal 
of  the  hosts  of  Israel  from  one  encamp 
ment  to  another  is  detailed  in  Num. 
9  ;  10  The  names  of  forty-one  encamp 
ments  are  given  in  Num.  33 ;  from  the 
first  in  Kameses,  in  the  month  April, 
B.  c.  1491,  to  the  last  on  the  brink  of  the 
Jordan  forty  years  later.  See  EXODUS, 
and  WANDERINGS 

Travellers  in  the  desert  were  wont  to 
pitch  their  tents  in  the  centre  of  a  circle 
formed  by  their  camels  and  baggage, 
which  served  as  a  barrier  against  an 
assault.  A  similar  mode  of  encamping 
was  practised  by  large  caravans,  and  by 
armies,  1  Sam.  20:5,  margin. 

CAM'PHIUK,  in  Sol.  Song  1:14;  4:13, 
is  not  the  gum  Camphor  of  our  apothe 
caries,  but  the  Cyprus-flower,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  the  Alhenna  of  the 
Arabs,  a  whitish  fragrant  llower,  hang 
ing  in  clusters  like  grapes.  Oriental 
ladies  make  use  of  the  dried  and  pow 
dered  leaves  to  give  their  nails,  feet,  and 
hands  a  reddish  orange  tinge.  The  nails 
of  Egyptian  mummies  are  found  thus 
dyed.  See  EYELIDS.  The  flowers  of  the 
Alhenna  are  fragrant ;  and  being  dis 
posed  in  clusters,  the  females  of  Egypt 
are  fond  of  carrying  it  in  their  bosoms. 

CA'NA,  the  birthplace  of  Nathanael, 


the  city  in  which  our  Lord  performed 
his  first  miracle,  and  from  which  he  soon 
after  sent  a  miraculous  healing  to  the 
nobleman's  son  at  Capernaum,  eighteen 
miles  off,  John  2:1-11  ;  4:40-54;  21:2. 
It  was  called  Cana  of  Galilee,  now  K  ana- 
el -Jelil,  and  lay  seven  miles  north  of 
Nazareth  This  is  Robinson's  view.  -The 
commonly  received  site  is  nearer  Naza 
reth,  ('ana  is  now  in  ruins. 

CA'NAAN,  I.,  the  son  of  Ham,  and 
grandson  of  Noah,  Gen.  9'18.  His  nu 
merous  posterity  seem  to  have  occupied 
Zidon  lirst,  and  thence  spread  into  Syria 
and  Canaan,  Gen.  10  :  15-19 ;  1  Chr. 
1 .13-10.  The  Jews  believe  that  he  was 
implicated  with  his  father  in  the  dishon 
or  done  to  Noah,  Gen.  9:20-27,  which 
was  the  occasion  of  the  curse  under  which 
he  and  his  posterity  suffered,  Josh.  9:23, 
27;  2  Chr.  8:7,8. 

II.  The  land  peopled  by  Canaan  and 
his  posterity,  and  afterwards  given  to 
the  Hebrews.  This  country  has  at  dif 
ferent  periods  been  called  by  various 
names,  either  from  its  inhabitants  or 
some  circumstances  connected  with  its 
history.  (1.)  "The  land  of  Canaan," 
from  Canaan,  the  son  of  Ham,  who  di 
vided  it  among  his  sons,  each  of  whom 
became  the  head  of  a  numerous  tribe, 
and  ultimately  of  a  distinct  people,  (Jen. 
10-15-20;  11:31.  This  did  not  at  first 
include;  any  land  east  of  the  Jordan.  (2.) 
"The  land  of  Promise,"  Hob.  11:9,  from 
the  promise  given  to  Abraham,  that  his 
posterity  should  possess  it,  Gen.  12:7; 
13:15.  These  being  termed  Hebrews, 
the  region  in  which  they  dwelt  was  ('ail 
ed,  (3.)  "The  land  of  the  Hebrews,  Gen. 
40:  15;  and  (4.)  "The  land  of  Israel," 
from  the  Israelites,  or  posterity  of  Jacob, 
having  settled  there.  This  name  is  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  Old  Testa 
ment.  It  comprehends  all  that  tract  of 
ground  on  each  side  of  the  Jordan,  which 
God  gave  for  an  inheritance  to  the  He 
brews.  At  a  later  age,  this  term  was 
often  restricted  to  the  territory  of  the 
ten  tribes,  Ezek.  27:17.  (5.)  "The  land 
of  Judah."  This  at  lirst  comprised  only 
the  region  which  was  allotted  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  After  the  separation  of 
the  ten  tribes,  the  land  which  belonged 
to  Judah  and  Benjamin,  who  formed  a 
separate  kingdom,  was  distinguished  by 
the  appellation  of  "the  land  of  Judah," 
or  Judea ;  which  latter  name  the  wholo 
country  retained  during  the  existence  of 
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the  second  temple,  and  under  the  do 
minion  of  the  Romans.  (6.)  "The  Holy 
Land. ' '  This  name  appears  to  have  been 
used  by  the  Hebrews  after  the  Babylo 
nish  captivity,  Zech.  2:13.  (7.)  "Pal 
estine,"  Ex.  15:14,  a  name  derived 
from  the  Philistines,  who  migrated  from 
Egypt,  and  having  expelled  the  aborig 
inal  inhabitants,  settled  on  the  borders 
of  the  Mediterranean.  Their  name  was 
subsequently  given  to  the  whole  coun 
try,  though  they  in  fact  possessed  only  a 
small  part  of  it.  By  heathen  writers, 
the  Holy  Land  has  been  variously  termed 
Palestine,  Syria,  and  Phoenicia. 

Canaan  was  bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  Mediterranean  sea,  north  by  mount 
Lebanon  and  Syria,  east  by  Arabia  De- 
serta,  and  south  by  Edom  and  the  desert 
of  Zin  and  Paran.  Its  extreme  length 
was  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles, 
and  its  average  width  about  sixty-live. 
Its  general  form  and  dimensions  Cole- 
man  has  well  compared  to  those  of  the 
state  of  New  Hampshire.  At  the  period 
of  David,  vast  tributary  regions  were  for 
a  time  annexed  to  the  Holy  Land.  These 
included  the  bordering  nations  on  the 
east,  far  into  Arabia  Deserta;  thence 
north  to  Tiphsah  on  the  Euphrates,  with 
all  Syria  between  Lebanon  and  the  Eu 
phrates.  On  the  south  it  included  Edom, 
and  reached  the  Red  sea  at  Ezion-geber. 

The  land  of  Canaan  has  been  variously 
divided.  Under  Joshua  it  was  appor 
tioned  out  to  the  twelve  tribes.  Under 
Rehoboam  it  was  divided  into  the  two 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah.  It  after 
wards  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Baby 
lonians,  the  Greeks,  the  Syrians,  and 
the  Romans.  During  the  time  of  our 
Saviour,  it  was  under  the  dominion  of 
the  last-mentioned  people,  and  was  divid 
ed  into  five  provinces :  Galilee,  Samaria, 
Judea,  Perrea,  and  Idurmea.  Persea  was 
again  divided  into  seven  cantons  :  Abi 
lene,  Trachonitis,  Iturea,  Gaulonitis, 
Batanoea,  Peraa,  and  Decapolis.  At 
present,  Palestine  is  subject  to  the  sul 
tan  of  Turkey,  under  whom  the  pashas 
of  Acre  and  Gaza  govern  the  seacoast, 
and  the  pasha  of  Damascus  the  interior 
of  the  country. 

•  The  surface  of  the  land  of  Canaan  is 
beautifully  diversified  with  mountains 
and  plains,  rivers  and  valleys.  The  prin 
cipal  mountains  are  Lebanon,  Carmel, 
Tabor,  Gilead,  Hermon,  the  mount  of 
Olives,  etc.  The  plain  of  the  Mediterra- 
80 


nean,  of  Esdraslon,  and  of  Jericno,  are 
celebrated  as  the  scenes  of  many  impor 
tant  events.  The  chief  streams  are  the 
Jordan,  the  Arnon,  the  Sihor,  the  Jab- 
bok,  and  the  Kishon.  The  lakes  are  the 
Asphaltites  or  Dead  sea,  the  lake  of  Ti 
berias  or  sea  of  Galilee,  and  lake  Merom- 
These  are  elsewhere  described,  each  in 
its  own  place. 

The  general  features  of  the  country 
may  here  be  briefly  described.  The 
northern  boundary  is  at  the  lofty  moun 
tains  of  Lebanon  and  Hermon,  some 
peaks  of  which  are  ten  thousand  feet 
high.  Around  the  base  of  mount  Her- 
rnon  are  the  various  sources  of  the  Jor 
dan.  This  river,  passing  through  lake 
Merom  and  the  sea  of  Galilee,  flows  south 
with  innumerable  windings  into  the 
Dead  sea.  Its  valley  is  deeply  sunk,  and 
from  its  source  to  the  Dead  sea  it  has  a 
descent  of  two  thousand  feet.  The  coun 
try  between  the  Jordan  valley  and  the 
Mediterranean  sea  is  in  general  an  ele 
vated  table-land,  broken  up  by  many 
hills,  and  by  numerous  deep  valleys 
through  which  the  wintry  torrents  flow 
into  Jordan  and  the  sea.  The  table 
land  of  Galilee  may  be  nine  hundred  or 
one  thousand  feet  above  the  Mediterra 
nean.  In  lower  Galilee  we  find  the  great 
and  beautiful  plain  of  Esd radon,  extend 
ing  from  mount  Carmel  and  Acre  on  the 
west  to  Tabor  and  Gilboa,  and  even  to 
the  Jordan  on  the  east.  From  this  plain 
the  land  again  rises  towards  the  south  ; 
mount  Gerizim  being  2,300  feet,  Jerusa 
lem  2,400,  and  Hebron  2,600  above  the 
sea.  On  the  sea-coast,  below  mount 
Carmel,  a  fertile  plain  is  found  ;  towards 
the  south  it  becomes  gradually  wider, 
and  expands  at  last  into  the  great  des 
ert  of  Paran.  From  this  plain  of  the 
sea-coast  the  ascent  to  the  high  land  of 
the  interior  is  by  a  succession  of  natural 
terraces;  while  the  descent  to  the  Jor 
dan,  the  Dead  sea,  and  Edom,  is  abrupt 
and  precipitous.  The  country  beyond 
the  Jordan  is  mountainous  ;  a  rich  graz 
ing  land,  with  many  fertile  valleys. 
Still  farther  east  is  the  high  and  desolate 
plateau  of  Arabia  Deserta. 

The  soil  and  climate  of  Canaan  were 
highly  favorable.  The  heat  was  not 
extreme  except  in  the  deep  river  beds, 
and  on  the  sea-coast ;  and  the  climate 
was  in  general  mild  and  healthful.  The 
variations  of  sunshine,  clouds,  and  rain, 
which  with  us  extend  throughout  the 


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year,  are  in  Palestine  confined  chiefly  to 
the  winter  or  rainy  season.  The  autum 
nal  rains  usually  commence  in  the  latter 
part  of  October,  and  soon  after  the  tirst 
showers  wheat  and  barley  are  sowed. 
Riin  falls  more  heavily  in  December ; 
and  continues,  though  with  less  frequen 
cy,  until  April.  From '  May  to  October 
no  rain  falls.  The  cold  of  winter  is  not 
severe,  and  the  ground  does  not  freeze. 
Snows  a  foot  or  more  deep  sometimes 
occur,  and  there  are  frequent  hailstorms 
in  winter.  The  barley  harvest  is  about 
a  fortnight  earlier  than  the  wheat,  and 
both  are  earlier  in  the  plains  than  on  the 
high  land ;  altogether  the  grain  harvest 
extends  from  April  to  June.  The  first 
grapes  ripen  in  July,  hut  the  vintage  is 
not  over  till  September.  In  this  month 
and  October  the  heat  is  great ;  the  ground 
becomes  dry  and  parched ;  verdure  has 
long  before  disappeared;  pools  and  cis 
terns  begin  to  dry  up;  and  all  nature, 
animate  and  inanimite,  looks  forward 
with  longing  for  the  return  of  the  rainy 
season. 

The  soil  of  Canaan  was  highly  produc 
tive.  The  prevailing  rock  is  a  chalky 
limestone,  abounding  in  caverns.  It 
readily  formed,  and  was  covered  with,  a 
rich  mould, 'which  produced,  in  the  va 
rious  elevations  and  climates  so  remark 
ably  grouped  together  in  that  small 
region  of  the  world,  an  unequalled  vari 
ety  of  the  fruits  of  the  ground.  Olives, 
figs,  vines,  and  pomegranates  grew  in 
abundance;  the  hills  were  clothed  with 
flocks  and  herds,  and  the  valleys  were 
covered  with  corn.  The  land  of  promise 
was  currently  described  as  ' '  flowing  with 
milk  and  honey."  Yet  the  glowing 
description  given  by  Moses,  Deut.  8:7-9, 
and  the  statements  of  history  as  to  the 
vast  population  formerly  occupying  it, 
are  in  striking  contrast  with  its  present 
aspect  of  barrenness  and  desolation.  The 
curse  brought  down  by  the  unbelief  of 
the  Jews  still  blights  their  unhappy 
land.  Long  ages  of  warfare  and  misrule 
have  despoiled  and  depopulated  it.  Its 
hills,  once  terraced  to  the  summit,  and 
covered  with  luxuriant  grain,  vines, 
olives,  and  figs,  are  now  bare  rocks.  Its 
early  and  latter  rains,  once  preserved  in 
reservoirs,  and  conducted  by  winding 
channels  to  water  the  ground  in  the  sea 
son  of  drought,  now  flow  off  unheeded 
to  the  sea.  The  land,  stripped  of  its 
forests,  lies  open  to  the  sun— which  now 
4* 


scorches  where  it  once  fertilized.  And 
yet  some  parts  of  Palestine  still  show  an 
astonishing  fertility ;  and  wherever  the 
soil  is  cultivated,  it  yields  a  hundred 
fold.  Indian  corn  grows  there  eleven 
feet  high,  and  grapes  are  still  produced 
that  almost  rival  the  clusters  of  Eshcol. 
Intelligent  travellers  agree  in  confirming 
the  statements  of  Scripture  as  to  its  an 
cient  fertility.  See  HEBREWS,  JUDEA. 

CONQUEST  OF  CANAAN.  Various  argu 
ments  have  been  adduced  to  justify  the 
conquest  of  Canaan,  and  the  extermina 
tion  of  its  inhabitants  by  the  Israelites : 
as,  that  the  land  had  been  allotted  to 
Shem  and  his  sons  after  the  flood,  and 
the  sons  of  Ham  were  usurpers ;  that 
they  first  assaulted  the  Jews  ;  that  Abra 
ham  had  taken  possession v  of  the  land 
ages  before ;  that  the  Canaanites  were 
akin  to  the  Egyptians,  and  implicated  in 
their  guilt  and  punishment  as  oppressors 
of  the  Hebrews.  Whatever  justice  there 
may  be  in  any  of  these  reasons,  they  are 
not  those  which  the  Bible  assigns.  The 
only  true  warrant  of  the  Jews  was,  the 
special  command  of  the  Lord  of  all.  They 
were  impressively  taught  that  the  wick 
edness  of  those  nations  was  the  reason  of 
their  punishment,  which  the  forbearance 
of  G-od  had  long  delayed,  and  which  was 
designed  as  a  warning  to  them  and  all 
mankind  against  idolatry  and  its  kindred 
sins.  It  was  these  sins  the  Jews  were  to 
abhor  and  exterminate ;  they  were  to  act 
as  agents  of  God's  justice,  and  not  for 
the  gratification  of  their  own  avarice, 
anger,  or  lust,  the  spoil  and  the  captives 
being  all  devoted  to  destruction.  The 
narrative  of  the  conquest  is  given  in 
Num.  1-4;  Joshua;  and  Judges  1.  The 
Canaanites  were  not  wholly  destroyed. 
Many  of  them  escaped  to  other  lands ; 
and  fragments  of  almost  all  the  nations 
remained  in  Judea,  subject  to  the  Israel 
ites,  but  snares  to  their  feet  and  thorns 
in  their  sides.  It  must  be  observed  also, 
that  full  notice  was  previously  given 
them  to  quit  their  forfeited  possessions ; 
a  solemn  writ  of  ejectment  had  been 
issued  by  the  great  Proprietor,  and  if 
they  resisted,  they  incurred  the  conse 
quences. 

CA'NAANITES,  the  descendants  of 
Canaan.  Their  first  habitation  was  in 
the  land  of  Canaan,  where  they  multi 
plied  extremely,  and  by  trade  and  Avar 
acquired  great  riches,  and  sent  out  colo 
nies  all  over  the  islands  and  coasts  of 
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the  Mediterranean.  When  the  measure 
of  their  idolatries  and  abominations  was 
completed,  God  delivered  their  country 
into  the  hands  of  the  Israelites,  who  con 
quered  it  under  Joshua.  See  the  pre 
vious  article.  The  following  are  the 
principal  tribes  mentioned. 

1.  The  HIVITES  dwelt  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  country,  at  the  foot  of  mount 
Hermon,  or  Anti-Lebanon,  according  to 
Josh.  11:3,  where  it  is  related  that  they, 
along  with  the  united  forces  of  northern 
Canaan,  were  defeated  by  Joshua.    They 
were  not,  however,  entirely  driven  out 
of  their  possessions,  Judg.  3:3;  2  Sam. 
24:7;  1  Kin.   9:20.     There  were  also 
Hivites  in  middle  Palestine,  Gen.  34:2; 
Josh.  19:1,  7;  11:19. 

2.  The   CANAANITES,    in    a    restricted 
sense,  inhabited  partly  the  plains  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Jordan,  and  partly  the 
plains  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
sea,  Num.  13:29;  Josh.  11:3. 

3.  The  GIRGASIIITES  dwelt  between  the 
Canaanites  and  the  Jebusites ;  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  order  in  which  they 
are  mentioned  in  Josh.  24:11. 

4.  The  JEBUSITES  had  possession  of  the 
hill  country  around  Jerusalem,   and  of 
that  city  itself,    of  which   the   ancient 
name  was  Jebus,  Josh.  15  8,  63;  18:28. 
The  Benjamites,    to  whom  this  region 
was  allotted,  did  not  drive  out  the  Jeb 
usites,  Judg-.  1 : 21     David  first  captured 
the  citadel  of  Jcbus,  2  Sam.  5:6. 

5  The  AMORITES  inhabited,  in  Abra 
ham's  time,  the  region  south  of  Jerusa 
lem,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Dead 
sea,  Gen.  14:7.  At  a  later  period,  they 
spread  themselves  out  over  all  the  moun 
tainous  country  which  forms  the  south 
eastern  part  of  Canaan,  and  which  was 
called  from  them  the  ' '  mountain  of  the 
Arnorites,"  and  afterwards  the  "moun 
tain  of  Judah,"  Dent.  1:19,  20;  Num. 
13:29;  Josh.  11:3.  On  the  east  side  of  the 
Jordan  also  they  had,  before  the  time  of 
Moses,  founded  two  kingdoms,  that  of 
Bashan  in  the  north,  and  another,  bound 
ed  at  first  by  the  Jabbok,  in  the  south. 
But  under  Sihon  they  crossed  the  Jabbok, 
and  took  from  the  Ammonites  and  Moab- 
ites  all  the  country  between  the  Jabbok 
and  the  Arnon ;  so  that  this  latter  stream 
now  became  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  Amorites,  Num.  21:13, 14,  26 ;  32:33, 
39 ;  Dent.  4 : 46,  47  ;  31 : 4.  This  last  tract 
the  Israelites  took  possession  of  after 
their  victory  over  Sihon.  Sec  AMORITES. 
82 


6.  The  HITTITES,  or  children  of  Heth, 
according  to  the   report  of  the   spies, 
Num.  1:29,  dwelt  among  the  Amorites 
in  the  mountainous  district  of  the  south, 
afterwards  called  the  ' '  mountain  of  Ju 
dah.  ' '    In  the  time  of  Abraham  they  pos 
sessed  Hebron;   and  the  patriarch  pur 
chased  from  them  the  cave  of  Machpelah 
as  a  sepulchre,  Gen.  23 ;  25:9,  10.    After 
the  Israelites  entered  Canaan,  the  Hit- 
tites  seem  to  have  moved  farther  north 
ward.     The  country  around  Bethel   is 
called  "the  land  of  the  Hittites,"  Judg. 
1:26.     Sec  HITTITES. 

7.  The  PERIZZITKS  were  found  in  vari 
ous  parts  of  Canaan.      The  name  signi 
fies  inhabitants  of  the  plains,  from  their 
original  abode.    According  to  Gen.  13:7, 
they  dwelt  with  the  Canaanites,  between 
Bethel  and  Ai ;  and  according  to  Gen. 
34:30,  in  the  vicinity  of  Shechein.     See 
PERIZZITES. 

Besides  these  seven  tribes,  there  were 

several  others  of  the  same   parentage, 

j  dwelling  north  of  Canaan.      These  were 

j  the  Arkites,  Arvadites,  Hamathites,  and 

I  Zemarites.    There  were  also  several  other 

i  tribes  of  diverse  origin  within  the  bounds 

of  Canaan,  destroyed  by  the  Israelites; 

such  as  the  Anakim,  the  Amalekites,  and 

the  Bcphaim  or  giants. 

CAN'DACE,  the  name  of  an  Ethiopian 
queen,  whose  high  treasurer  was  con 
verted  to  Christianity  under  the  preach 
ing  of  Philip  the  evangelist,  Acts  8:27. 
The  Ethiopia  over  which  she  ruled  was 
not  Abyssinia,  but  that  region  of  Upper 
Nubia  called  by  the  Greeks  Meroe  ;  and 
is  supposed  to  correspond  with  the  pres 
ent  province  of  Atbara,  lying  between 
thirteen  and  eighteen  degrees  north  lat 
itude.  Extensive  ruins  found  in  this 
neighborhood,  and  along  the  upper  val 
ley  of  the  Nile,  indicate  high  civili 
zation  among  the  ancient  Ethiopians. 
Pliny  and  Strabo  inform  us  that  for 
some  time  before  and  after  the  Christian 
era,  Ethiopia  Proper  was  under  the  gov 
ernment  of  female  sovereigns,  who  all 
bore  the  appellation  of  Candace.  Irenzc- 
us  and  Eusebius  ascribe  to  Candace 's 
minister  her  own  conversion  to  Christi 
anity,  and  the  promulgation  of  the  gos 
pel  through  her  kingdom. 

CANDLESTICK.  In  the  tabernacle, 
the  golden  candlestick  stood  on  the  left 
hand  of  one  entering  the  Holy  Place, 
opposite  the  table  of  show-bread.  It 
consisted  of  a  pedestal ;  an  upright  shaft ; 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CAP 


SPOILS  OF  JERUSALEM  ,    FROM  THE   ARCH   OF    TITUS  AT  ROME. 


six  arms,  three  on  one  side,  and  three  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  shaft ;  and  seven 
lamps  surmounting  the  shaft  and  arms. 
The  arms  were  adorned  with  three  kinds 
of  carved  ornaments,  called  cups,  globes, 
and  blossoms.  Its  lamps  were  supplied 
with  pure  olive  oil,  and  lighted  every 
evening,  Ex.  25:31-40;  30:7,  8;  37:17- 
24 ;  Lev.  24  : 1-3 ;  1  Sam.  3:3;  2  Chr. 
13:11.  In  the  first  temple  there  were 
ten  candelabra  of  pure  gold,  half  of  them 
standing  on  the  north,  and  half  on  the 
south  side,  within  the  Holy  Place,  1  Kin. 
7:49,  50;  2  Chr,  4:7;  Jer.  52:19.  In 
the  second  temple  there  was  but  one, 
resembling  that  of  the  tabernacle.  This 
wras  carried  to  Rome,  on  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem ;  it  was  lodged  in  Vespa 
sian's  temple  to  Peace,  and  copied  on  the 
triumphal  arch  of  Titus,  where  its  mu 
tilated  image  is  yet  to  be  seen.  See  the 
beautiful  and  significant  visions  of  the 
candlestick  by  Zechariah  and  John,  Zech. 
4:2-12;  Rev.  1:12,  20. 

CANE,  or  CAL'AMUS,  SWEET,  Song  4:14, 
an  aromatic  reed  mentioned  among  the 
drugs  of  which  the  sacred  perfumes  were 
compounded,  Ex.  30:23.  The  true  odo 
riferous  calamus  or  grass  came  from  In 
dia  ;  and  the  prophets  speak  of  it  as  a 
foreign  commodity  of  great  value,  Isa. 
43:24;  Jer.  6:20;  Ezek.  27:19. 

CANKER- WORM,  in  our  English  Bi 
ble,  is  put  where  the  Hebrew  means  a 
species  of  locust,  Joel  1:4;  Nah.  3 : 15, 16. 

CANON.  The  Greek  word  denotes, 
primarily,  a  straight  rod ;  hence  a  rule  or 
standard,  by  a  reference  to  which  the  rec 
titude  of  opinions  or  actions  may  be  de 
cided.  In  the  latter  sense  it  is  used  in 
Gal.  6  :  16  ;  Phil.  3  : 16.  In  the  same 
sense  it  was  used  by  the  Greek  fathers. 


As  the  standard  to  which  they  sought  to 
appeal  on  all  questions  was  the  will  of 
God  contained  in  the  Scriptures  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  they  came 
naturally  to  apply  this  term  to  the  col 
lective  body  of  those  writings,  and  to 
speak  of  them  as  the  canon  or  rule.  Canon 
is  also  equivalent  to  a  list  or  catalogue, 
in  which  are  inserted  those  books  which 
contain  the  inspired  rule  of  faith. 

In  order  to  establish  the  canon  of 
Scripture,  it  must  be  shown  that  all  the 
books  are  of  divine  authority  ;  that  they 
are  entire  and  incorrupt ;  that  it  is  com 
plete  without  addition  from  any  foreign 
source  ;  and  that  the  whole  of  the  books 
for  which  divine  authority  can  be  proved 
are  included.  See  BIBLE. 

CAPER'NAUM,  a  chief  city  of  Galilee 
in  the  time  of  Christ,  not  mentioned  be 
fore  the  captivity  in  Babylon.  It  lay  on 
the  north-west  shore  of  the  sea  of  Gali 
lee,  about  five  miles  from  the  Jordan, 
and  on  the  frequented  route  from  Da 
mascus  to  the  Mediterranean.  This 
seems  to  have  been  the  residence  of 
Christ,  during  the  three  years  of  his 
ministry,  more  than  any  other  place. 
The  brothers  Andrew  and  Peter  dwelt 
there  ;  Christ  often  taught  in  the  syna 
gogue,  and  wrought  mighty  works  there, 
Matt.  17:23  ;  Mark  1:21-35;  John  6: 17, 
59;  and  it  is  called  "his  own  city," 
Matt.  4:12-16;  9:1  ;  Mark  2:1.  Its  in 
habitants  were  thus  ' '  exalted  unto  heav 
en  ;"  but  their  unbelief  and  impenitence 
cast  them  down  to  destruction,  Matt. 
11  :  20-24.  The  very  name  and  site  of 
Capernaum  have  been  lost.  Dr.  Robin 
son,  however,  finds  them  at  Khan  Min- 
yeh,  on  the  northern  border  of  the  fine 
plain  of  Gennesareth,  where  ruins  of 
83 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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gome  extent  still  remain,  and  a  copious 
fountain  not  far  from  the  sea. 

CAPH'TORIM,  descendants  of  Mizra- 
im,  and  kindred  to  the  Casluhim,  near 
.whom  they  were  probably  located  on  the 
north-east  coast  of  Africa.  These  last 
two  people  are  both  named  as  ancestors 
of  the  Philistines,  Gen.  10  :  14 ;  Deut. 
2 : 23  ;  Amos  9:7;  and  it  is  probable  that 
a  colony  made  up  from  both  drove  out 
the  Avim  from  the  country  on  the  south 
east  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  oc 
cupied  it  under  the  name  of  Philistines, 
which  it  is  generally  agreed  means  stran 
gers.  But  whether  they  came  from  Cy 
prus,  Crete,  or  Cappadocia,  is  not  agreed. 

CAPPADO'CIA,  the  largest  ancient 
province  of  Asia  Minor ;  having  Pontus 
on  the  north,  mount  Taurus,  separating 
it  from  Cilicia  and  Syria,  on  the  south, 
Galatia  on  the  west,  and  the  Euphrates 
and  Armenia  on  the  east.  It  was  wa 
tered  by  the  river  Halys,  and  was  noted 
for  its  fine  pastures  and  its  excellent 
breed  of  horses,  asses,  and  sheep.  There 
were  many  Jews  residing  in  it,  Acts  2:9. 
Christianity  was  early  introduced  there, 

1  Pet.  1:1,  among  a  people  proverbial 
for  dulncss,  faithlessness,  and  vice.     See 
CRETE.     Several  celebrated  Christian  fa 
thers  flourished  in  this  province,  as  Ba 
sil  and  the  three  Gregorics ;  and  their 
churches  may  be  traced  as  late  as  the 
tenth  century. 

CAP'TIVES,  taken  in  war,  seem  an 
ciently  to  have  been  looked  upon  as  just 
ly  liable  to  death,  and  hence  to  any  treat 
ment  less  dreadful  than  death.  Their 
necks  were  trodden  upon,  Josh.  10:24, 
in  token  of  abject  subjection,  which  il 
lustrates  Psa.  110:  1.  They  were  sold 
into  servitude,  like  Joseph.  They  were 
mutilated,  like  Samson,  or  Adonizcdek. 
They  were  stripped  of  all  clothing,  and 
driven  in  crowds  to  adorn  the  victor's 
triumph.  Large  numbers  of  them  were 
selected,  often  by  a  measuring  line,  2  Sam. 
8:2,  and  slain,  2  Chr.  25:12.  This  was 
sometimes  done  with  designed  cruelty, 

2  Sam.  12  :  31  ;  1  Chr.  20  :  3.     The  Ro 
mans  in  some  cases  bound  a  living  cap 
tive  to  a  dead  body,  and  left  them  to 
perish  together ;  a  practice  which  may 
be  applied  to  illustrate  the  apostle's  cry, 
' '  0  wretched  man  that  I  am  !  who  shall 
deliver  me  from  the  body  of  this  death  ?" 
Rom.  7:24. 

CAPTIVITY.  God  often  punished  the 
sins  of  the  Jews  by  captivities  or  servi- 
84 


tudes,  according  to  his  threatenings, 
Deut.  28.  Their  first  captivity,  howev 
er,  from  which  Moses  delivered  them, 
should  be  considered  rather  as  a  permis 
sion  of  Providence,  than  as  a  punishment 
for  sin.  There  were  six  subjugations  of 
the  twelve  tribes  during  the  period  of 
the  judges.  But  the  most  remarkable 
captivities,  or  rather  expatriations  of 
the  Hebrews,  were  those  of  Israel  and 
Judah  under  the  regal  government.  Is 
rael  was  first  carried  away  in  part  about 
B.  c.  740,  by  Tiglath  -  pileser,  2  Kin, 
15:29.  The  tribes  east  of  the  Jordan, 
with  parts  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali,  Isa. 
9:1,  were  the  first  sufferers.  Twenty 
years  later,  Shalmanezer  carried  away 
the  remainder,  2  Kin.  17:6,  and  located 
them  in  distant  cities,  many  of  them 
probably  not  far  from  the  Caspian  sea; 
and  their  place  was  supplied  by  colonies 
from  Babylon  and  Persia,  2  Kin.  17:6- 
24.  Aside  from  certain  prophecies,  Isa. 
11  : 12,  13  ;  Jer  31  :  7-9,  16-20  ;  49:  2  ; 
Ezek.  37:16;  Hos.  11:11;  Amos  9:14; 
Obad.  18,  19,  etc.,  which  are  variously 
interpreted  to  mean  a  past  or  a  future 
return,  a  physical  or  a  spiritual  restora 
tion,  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  ten 
tribes  as  a  body  ever  returned  to  Pales 
tine. 

To  Judah  are  generally  reckoned  three 
captivities  :  1.  Under  Jehoiakim,  in  his 
third  year,  B.  c.  606,  when  Daniel  and 
others  were  carried  to  Babylon,  2  Kin. 
24:1,  2  ;  Dan.  1:1.  2.  In  the  last  year 
of  Jehoiakim,  when  Nebuchadnezzar  car 
ried  3,023  Jews  to  Babylon ;  or  rather, 
under  Jehoiachin,  when  this  prince  also 
was  sent  to  Babylon,  that  is,  in  the  sev 
enth  and  eighth  years  of  Nebuchadnez 
zar,  B.  c.  598,  2  Kin.  24  :  2,  12  ;  2  Chr. 
36  :  8,  10 ;  Jer.  52  :  28.  3.  Under  Zedc- 
kiah,  B.  c.  588,  Avhen  Jerusalem  and  the 
temple  were  destroyed,  and  most  that 
was  valuable  among  the  people  and  their 
treasures  was  carried  to  Babylon,  2  Kin. 
25 ;  2  Chr.  36.  The  seventy  years  dur 
ing  which  they  were  to  remain  in  cap 
tivity,  Jer.  25:11;  29:10,  arc  reckoned 
probably  from  the  date  of  the  first  cap 
tivity,  B.  c.  606.  While  at  Babylon  the 
Jews  had  judges  and  elders  who  gov 
erned  them,  and  decided  matters  in  dis 
pute  juridically  according  to  their  laws. 
The  book  of  Daniel  shows  us  a  Jew  in  a 
high  position  at  court,  and  the  book  of 
Esther  celebrates  their  numbers  and 
power  in  the  Persian  empire.  The 


CAP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


CAR 


prophets  labored,  not  in  vain,  to  keep 
alive  the  flame  of  true  religion. 

At  length  the  seventy  years  were  ful 
filled,  and  Cyrus,  in  the  first  year  of  his 
reign  at  Babylon,  B.  c.  536,  made  a  proc 
lamation  throughout  his  empire  permit 
ting  the  people  of  God  to  return  to  their 
own  country,  and  rebuild  the  temple, 
Ezra  1:11.  Nearly  50,000  accepted  the 
invitation,  Ezra  2:2;  Neh.  7:7  This 
company  laid  the  foundation  of  the  sec 
ond  temple,  which  was  completed  in  the 
sixth  year  of  Darius,  B.  c.  516.  Fifty- 
eight  years  after,  Ezra  led  a  small  com 
pany  of  7,000  from  Babylon  to  Judea. 
He  was  succeeded  as  governor  by  Nehe- 
miah,  who  labored,  faithfully  and  suc 
cessfully  to  reform  the  people,  and  many 
of  the  good  fruits  of  his  labors  remained 
until  the  time  of  Christ. 

Probably  none  among  tho  posterity  of 
Jacob  can  now  prove  from  which  of  his 
twelve  sons  they  arc  descended.  Both 
Judah  and  Israel  being  removed  from 
"the  lot  of  their  inheritance"  in  Ca 
naan,  and  dispersed  among  strangers, 
the  various  tribes  would  naturally  amal 
gamate  with  each  other,  the  envy  of  Ju 
dah  and  Ephraim  would  depart,  and  the 
memory  of  Abraham,  Moses,  and  David 
would  revive,  Ezra  6  :  16,  17  ;  8  :  35 ; 
Ezek.  37:26-28. 

The  last  captivity  of  the  Jews,  A.  D. 
71,  after  they  had  filled  up  the  measure 
of  their  iniquity  by  rejecting  Christ  and 
the  gospel,  was  a  terrible  one.  Accord 
ing  to  Joscphus,  1, 100,000  perished  at  the 


of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  and  nearly 
100,000  captives  were  scattered  among 
the  provinces  to  perish  in  gladiatorial 
shows,  doomed  to  toil  as  public  slaves, 
or  sold  into  private  bondage.  The  cut 
represents  the  medal  of  the  emperor  Ves 


pasian,  A.  D.  71,  in  memory  of  the  cap 
ture  of  Jerusalem.  Under  the  emperor 
Hadrian,  A.  D.  133,  a  similar  crushing 
blow  fell  on  the  Jews  who  had  again  as 
sembled  in  Judea ;  and  at  this  day  they 
are  scattered  all  over  the  world,  yet  dis' 
tinct  from  the  people  among  whom  they 
dwell,  suffering  under  the  woe  which  un 
belief  has  brought  upon  their  fathers  and 
themselves,  and  awaiting  the  time  when 
Christ  ' '  shall  turn  away  ungodliness 
from  Jacob,"  Rom.  11 :  25,  26. 

CAR'BUNCLE,  a  precious  stone,  like 
a  large  ruby  or  garnet,  of  a  dark,  deep 
red  color,  said  to  glitter  even  in  the 
dark,  and  to  sparkle  more  than  tho 
ruby.  The  word  is  put  to  represent  two 
different  Hebrew  words,  one  of  which, 
Ex.  28  :  17  ;  Ezek.  28  :  13,  is  commonly 
thought  to  mean  the  emerald ;  and  tho 
other,  Isa.  54:12,  may  mean  a  brilliant 
species  of  ruby. 

CAR'CHEMISH,  probably  the  same 
with  Circesium  or  Circusium,  a  fortified 
city  on  the  west  side  of  the  Euphrates, 
where  the  river  Chaboras  enters  it.  In 
Isa.  10:9,  it  appears  as  taken  by  some  king 
of  Assyria.  It  was  attacked  by  Pharaoh- 
necho  king  of  Egypt,  near  the  close  of 
king  Josiah's  reign,  2  Chr.  35:20.  Five 
years  afterwards  Necho  was  signally  de 
feated  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer.  46:1-12. 
In  later  times  it  was  held  as  a  frontier 
post  of  the  Roman  empire  on  the  east. 

CAR'MEL,  a  fruitful  field,  I.,  a  city  of 
Judah,  on  a  mountain  of  the  same  name, 
eight  miles  south  by  east  of  Hebron, 
Josh.  15:55.  On  this  mountain  Saul, 
returning  from  his  expedition  against 
Amalek,  erected  a  trophy ;  and  here 
Nabal  the  Carmelite,  Abigail's  husband, 
dwelt,  1  Sam.  15: 12,  25.  Its  ruins  indi 
cate  that  it  was  a  large  place. 

II.  A  celebrated  range  of  hills  run 
ning  north-west  from  the  plain  of  Es- 
draslon,  and  ending  in  the  promontory 
which  forms  the  bay  of  Acre.  Its  great 
est  height  is  about  1,500  feet;  at  its 
north-eastern  foot  runs  the  brook  Ki- 
shon,  and  a  little  farther  north,  the  river 
Belus.  On  its  northern  point  stands  a 
convent  of  the  Carmelite  friars,  an  order 
established  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
having  at  the  present  day  various  branch 
es  in  Europe.  Mount  Carmel  is  the  only 
great  promontory  upon  the  coast  of  Pal 
estine.  The  foot  of  the  northern  part 
approaches  the  water,  so  that,  seen  from 
the  hills  north-east  of  Acre,  mount  Car- 
85 


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MT.   CARMEL  AND  HAIFA,  FROM  THE   N.   E. 

mcl  appears  as  if  "dipping  his  feet  in 
the  western  sea;"   farther  south  it  re 
tires  more  inland,  so  that  between  the 
mountain  and  the  sea  there  is  an  exten 
sive  plain  covered  with  fields  and  olive- 
trees.    Mariti  describes  it  as  a  delightful 
region,  and  says  the  good  quality  of  its 
soil  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  so 
many  odoriferous  plants  and  flowers,  as 
hyacinths,  jonquilles,   tazettos,   anemo 
nes,  etc. ,  grow  wild  upon  the  mountain. 
Von  Rich  tor  says,  "Mount  Carmel  is  en 
tirely  covered  with  green  ;  on  its  sum 
mit  are  pines  and  oaks,  and  farther  down 
olive  and  laurel  trees.     It  gives  rise  to 
a  multitude  of  crystal  brooks,  the  largest 
of  which  issues  from  the  so-called  '  foun 
tain    of    Elijah  ;'    and    they   all   hurry 
along,  between  banks  thickly  overgrown 
with  bushes,  to  the  Kishon.    Every  spe 
cies  of  tillage  succeeds  admirably  under 
this  mild  and  cheerful  sky.     The  pros 
pect  from  the  summit  of  the  mountain  j 
out  over  the  gulf  of  Acre  and  its  fertile  j 
shores,  to  the  blue  heights  of  Lebanon 
and  to  the  White  cape,  is  enchanting." 
Mr.  Carne  also  ascended  the  mountain, 
and  traversed  the  whole  summit,  which 
occupied  several  hours.     He  says,  "  It  is 
the  finest  and  most  beautiful  mountain 
in   Palestine,    of  great   length,   and   in 
many  parts  covered  with  trees  and  flow 
ers.     On  reaching,  at  last,  the  opposite 
summit,  and  coming  out  of  a  wood,  we 
saw  the  celebrated   plain   of   Esdralon 
beneath,  with  the  river  Kishon  flowing 
through  it;  mounts  Tabor  and   Little 
Hermon  were  in  front,  (east) ;  and  on  the 
right,  (south,)  the  prospect  was  bound - 
86 


ed  by  the  hills  of  Samaria."  From  the 
south-east  side  of  this  ridge,  a  range  of 
low  wooded  hills  on  the  south  spreads 
and  rises  into  the  high  lands  of  Samaria. 
Those  who  visit  mount  Carmel  in  the 
last  part  of  the  dry  season,  find  every 
(  thing  parched  and  brown ;  yet  enough 
j  remains  to  show  how  just  were  the  allu 
sions  of  ancient  writers  to  its  exceeding 
beauty,  Isa.  35:2,  its  verdure  of  drapery 
and  grace  of  outline,  Song  7:5,  and  its 
rich  pastures,  Isa.  33 : 9 ;  Jer.  50 : 19  ;  Amos 
1:2.  The  rock  of  the  mountain  is  a  hard 
limestone,  abounding  in  natural  caves, 
Amos  9:3.  These  have  in  many  cases 
been  enlarged,  and  otherwise  fitted  for 
human  habitation ;  and  the  mountain 
has  been  in  various  ages  a  favorite  resi 
dence  for  devotees.  It  is  memorable  for 
frequent  visits  of  the  prophets  Elijah  and 
Elisha,  2  Kin.  2:25  ;  4:25,  and  especially 
for  the  destruction  of  the  priests  of  Baal 
upon  it,  1  Kin.  18. 

CARPUS,  a  disciple  and  friend  of  Paul, 
who  lived  at  Troas,  2  Tim.  4:13. 

CARRIAGE,  in.  the  Bible,  usually 
means  the  baggage  which  formed  the 
burden  of  a  man  or  beast,  Acts  21 : 15. 
Once  it  seems  to  indicate  a  circular 
trench  or  rampart  of  baggage,  etp., 
around  a  camp,  1  Sam.  17:20. 


A   MODERN   SYRIAN   CART. 

CARTS  or  wagons  were  used  in  Pales 
tine  formerly,  though  now  almost  un 
known.  The  roads  are  generally  impas 
sable  by  any  wheeled  vehicle  ;  and  the 
chief  use  of  the  cart  was  on  a  limited  scale 
for  agricultural  purposes,  such  as  forcing 
the  ripe  grain  out  of  the  ear,  bruising 
the  straw,  removing  the  produce  of  the 
fields,  etc.,  Isa.  5:18;  28:27,  28.  Wag 
ons  were  used  to  carry  Israel  into  Egypt, 
arid  for  the  conveyance  of  the  ark,  Gen. 
45:27;  Num.  7:3-9  They  were  often 
drawn  by  heifers,  etc.,  1  Sam.  6:7,  and 
were  usually  low,  and  on  solid  wooden 
wheels,  sometimes  iron-shod. 

CASIPHIA,  the  home  of  many  of  the 
exiled  Jews,  was  probably  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Caspian  sea,  Ezra  8: 17. 


CAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CED 


CAS'LUHIM,  descendants  of  Mizraim 
See  CAPHTORIM. 

CAS'SIA,  the  bark  of  an  odoriferous 
tree,  from  which  came  one  ingredient  of 
the  holy  oil  or  ointment,  Ex.  30 :  24 ; 
Psa.  45:8;  Ezek.  27:19. 

CAS'TOR  and  POLLUX,  twin  sons  of 
Jupiter,  and  guardians  of  seamen,  ac 
cording  to  heathen  mythology.  Ships 
often  bore  their  images  on  the  prow,  and 
were  distinguished  by  their  names,  Acts 
28-11. 

CATERPILLAR,  some  locust-like  in 
sect,  now  undistinguishable,  Deut.  28: 08; 
1  Kin.  8:37;  Psa.  78:46;  105:34;  Isa. 
33:4.  See  LOCUST. 

CATH'OLIC.  This  term  is  Greek,  sig 
nifying  universal  or  general  The  church 
of  Christ  is  called  catholic,  because  it  ex 
tends  throughout  the  world,  and  during 
all  time.  In  modern  times  the  church 
of  Rome  has  usurped  this  title,  improp 
erly  applying  it  exclusively  to  itself. 

The  "Catholic  epistles"  are  seven,  BO 


called  because  they  were  addressed  to  the 
church  or  Christians  in  general,  and  not 
to  any  particular  church.  They  are,  one 
epistle  of  James,  two  of  Peter,  three  of 
John,  and  one  of  Jude. 

CAVE.  The  geological  structure  of 
Judea  is  highly  favorable  to  the  forma 
tion  of  caves;  and  the  whole  region 
abounds  with  subterranean  caverns  of 
various  dimensions,  often  giving  rise  to 
small  rirulets.  These  were  used  as 
dwellings,  places  of  refuge,  and  tombs. 
It  was  in  a  cave  that  Lot  resided  after  the 
destruction  of  Sodom,  Gen.  19 : 30  Petra, 
in  Idumea,  was  a  city  of  caves,  Num. 
24:21 ;  Song  2:14  ;  Jer  49:16  ;  Obad.  3. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Hebron,  the  poor  still 
live  in  caves  while  pasturing  their  flocks. 
Natural  cavities  were  sometimes  enlarg 
ed,  and  artificial  ones  made  for  refuge  and 
defence,  Judg.  6:2;  1  Sam.  13:6;  Isa. 
2:19  ;  Jer.  41:9.  The  caves  of  Machpe- 
lah,  of  Adullam,  of  Engedi,  of  Carmel, 
and  of  Arbela,  still  exist.  See  SEPULCHRE. 


CE'DAR,  a  noble  evergreen-tree  great 
ly  celebrated  in  the  Scriptures,  Psa.  92:12; 
Ezck.  31:3-6.  These  trees  are  remark 
ably  thick  and  tall ;  some  among  them 
are  from  thirty-five  to  forty  feet  in  girth, 
and  ninety  feet  in  height.  The  cedar- 
tree  shoots  out  branches  at  ten  or  twelve 


feet  from  the  ground,  large  and  almost 
horizontal ;  its  leaves  are  an  inch  long, 
slender  and  straight,  growing  in  tufts. 
The  tree  bears  a  small  cone,  like  that  of 
the  pine.  This  celebrated  tree  is  not 
peculiar  to  mount  Lebanon,  but  grows 
also  upon  mounts  Amanus  and  Taurus 
87 


CED 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CEN 


in  Asia  Minor,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
Levant,  but  does  not  elsewhere  reach 
the  size  and  height  of  those  on  Leb 
anon  It  has  also  been  cultivated  in 
the  gardens  of  Europe ;  two  venerable 
individuals  of  this  species  exist  at  Chis- 
wick  in  England ;  and  there  is  a  very 
beautiful  one  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes 
in  Paris.  The  beauty  of  the  cedar  con 
sists  in  the  proportion  and  symmetry  of 
its  wide-spreading  branches  and  cone- 
like  top.  The  gum,  which  exudes  both 
from  the  trunk  and  the  cones  or  fruit,  is 
soft  like  balsam ;  its  fragrance  is  like 
that  of  the  balsam  of  Mecca.  Every 
thing  about  this  tree  has  a  strong  bal 
samic  odor ;  and  hence  the  whole  grove 
is  so  pleasant  and  fragrant,  that  it  is  de 
lightful  to  walk  in  it,  Song  4:11 ;  Hos, 
14:6.  The  wood  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
building,  because  it  is  not  subject  to  de 
cay,  nor  to  be  eaten  of  worms  ;  hence  it 
was  much  used  for  rafters,  and  for  boards 
with  which  to  cover  houses  and  form  the 
floors  and  ceilings  of  rooms.  It  was  of  a 
red  color,  beautiful,  solid,  and  free  from 
knots.  The  palace  of  Persepolis,  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  Solomon's  pal 
ace,  were  all  in  this  way  built  with  ce 
dar;  and  "the  house  of  the  forest  of 
Lebanon,"  was  perhaps  so  called  from 
the  quantity  of  this  wood  used  in  its 
construction,  1  Kin.  7:2;  10:17. 

Of  the  forests  of  cedars  which  once 
covered  Lebanon,  comparatively  few  are 
now  left,  Isa.  2: 13  ;  10: 19 ;  though  there 
are  still  many  scattered  trees  in  various 
parts,  resembling  the  genuine  cedar. 
The  largest  and  most  ancient  trees,  gen 
erally  thought  to  be  the  only  ones, 
are  found  in  a  grove,  lying  a  little  off 
from  the  road  which  crosses  mount  Leb 
anon  from  Baalbek  to  Tripoli,  at  some 
distance  below  the  summit  of  the  moun 
tain  on  the  western  side,  at  the  foot  in 
deed  of  the  highest  summit  or  ridge  of 
Lebanon.  This  grove  consists  of  a  few 
very  old  trees,  perhaps  as  old  as  the 
time  of  Christ,  intermingled  with  400  or 
500  younger  ones.  See  LEBANON. 

Besides  the  true  cedar  of  Lebanon,  the 
word  cedar  in  the  Bible  appears  to  mean 
sometimes  the  jumper  and  sometimes 
the  pine. 

CE'DRON,  see  KIDRON. 

CEILING.  The  ancients  took  great 
pains  to  ornament  the  ceilings  of  their 
best  apartments;  making  them  some 
times  of  a  sort  of  wainscoting,  in  squares 
88 


or  complicated  figures;  and  sometimes 
of  a  fine  plaster  with  beautiful  mould 
ings,  tinted  and  relieved  by  gilding, 
small  mirrors,  etc.,  1  Kin.  6:15;  2  Chr. 
3:5;  Jer.  22:14. 

CEN'CHREA,  a  port  of  Corinth,  now 
called  Kikries,  whence  Paul  sailed  for 
Ephesus,  Acts  18.18.  It  was  a  place 
of  some  commercial  note,  and  the  seat 
of  an  early  church,  Eom.  16:1.  It  was 
situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  isth 
mus,  eight  or  nine  miles  east  of  the  city. 
The  other  port,  on  the  western  side  of 
the  isthmus,  was  Lechamm. 

CEN'SER,  a  vessel  in  which  fire  and 
incense  were  carried,  in  certain  parts  of 
the  Hebrew  worship.  Little  is  known  of 
its  form.  The  censer  for  the  daily  offering 
was  at  first  made  of  copper,  Num.  16:39. 
That  used  on  the  great  day  of  atonement, 
(and  perhaps  others  also,)  was  made  of 
pure  gold,  1  Kin.  7:50;  Heb.  9:4.  In 
the  daily  offering,  the  censer  was  filled 
with  coals  from  the  perpetual  fire,  and 
placed  on  the  altar  of  incense,  where  the 
incense  was  thrown  upon  the  coals,  Ex. 
30: 1,  7-10  On  the  day  of  atonement,  in 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  the  censer  must  have 
been  held  in  the  hand,  and  probably  by 
a  handle,  Lev.  16:12,  13 

There  are  two  Hebrew  words,  which 


are  translated  censer  in  our  English  Bi 
bles.  The  one  signi 
fies  strictly  fire-pan. 
The  other  signifies  in 
cense-pan,  a  vessel  for 
burning  incense ;  but 
we  do  not  know  its 
exact  shape. 

The  censers  of  the 
Egyptians  had  long 
handles,  like  a  human 
arm  and  hand,  upon 
the  palm  of  which 
the  incense-cup  stood. 
Those  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  had 
chains,  by  which  they  were  carried,  like 
those  now  used  in  the  Romish  service. 


CEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHA 


In  the  New  Testament,  where  the 
twenty-four  elders  are  said  to  have  gold 
en  "vials"  full  of  odors,  Rev.  5:8,  the 
meaning  is  vessels  of  incense,  censers, 
not  vials  in  the  present  sense  of  the 
word. 

CENTU'RION,  a  Roman  officer  com 
manding  a  hundred  soldiers ;  similar  to 
"captain"  in  modern  times.  Several 
centurions  are  mentioned  with  honor  in 
the  New  Testament,  Mark  15:39  ;  Luke 
7:1-10;  and  the  first-fruits  to  Christ 
from  the  Gentiles  was  the  generous  and 
devout  Cornelius,  Acts  10. 

CE'PHAS,  a  rock,  a  Syriac  or  later  He 
brew  name  given  to  Peter  by  Christ, 
John  1:42.  The  Greek  Petros  and  the 
Latin  Petrus  have  the  same  meaning. 
See  PETER. 

CESAR,  see  CJJSAK. 

CHALCED'ONY,  a  precious  stone, 
resembling  the  agate ;  of  various  colors, 
but  often  a  light  brown  or  blue,  Rev. 
21 : 19.  It  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the 
world,  though  named  after  Chalcedon, 
in  Bithynia  opposite  Constantinople ; 
and  is  much  used  as  a  material  for  cups, 
vases,  and  other  articles  of  taste  Car- 
nelian  is  said  to  be  one  of  its  varieties. 

CHALDEA,  a  country  in  Asia,  the 
capital  of  which,  in  its  widest  extent, 
was  Babylon.  It  was  originally  of  small 
extent ;  but  the  empire  being  afterwards 
very  much  enlarged,  the  name  is  gener 
ally  taken  in  a  more  extensive  sense, 
and  includes  Babylonia,  which  see. 

CHALDEANS.  This  name  is  taken, 
1.  for  the  people  of  Chaldea,  and  the 
subjects  of  that  empire  generally  ;  2.  for 
philosophers,  naturalists,  or  soothsayers, 
whose  principal  employment  was  the 
study  of  mathematics  and  astrology,  by 
which  they  pretended  to  foretell  the 
destiny  of  men  born  under  certain  con 
stellations. 

The  Chaldeans  were  originally  a  war 
like  people,  who  at  first  inhabited  the 
Carduchian  or  Koordish  mountains  north 
of  Assyria  and  Mesopotamia,  Jer.  50:17. 
As  the  Assyrian  monarchs  extended  their 
conquests  towards  the  north  and  west, 
the  Chaldeans  also  came  under  their  do 
minion  ;  and  this  rough  and  energetic 
people  appear  to  have  assumed,  under 
the  sway  of  their  conquerors,  a  new 
character,  and  to  have  been  transformed 
from  a  rude  horde  into  a  civilized  peo 
ple.  A  very  vivid  and  graphic  descrip 
tion  of  the  Chaldean  warriors  is  given 


by  the  prophet  Habakkuk,  who  probably 
lived  about  the  time  when  they  first 
made  incursions  into  Palestine  or  the 
adjacent  regions,  Hab.  1:6-11.  Of  the 
date  of  their  location  in  Babylonia  noth 
ing  is  now  known.  In  the  reign  of  king 
Hezekiah,  B,  c.  713,  a  king  of  Babylon 
is  mentioned,  the  first  of  whom  we  read 
after  Nimrod  and  Amraphel.  About  one 
hundred  years  later  we  find  the  Chalde 
ans  in  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Baby 
lon.  The  first  sovereign  in  the  new  line 
appearing  in  history  was  Nabopolassar. 
His  son  Nebuchadnezzar  invaded  Pales 
tine,  as  foretold  by  Jeremiah  and  Habak 
kuk,  Ezra  5.12;  Jer.  39 : 5  He  was  suc 
ceeded  by  his  son  Evil-merodach,  2  Kin. 
25:27  ;  Jer.  52:31.  After  him  came,  in 
quick  succession,  Neriglissar,  Laboroso- 
archod,  and  Nabonnidus  or  Belshazzar, 
under  whom  this  empire  was  absorbed 
in  the  Medo-Persian.  The  Chaldeo-baby- 
lonian  dynasty  continued  probably  not 
more  than  one  hundred  years. 

CHAL'DEE  LANGUAGE,  see  LANGUAGE. 

CHAM'BERLAIN,  2  Kin.  23:11,  an 
officer  who  had  charge  of  a  king's  lodg 
ings  and  wardrobe.  In  eastern  courts 
eunuchs  were  generally  employed  in  this 
office,  Esth.  1:10,  12,  15.  This  title  in 
Rom.  16:23  probably  denotes  the  stew 
ard  or  treasurer  of  the  city. 


CHAME'LEON,  Lev.  11:30,  a  kind  of 
lizard.  Its  body  is  about  six  inches 
long  ;  its  feet  have  five  toes  each,  arrang 
ed  like  two  thumbs  opposite  to  three 
fingers ;  its  eyes  turn  backwards  or  for 
wards  independently  of  each  other.  It 
89 


CHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHE 


feeds  upon  flies,  which  it  catches  by  dart 
ing  out  its  long,  viscous  tongue.  It  has 
the  faculty  of  inflating  itself  at  pleasure 
with  air ;  and  of  changing  its  color,  from 
its  ordinary  gray  to  green,  purple,  and 
even  black  when  enraged. 

CHAM'OIS,  not  the  well-known  moun 
tain  goat  of  southern  Europe,  but  proba 
bly  a  variety  of  wild  sheep,  resembling  a 
goat,  and  still  found  in  Arabia  Peteea, 
Deut.  14:5. 

CHAPMEN,  merchants,  2  Chr.  9:14. 

CHAPTER,  see  BIBLE. 

CHAR'GER,  a  large,  shallow  dish, 
Num.  7:13;  Matt.  14:8. 


CHAR'IOTS.  Scripture  speaks  of  two 
sorts  of  these :  one  for  princes  and  gener 
als  to  ride  in,  Gen.  41:43  ;  the  other  to 
break  the  enemy's  battalions,  by  rush 
ing  in  among  them,  being  "chariots  of 
iron,"  that  is,  armed  with  iron  scythes 
or  hooks,  projecting  from  the  ends  of  the 
axletrees.  These  made  terrible  havoc. 
The  Canaanites,  whom  Joshua  engaged 
at  the  waters  of  Merom,  had  horsemen, 
and  a  multitude  of  chariots,  Josh.  11:4  ; 
Judg.  1:19.  Sisera,  general  of  Jabin 
king  of  Hazor,  had  nine  hundred  char 
iots  of  iron,  Judg.  4:3.  See  LITTER. 

CHARM'ERS,  Psa.  58  : 4,  5 ;  Eccl. 
10:11;  Jer.  8:17,  persons  very  common 
throughout  India  and  Egypt,  who  claim 
to  have  the  faculty  of  catching,  taming, 
and  controlling  serpents,  even  the  most 
venomous. 

CHE'BAR,  a  river  which  rises  in  the 
northern  part  of  Mesopotamia,  and  flows 
first  south-east,  then  south  and  south 
west,  into  the  Euphrates.  It  was  called 
Chaboras  by  the  Greeks  ;  now  Khabour. 
On  its  fertile  banks  Nebuchadnezzar  lo 
cated  a  part  of  the  captive  Jews,  and 
90 


here  the  sublime  visions  of  Ezekiel  took 
place,  Ezek.  1:3;  3:15;  10:15;  43:3. 

CHEDORLA'OMER,  king  of  Elam,  in 
Persia,  in  the  time  of  Abraham.  He 
made  the  cities  in  the  region  of  the  Dead 
sea  his  tributaries ;  and  on  their  rebel 
ling,  he  came  with  four  allied  kings  and 
overran  the  whole  country  south  and  east 
of  the  Jordan.  Lot  was  among  his  cap 
tives,  but  was  rescued  by  Abraham  ;  who 
promptly  raised  a  force  from  his  own 
dependents  and  his  neighbors,  pursued 
the  enemy,  and  surprised  and  defeated 
them,  Gen.  14:1-24.  Compare  Psa.  110. 
CHEESE,  several  times  alluded  to  in 
Scripture,  and  still  an  important  article 
of  food  in  the  East,  1  Sam.  17 : 18  ;  2  Sam. 
17 : 29.  It  is  usually  white  and  very  sal  t ; 
soft,  when  new,  but  soon  becoming  hard 
and  dry.  The  cheese  was  like  a  small 
saucer  in  size,  Job  10:10. 

CHEMARIM,  occurring  once  only  in 
the  English  version,  Zeph.  1:4,  but  fre 
quently  in  the  Hebrew,  translated 
"idolatrous priests,"  2 Kin.  23:5;  Hos. 
10:5.  The  word  is  supposed  to  be  de 
rived  from  a  root  signifying  to  burn, 
and  may  perhaps  denote  lire-priests, 
worshippers  of  the  sun. 

CHE'MOSH,  the  national  god  of  the 
Moabites,  and  of  the  Ammonites,  wor 
shipped  also  under  Solomon  at  Jerusa 
lem,  Num.  21:29;  Judg.  11:24;  1  Kin. 
11:7;  2  Kin.  23:13;  Jer.  48:7.  Some 
erroneously  identify  Chemosh  with  Arn- 
mon. 

CHER'ETHITES,  or  CIIER'ETHIM,  I.,  a 
portion  of  the  Philistines,  supposed  by 
many  to  have  originated  in  Crete,  1  Sam. 
30:14;  Ezek.  25:16;  Zeph.  2:5. 

II.  A  portion  of  David's  body-guard, 
always  mentioned  with  the  Pelethites, 
2Sam.  8:18;  15:18;  20:7  ;  1  Chr.  18:17. 
Some  suppose  that  they  were  foreigners, 
whom  David  took  into  his  service  while 
among  the  Philistines.  The  Gittites 
mentioned  with  them  in  2  Sam.  15:18, 
were  plainly  such.  Others  think  they 
had  their  name  from  their  office — execu 
tioners  and  runners.  See  PELETHITES. 

CHE'RITH,  a  small  brook  flowing  into 
the  Jordan,  to  which  Elijah  once  with 
drew,  and  where  ravens  brought  him 
supplies  of  bread  and  flesh,  1  Kin.  17 : 3-5. 
Robinson  suggests  that  it  may  be  the 
present  Wady  Kelt,  which  drains  the 
hills  west  of  Jericho,  and  flows  near  that 
town  on  its  way  to  the  Jordan.  This 
brook  is  dry  in  summer. 


CHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHI 


CHER'UB,  plural  CHER'UBIM,  an  order 
cf  celestial  beings  or  symbolical  repre 
sentations  often  referred  to  in  the  Old 
Testament  and  in  the  book  of  Revela- 
tion.  The  cherubim  are  variously  rep 
resented  as  living  creatures,  Ezek.  1 ; 
Rev.  4 ;  or  as  images  wrought  in  tapes 
try,  gold,  or  wood,  Ex.  36 : 35 ;  37  :  7  , 
Ezek.  41:25 ;  as  having  one,  two,  or  four 
faces,  Ex.  25:20;  Ezek.  10:14;  41:18; 
as  having  two,  four,  or  six  wings,  1  Kin. 
6:27;  Ezek.  1:6;  Rev.  4:8;  in  the  sim 
plest  form,  as  in  the  golden  figures  above 
the  ark  of  the  covenant ;  or  in  the  most 
complex  and  sublime  form,  as  in  Ezekiel's 
wonderful  visions  of  the  glory  of  God — 
discerning  and  ruling  all  things,  and  exe 
cuting  irresistibly  and  with  the  speed  of 
thought  all  his  wise  and  just  decrees, 
Ezek.  1  and  10.  The  fullest  of  these 
descriptions  represents  the  cherub  as  a 
winged  figure,  like  a  man  in  form,  full 
of  eyes,  and  with  a  fourfold  head — of  a 
man,  a  lion,  an  ox,  and  an  eagle — with 
wheels  turning  every  way,  and  speed 
like  the  lightning  ;  presenting  the  high 
est  earthly  forms  and  powers  of  creation 
in  harmonious  and  perfect  union,  Ezek. 
1 ;  10 ;  41  ;  Rev.  4.  Usually  also  the 
cherubim  stand  in  a  special  nearness  to 
God;  they  are  engaged  in  the  loftiest 
adoration  and  service,  moving  in  instant 
accordance  with  his  will,  Psa.  18:10; 
Ezek.  1:26;  10:20;  Rev.  4;  they  are 
seen  in  the  temple  inseparably  associ 
ated  with  the  mercy-seat — made  of  the 
same  mass  of  pure  gold,  Ex.  25:19,  bend 
ing  reverently  over  the  place  of  God's 
presence,  Psa.  99:1,  where  he  met  his 
people,  Num.  7:89,  accepted  the  blood 
of  atonement,  Lev.  16:14-10,  and  shone 
forth  as  their  Saviour,  Psa.  80:1. 

CHEST'NUT-TREE,  Gen.  30:37,  called 
by  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  the  plane- 
tree,  with  which  most  modern  expositors 
agree.  The  plane-tree  has  a  tall  and 
stately  trunk,  with  smooth  bark,  and 
branches  spreading  in  every  direction, 
covered  with  a  profusion  of  glossy  green 
leaves.  It  is  nowhere  more  abundant 
and  noble  than  in  the  plains  of  Assyria, 
Ezek.  31:8. 

CHESUL'LOTH,  or  CHISLOTII-TABOR,  a 
town  on  the  border  of  Zebulun  and  Issa- 
char,  about  four  miles  west  of  mount 
Tabor ;  the  village  called  Iksal  now 
marks  its  site,  together  with  numerous 
excavated  tombs,  Josh.  19:12,  18,  22; 
IChr.  6:62. 


CHIL'DREN.  A  numerous  offspring 
was  regarded  as  a  signal  blessing,  Psa. 
127:3-5,  and  childless  wives  sought  va 
rious  means  to  escape  the  reproach  of 
barrenness,  which  was  deprecated  in  the 
blessing  given  to  a  newly  married  coup 
le,  Ruth  4:11.  The  pangs  of  childbirth, 
in  their  suddenness  and  sharpness,  are 
often  alluded  to  in  Scripture.  The  apos' 
tie  Paul  speaks  of  them  as  fruits  and  evi 
dences  of  the  fall ;  but  assures  those  who 
abide  in  faith,  that,  amid  all  the  suffer 
ing  that  reminds  them  that  woman  was 
first  in  the  transgression,  Gen.  3:16,  they 
may  yet  look  trustfully  to  God  for  acr 
ceptance  and  salvation,  1  Tim.  2:15. 

A  new-born  child  was  washed,  rubbed 
with  salt,  and  wrapped  in  swaddling 
clothes,  Ezek.  16:4;  Luke  2:7-11.  On 
the  eighth  day  he  was  circumcised  and 
named.  At  his  weaning  a  feast  was 
often  made,  Gen.  21:8.  The  nurse  of  a 
female  child  often  attended  her  through 
life.  Gen.  24:59;  35:8.  Children  were 
to  be  instructed  with  great  diligence  and 
care,  Deut.  6:20-23.  They  were  requir 
ed  to  honor  and  obey  their  parents,  and 
were  subject  to  the  father's  control  in  all 
things,  Gen.  22:21;  Num.  30:5;  they 
were  even  liable  to  be  sold  into  tempo 
rary  bondage  for  his  debts,  Lev.  25:39- 
41;  2  Kin.  4:1;  Matt.  18:25. 

The  first-born  son  received,  besides 
other  privileges,  (see  BIRTHRIGHT,)  two 
portions  of  his  father's  estate :  the  other 
sons,  one  portion  each.  The  sons  of 
concubines  received  presents,  and  some 
times  an  equal  portion  with  the  other?, 
Gen.  21:8-21;  25:1-6;  49:1-27;  Judg. 
11 : 1-7.  The  daughters  received  no 
portion,  except  in  cases  provided  for  in 
Num.  27:1-11. 

The  term  child  or  children,  by  a  He 
brew  idiom,  is  used  to  express  a  great 
variety  of  relations :  the  good  are  called 
children  of  God,  of  light,  of  the  king 
dom,  etc.  ;  the  bad  are  named  children 
of  the  devil,  of  wrath,  of  disobedience, 
etc.  A  strong  man  is  called  a  son  of 
strength ;  an  impious  man,  a  son  of  Be 
lial  ;  an  arrow,  the  son  of  a  bow,  and  a 
branch  the  son  of  a  tree.  The  posterity 
of  a  man  are  his  ' '  sons, ' '  for  many  gen 
erations. 

CHIM'HAM,  probably  a  son  of  Barzil- 
lai,  2  Sam.  19:37  ;  1  Kin.  2:7.  He  may 
have  received  from  David  the  place  near 
Bethlehem  called  Chimham,  Jer.  41:17. 

CHIN'NERETH,  or  CINNEROTH,  a  town 
91 


CHI 


.  BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHR 


on  the  west  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
Num.  34:11;  Deut.  3:17;  Josh.  11:2; 
19:35;  1  Kin.  15:20.  It  was  a  "fenced 
city"  of  Naphtali,  and  gave  its  name  to 
the  lake  on  which  it  stood.  Tiberias  is 
supposed  by  Jerome  to  have  afterwards 
occupied  its  site. 

CHI'OS,  an  island  in  the  Archipelago, 
between  Lesbos  and  Samos,  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  now  called. Scio.  It  is 
thirty  miles  long  and  ten  wide.  Paul 
passed  this  way  as  he  sailed  southward 
from  Mitylene  to  Samos,  Acts  20:15. 

CHIS'LEU,  the  ninth  month  of  the 
Hebrews,  beginning  with  the  new  moon 
of  December,  Neh.  1:1;  Zech.  7:1. 

CHIT'TIM,  or  KITTIM,  descendants  of 
Javan,  son  of  Japheth ;  and  the  land  set 
tled  by  them,  Gen.  10:4.  Chittim  seems 
to  denote  primarily  the  island  Cyprus, 
and  also  to  be  employed,  in  a  wider  sense, 
to  designate  other  islands  and  countries 
adjacent  to  the  Mediterranean,  as  for 
instance,  Macedonia,  Dan.  11:30,  and 
Home,  Num.  24:24. 

CHI'UN,  the  name  of  an  idol  worship 
ped  by  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  Amos 
5:26 ;  Acts  7 :43.  It  was  most  probably 
the  planet  Saturn,  worshipped  by  eastern 
nations  as  an  evil  spirit  to  be  propitiated 
by  sacrifices.  See  KEMPHAN. 

CHORAZIN,  a  town  in  Galilee,  near 
to  Capernaum  and  Bethsaida,  on  the 
north-west  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 
Jerome  says  it  was  two  miles  from  Ca 
pernaum.  No  traces  of  its  name  re 
main  ;  but  Robinson  with  strong  proba 
bility  locates  it  at  the  modern  Tell-hum, 
on  the  northern  shore  of  the  sea  of  Gal 
ilee,  three  miles  north-east  of  Caperna 
um.  It  was  upbraided  by  Christ  for  its 
impenitence,  Matt.  11:21;  Luke  10:13. 

CHRIST,  anointed,  a  Greek  word,  an 
swering  to  the  Hebrew  MESSIAH,  the 
consecrated  or  anointed  one,  and  given 
preeminently  to  our  blessed  Lord  and 
Saviour.  See  MESSIAH  and  JESUS. 

The  ancient  Hebrews,  being  instructed 
by  the  prophets,  had  clear  notions  of  the 
Messiah ;  but  these  became  gradually 
depraved,  so  that  when  Jesus  appeared 
in  Judea,  the  Jews  entertained  a  false 
conception  of  the  Messiah,  expecting  a 
temporal  monarch  and  conqueror,  who 
should  remove  the  Roman  yoke  and 
subject  the  whole  world.  Hence  they 
were  scandalized  at  the  outward  appear 
ance,  the  humility,  and  seeming  weak 
ness  of  our  Saviour.  The  modern  Jews, 
92 


indulging  still  greater  mistakes,  form  to 
themselves  ideas  of  the  Messiah  utterly 
unknown  to  their  forefathers. 

The  ancient  prophets  had  foretold  that 
the  Messiah  should  be  God,  and  man: 
exalted,  and  abased  ;  master,  and  servant; 
priest,  and  victim  ;  prince,  and  subject ; 
involved  in  death,  yet  victor  over  death ; 
rich,  and  poor  ;  a  king,  a  conqueror,  glo 
rious — and  a  man  of  griefs,  exposed  to 
infirmities,  unknown,  in  a  state  of  ab 
jection  and  humiliation.  All  these  con 
trarieties  were  to  be  reconciled  in  the 
person  of  the  Messiah;  as  they  really 
were  in  the  person  of  Jesus. 

It  is  not  recorded  that  Christ  ever  re 
ceived  any  external  official  unction.  The 
unction  that  the  prophets  and  the  apos 
tles  speak  of  is  the  spiritual  and  internal 
unction  of  grace  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
of  which  the  outward  unction,  with 
which  kings,  priests,  and  prophets  were 
anciently  anointed,  was  but  the  figure 
and  symbol. 

The  name  CHRIST  is  the  official  title  of 
the  Redeemer  ;  and  is  not  to  be  regarded 
as  a  mere  appellative,  to  distinguish  our 
Lord  from  other  persons  named  Jesus. 
The  force  of  many  passages  of  Scripture 
is  greatly  weakened  by  overlooking  this. 
We  may  get  the  true  sense  of  such  pas 
sages  by  substituting  for  ' '  Christ, "  "  the 
Anointed,"  and  where  Jews  were  ad 
dressed,  ' '  THE  MESSIAH.  ' '  Thus  in  Matt. 
2:4,  Herod  "demanded  of  them,"  the 
priests  and  scribes,  "where  Christ  should 
be  born,"  that  is,  the  Old  Testament 
Messiah.  Peter  confessed,  "thouartthe 
Messiah,"  Matt,  16:16.  The  devils  did 
the  same,  Luke  4:41.  In  later  times  the 
name  JESUS  was  comparatively  disused ; 
and  CHRIST,  as  a  proper  name,  was  used 
instead  of  JESUS. 

When  we  consider  the  relation  of 
Christ's  person,  as  God  and  man,  to  his 
official  work  as  our  Prophet,  Priest,  and 
King,  and  to  his  states  of  humiliation 
and  glory ;  when  we  consider  how  God 
is  in  and  with  him — how  all  the  perfec 
tions  of  God  are  displayed,  and  all  the 
truths  of  God  exemplified  in  him  ;  when 
we  consider  his  various  relations  to  the 
purposes,  covenants,  word,  and  ordinan 
ces  of  God,  and  to  the  privileges,  duties, 
and  services  of  saints,  in  time  and  to 
eternity,  we  have  a  delightful  view  of 
him  as  ALL  and  IN  ALL,  Col.  3:11. 

CHRISTS,  FALSE.  Our  Saviour  pre 
dicted  that  many  pretended  Messiahs 


CHR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CHU 


would  come,  Matt.  24:24,  and  his  word 
has  been  abundantly  fulfilled.  One  of 
them  named  Coziba  lived  within  one 
hundred  years  of  Christ,  had  many  fol 
lowers,  and  occasioned  the  death  of  more 
than  half  a  million  of  Jews.  Others 
have  continued  to  appear,  even  down  to 
modern  times. 

CHUIS'TIANS,  a  name  given  at  Anti- 
och  to  those  who  believed  Jesus  to  be 
the  Messiah,  A.  D.  42,  Acts  11:26.  It 
seems  to  have  been  given  to  them  by 
the  men  of  Antioch  as  a  term  of  conven 
ience  rather  than  of  ridicule,  to  designate 
the  new  sect  more  perfectly  than  any 
other  word  could  do.  They  generally 
called  each  other  "brethren,"  "the 
faithful,"  "saints,"  "believers;"  and 
were  named  by  the  Gentiles,  Nazarenes 
and  Galileans.  He  only  is  a  real  Chris 
tian  who  heartily  accepts  Christ  as  his 
teacher,  guide,  and  master,  the  source  of 
his  highest  life,  strength,  and  joy,  his 
only  Redeemer  from  sin  and  hell,  his 
Lord  and  his  God.  They  who  rightly 
bear  Christ's  name  and  partake  of  his 
nature,  and  they  only,  shall  finally  share 
in  his  glory. 

CHRONICLES,  the  name  of  two  his 
torical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
author  of  which  is  not  known,  though 
the  general  opinion  ascribes  them  to 
Ezra,  B.  c.  457.  In  writing  them  the 
inspired  penman  made  use,  not  only  of 
the  earlier  books  of  Scripture,  but  of 
numerous  other  public  annals,  now  lost, 
2  Chr.  9:29;  16:11;  20:34.  The  first 
book  contains  a  recapitulation  of  sacred 
history,  by  genealogies,  from  the  begin 
ning  of  the  world  to  the  death  of  David. 
The  second  book  contains  the  history  of 
the  kings  of  Judah,  without  those  of 
Israel,  from  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Solomon  only,  to  the  return  from  the 
Captivity  of  Babylon.  In  this  respect  it 
differs  from  the  books  of  Kings,  which 
give  the  history  of  the  kings  of  both 
Judah  and  Israel.  In  many  places,  where 
the  history  of  the  same  kings  is  related, 
the  narrative  in  Chronicles  is  almost  a 
copy  of  that  in  Kings ;  in  other  places, 
the  one  serves  as  a  supplement  to  the 
other.  In  the  Septuagint,  these  books 
are  called  Paraleipomena,  that  is,  things 
omitted.  The  two  books  of  Chronicles 
dwell  more  on  ecclesiastical  matters  than 
the  books  of  Kings ;  they  enlarge  upon 
the  ordinances  of  public  worship  ;  and 
detail  minutely  the  preparations  of  David  j 


for  the  building  of  the  temple,  and  its 
erection  and  dedication  by  Solomon ;  the 
histories  of  the  other  kings  also  are 
specially  full  in  respect  to  their  relig 
ious  character  and  acts,  1  Chr.  13:8-11 ; 
2  Chr.  11 : 13  ;  19  :  8-11 ;  26  : 16-19,  etc. 
The  Chronicles  should  be  read  in  con 
nection  with  the  books  of  Samuel  and 
the  Kings  ;  treating  of  the  same  periods, 
they  illustrate  each  other,  and  form  a 
continuous  and  instructive  history,  show 
ing  that  religion  is  the  main  source  of 
national  prosperity,  and  ungodliness  of 
adversity,  Prov.  14:34.  The  details  of 
these  books  may  be  studied  with  interest, 
in  view  of  their  bearing  upon  the  com 
ing  and  the  kingdom  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  The  whole  period  treated  of  in 
the  Chronicles  is  about  3,500  years. 

CHRYS'OLITE,  a  transparent  precious 
stone,  having  the  color  of  gold  with  a 
mixture  of  green,  and  a  fine  lustre,  Rev. 
21:20.  Many  suppose  it  to  be  the  topaz 
of  the  moderns. 

CHRYSOP'RASUS,  the  tenth  of  those 
precious  stones  which  adorned  the  foun 
dation  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,  as 
seen  by  John  the  Evangelist.  Its  color 
was  green,  inclining  to  gold,  as  its  name 
imports,  Rev  21:20. 

CHUN,  elsewhere  called  BEROTIIAH, 
which  see. 

CHURCH.  The  Greek  word  trans 
lated  church  signifies  generally  an  as 
sembly,  either  common  or  religious ; 
and  it  is  sometimes  so  translated,  as  in 
Acts  19:32,  39.  In  the  New  Testament 
it  usually  means  a  congregation  of  re 
ligious  worshippers,  either  Jewish,  as 
Acts  7:38,  or  Christian, 'as  Matt.  16:18  ; 
1  Cor.  6:4.  The  latter  sense  is  the  more 
common  one ;  and  it  is  thus  used  in  a 
twofold  manner,  denoting, 

1.  The  universal   Christian   church : 
either  the  invisible  church,  consisting  of 
those  whose  names  are  written  in  heav 
en,    whom   God  knows,   but  whom  we 
cannot  infallibly  know,  Heb.  12:23;  or 
the  visible  church,  made  up  of  the  pro 
fessed  followers  of  Christ  on  earth,  Col. 
1:24;  1  Tim.  3:5,  15. 

2.  A  particular  church  or  body  of  pro 
fessing  believers,  who  meet  and  worship 
together  in  one  place;  as  the  churches 
of   Rome,    Corinth,    Ephesus,    Philippi, 
etc. ,  to  which  Paul  addressed  epistles. 

CHURN'ING,  Prov.  30:33.  See  BUT 
TER. 

CHU'SHAN-RISHATHA'IM,  a  king  of 
93 


CHU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CIR 


Mesopotamia,  who  oppressed  the  Israel 
ites  eight  years,  A.  M.  2591-9,  but  was 
defeated  by  Othniel,  Caleb's  nephew, 
Judg.  3:8-10. 

CHU'ZA,  see  JOANNA. 

CILI'CIA,  the  south-eastern  province 
of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  north  by  the 
Taurus  range,  separating  it  from  Cappa- 
docia,  Lycaonia,  and  Isauria,  south  by 
the  Mediterranean,  east  by  Syria,  and 
west  by  Pamphylia.  The  western  part  j 
had  the  appellation  of  Aspera,  or  rough ; 
while  the  eastern  was  called  Campestris, 
or  level.  This  country  was  the  province 
of  Cicero  when  proconsul  ;  and  its  chief 
town,  Tarsus,  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  Acts  6  :  9.  Many  Jews 
dwelt  in  Cilicia,  and  maintained  fre 
quent  intercourse  with  Jerusalem,  where 
they  joined  the  other  Jews  in  opposing 
the  progress  of  Christianity.  Paul  him 
self  may  have  taken  part  in  the  public 
discussion  with  Stephen,  Acts  6:9  ;  7:58. 
After  his  conversion  he  visited  his  na 
tive  province,  Acts  9: 30;  Gal.  1:21,  and 
established  churches,  which  were  ad 
dressed  in  the  letter  of  the  council  at 
Jerusalem,  Acts  15  :  23.  The  apostle 
once  afterwards  made  a  missionary  tour 
among  these  churches,  his  heart  yearn 
ing  to  behold  and  to  increase  their  pros 
perity,  Acts  15:30,  41. 


CIN'NAMON,  one  of  the  ingredients 
in  the  perfumed  oil  with  which  the  tab 
ernacle  arid  its  vessels  were  anointed,  Ex. 
30:23;  Prov.  7:17;  Song  4:14.  It  is 
the  inner  bark  of  a  tree  growing  about 
twenty  feet  high,  and  being  peeled  off  in 
thin  strips  curls  as  it  is  found  in  market. 
94 


It  is  of  a  dark  red  color,  of  a  poignant 
taste,  aromatic,  and  very  agreeable.  That 
of  the  finest  quality  comes  from  Ceylon, 
Kev.  18:13. 

CIRCUMCISION,  a  cutting  around,  be 
cause  in  this  rite  the  foreskin  was  cut 
away.  God  commanded  Abraham  to  use 
circumcision,  as  a  sign  of  his  covenant ; 
and  in  obedience  to  this  order,  the  patri 
arch,  at  ninety-nine  years  of  age,  was 
circumcised,  as  also  his  son  Ishmael, 
and  all  the  males  of  his  household,  Gen. 
17:10-12.  God  repeated  the  precept  to 
Moses,  and  ordered  that  all  who  intend 
ed  to  partake  of  the  paschal  sacrifice 
should  receive  circumcision ;  and  that 
this  rite  should  be  performed  on  chil 
dren  on  the  eighth  day  after  their  birth, 
Ex.  12:44  ;  Lev.  12:3  ;  John  7:22.  The 
Jews  have  always  been  very  exact  in 
observing  this  ceremony,  and  it  appears 
that  they  did  not  neglect  it  when  in 
Egypt,  Josh.  5:1-9. 

All  the  other  nations  sprung  from 
Abraham  besides  the  Hebrews,  as  the 
Ishrnaelites,  the  Arabians,  etc.,  also  re 
tained  the  practice  of  circumcision.  At 
the  present  day  it  is  an  essential  rite  of 
the  Mohammedan  religion,  and  though 
not  enjoined  in  the  Koran,  prevails  wher 
ever  this  religion  is  found.  It  is  ako 
practised  in  some  form  among  the  Abys- 
sinians,  and  various  tribes  of  south  Afri 
ca,  as  it  was  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
But  there  is  no  proof  that  it  was  prac 
tised  upon  infants,  or  became  a  general, 
national,  or  religious  custom,  before  God 
enjoined  it  upon  Abraham. 

The  Jews  esteemed  uncircumcision  as 
a  very  great  impurity  ;  and  the  great 
est  offence  they  could  receive  was  to  be 
called  ' '  uncircumciscd. ' '  Paul  frequent 
ly  mentions  the  Gentiles  under  this  term, 
not  opprobrious] y,  Rom.  2:26,  in  oppo 
sition  to  the  Jews,  whom  he  names  "the 
circumcision , ' '  etc. 

Disputes  as  to 'the  observance  of  this 
rite  by  the  converts  from  heathenism  to 
Christianity  occasioned  much  trouble  in 
the  early  church,  Acts  15;  and  it  was 
long  before  it  was  well  understood  that 
"in  Christ  Jesus  neither  circumcision 
availeth  any  thing,  nor  uncircumcision, 
but  a  new  creature,"  Gal.  5:2,3;  6:15. 

The  true  circumcision  is  that  of  the 
heart ;  and  those  are  ' '  uncircumcised  in 
heart  and  ears,"  who  will  not  obey  the 
law  of  God  nor  embrace  the  gospel  of 
Christ. 


CIS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


CLA 


CIS'TERNS  and  reservoirs  were  very 
common  in  Palestine,  both  in  the  coun 
try  and  in  cities.  During  half  the  year 
no  rain  falls,  and  never-failing  streams 
and  springs  are  rare  indeed.  The  main 
dependence  of  a  large  portion  of  the  pop 
ulation  was  upon  the  water  which  fell  in 
the  rainy  season  and  was  preserved  in 
cisterns,  2  Sam.  17  :  18.  Dr.  Robinson 
alludes  to  immense  reservoirs  within  and 
under  the  area  of  the  temple,  supplied 
by  rainwater  and  by  the  aqueduct  from 
Solomon's  pools,  and  says,  "These  of 
themselves,  in  case  of  a  siege,  would  fur 
nish  a  tolerable  supply.  But  in  addition 
to  these,  almost  every  house  in  Jerusa 
lem,  of  any  size,  is  understood  to  have 
at  least  one  or  more  cisterns,  excavated 
in  the  soft  limestone  rock  on  which  the 
city  is  built.  The  house  of  Mr.  Lan- 
neau,  in  which  we  resided,  had  no  less 
than  four  cisterns  ;  and  as  these  are  but 
a  specimen  of  the  manner  in  which  all 
the  better  class  of  houses  are  supplied,  I 
subjoin  here  the  dimensions  : 

LENGTH.  BREADTH.  DEPTH. 

I.  15  feet.          8  feet.         12  feet. 
II.     8     "  4    "  15    " 

III.  10     "  10    "  15    " 

IV.  30     "  80    "  20    " 
The  water  is  conducted  into  them  dur 
ing  the  rainy  season,  and  with  proper 
care  remains  pure  and  sweet  during  the 
whole  summer  and  autumn."    Such  cis 
terns,  and  others  more  properly  called 
tanks  and  pools,  were  provided  in  the 
fields  for  irrigation,    and    at    intervals 
along  the  highways,  for  the  accommo 
dation  of  travellers,  Psa.  84  :  6.     The 
same  causes  led  to  the  erection,  near  all 
the  chief  cities,  of  large  open  reservoirs 
for  public  use.    These  were  built  of  mas 
sive  stones,  and  in  places  where  the  win 
ter  rains  could  be  easily  conducted  into 
them.     Many  such  reservoirs,  and  ruins 
of  others,   yet  remain.     See  BETIIESDA, 
SILOAM,  SOLOMON'S  POOLS. 

CITY.  The  towns  and  cities  of  Pales 
tine  were  commonly  built  on  heights, 
for  better  security  against  robbers  or  in 
vaders.  These  heights,  surrounded  by 
walls,  sometimes  formed  the  entire  city. 
In  other  cases,  the  citadel  alone  crowned 
the  hill,  around  and  at  the  base  of  which 
the  town  was  built ;  and  in  time  of  dan 
ger  the  surrounding  population  all  took 
refuge  in  the  fortified  place.  Larger 
towns  and  cities  were  often  not  only  de 
fended  by  strong  outer  walls,  with  tow 


ers  and  gates,  but  by  a  citadel  or  castle 
within  these  limits— a  last  resort  when 
the  rest  of  the  city  was  taken,  Judg. 
9:46,  51.  The  "fenced  cities"  of  the 
Jews,  Deut.  8  :  5,  were  of  various  sizes 
and  degrees  of  strength  ;  some  being  sur 
rounded  by  high  and  thick  stone  walls, 
and  others  by  feebler  ramparts,  often  of 
clay  or  sun-dried  bricks,  and  sometimes 
combustible,  Isa.  9  :  10 ;  Amos  1  :  7-14. 
They  were  also  provided  with  watch 
men,  Psa.  127:1 ;  Song  5:7.  The  streets 
of  ancient  towns  were  usually  narrow, 
and  often  unpaved.  Some  cities  were 
adorned  with  vast  parks  and  gardens ; 
this  was  the  case  with  Babylon,  which 
embraced  an  immense  space  within  its 
walls.  It  is  impossible  at  this  day  to 
form  any  reliable  estimate  of  the  popu 
lation  of  the  cities  of  Judea.  Jerusalem 
is  said  by  Josephus  to  have  had  150.000 
inhabitants,  and  to  have  contained,  at 
the  time  of  its  siege  by  the  Romans,  more 
than  a  million  of  persons  crowded  in  its 
circuit  of  four  miles  of  wall.  See  GATE, 
REFUGE,  WATCHMEN. 

CITY  OF  DAVID,  usually  denotes  mount 
Zion,  the  south-west  section  of  Jerusa 
lem,  which  David  took  from  the  Jebu- 
sitcs,  and  occupied  by  a  palace  and  city 
called  by  his  own  name.  In  Luke  2:11, 
Bethlehem  his  native  city  is  meant. 

CITY  or  GOD,  Deut.  12:5;  Psa.  46:4, 
and  THE  HOLY  CITY,  Neh.  11:1,  names 
of  Jerusalem.  Its  modern  name  is  El- 
Kuds,  the  Holy. 

CLAU'DA,  a  small  island  near  the 
south-west  shore  of  Crete,  approached 
by  Paul  in  his  voyage  to  Jerusalem, 
Acts  27 :16.  It  is  now  called  Gozzo,  and 
is  occupied  by  about  thirty  families. 

CLAU'DIA,  a  Christian  woman,  prob 
ably  a  convert  of  Paul  at  Rome,  2  Tim. 
4:21. 

CLAU'DIUS  C^E'SAR,  fifth  emperor 
of  Rome,  succeeded  Cains  Caligula,  A.  D. 
41,  and  was  followed  by  Nero,  after  a 
reign  of  thirteen  years.  He  endowed 
Agrippa  with  royal  authority  over  Ju 
dea,  which  on  the  death  of  Agrippa  again 
became  a  province  of  Rome.  A.  D.  45. 
About  this  time  probably  occurred  the 
famine  foretold  by  Agabus,  Acts  11:28. 
In  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign,  he  ban 
ished  all  Jews  from  Rome,  Acts  18:2.  In 
A.  D.  43-44,  he  made  a  military  expedi 
tion  to  Britain.  His  death  was  caused 
by  poison,  from  the  hand  of  his  wife  and 
nioce  Agrippina. 

95 


CLA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COL 


CLAU'DIUS  FE'LIX.     See  FELIX. 

CLAU'DIUS  LYS'IAS.     See  LYSIAS. 

CLAY  designed  for  earthenware  was 
trodden  by  the  feet  to  mix  it  well,  Isa. 
41  :  25,  was  moulded  on  a  wheel,  and 
then  baked  in  a  kiln,  Jer.  18:3;  43:9. 
The  potter's  art  is  referred  to  in  Scrip 
ture  to  illustrate  man's  dependence  upon 
God,  Isa.  64  :  8  ;  Rom.  9  :  21.  See  POT 
TER.  Clay  seems  to  have  been  also  used 
in  sealing,  as  wax  is  with  us,  Job  38:14. 
The  bricks  of  Babylon  are  found  marked 
with  a  large  seal  or  stamp,  and  modern 
travellers  find  the  locks  of  doors  in  east 
ern  khans  and  granaries  sealed  on  the 
outside  with  clay. 

CLEAN  and  UNCLEAN,  terms  often  used 
in  the  Bible  in  a  ceremonial  sense ;  as 
signed  to  certain  animals,  and  to  men  in 
certain  cases,  by  the  law  of  Moses,  Lev. 
11-15;  Num.  19;  Deut.  14.  A  distinc 
tion  between  clean  and  unclean  animals 
existed  before  the  deluge,  Gen.  7:2.  The 
Mosaic  law  was  not  merely  arbitrary,  but 
grounded  on  reasons  connected  with  an 
imal  sacrifices,  with  health,  with  the  sep 
aration  of  the  Jews  from  other  nations, 
and  their  practise  of  moral  purity,  Lev. 
11:43-45;  20:24-26;  Deut.  14:2,  3,  21. 
The  ritual  law  was  still  observed  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  but  under  the  gospel  is 
annulled,  Acts  10:9-16. 

Cei'emonial  uncleanness  was  contract 
ed  by  the  Jews  in  various  ways,  volun 
tarily  and  involuntarily.  It  was  remov 
ed,  usually  at  the  evening  of  the  same 
day,  by  bathing.  In  other  cases  a  week, 
or  even  forty  or  fifty  days,  and  some  sac 
rificial  offerings,  were  required. 

CLEM'ENT,  mentioned  in  Phil.  4:3. 
It  is  conjectured,  though  without  evi 
dence,  that  this  is  the  same  Clement  who 
was  afterwards  a  bishop  at  Rome,  com 
monly  called  Clemens  Romanus.  The 
church  at  Corinth  having  been  disturbed 
by  divisions,  Clement  wrote  a  letter  to 
the  Corinthians,  which  was  so  much  es 
teemed  by  the  ancients,  that  they  read 
it  publicly  in  many  churches. 

CLE'OPHAS,  the  husband  of  Mary, 
John  19:25,  called  also  ALPHEUS,  which 
see.  The  Cleopas  mentioned  in  Luke 
24:18,  probably  was  a  different  person. 

CLOTHES.     See  GARMENTS. 

CLOUD,  PILLAR  OF,  the  miraculous 
token  of  the  divine  presence  and  care, 
Ex.  14  :  24  ;  16  :  10  ;  Num.  12  :  5,  which 
guided  the  Israelites  in  the  desert ;  it 
was  a  means  of  protection  and  perhaps 

ye 


of  shade  by  day,  and  gave  them  light  by 
night,  Ex.  13:21,  22;  14:19,  20.  By  it 
God  directed  their  movements,  Num. 
9: 15-23  ;  14  : 14  ;  Deut.  1  :  33.  See  the 
beautiful  application  of  the  image  to  the 
future  church  in  Isa.  4:5. 

CLOUDS,  in  the  summer  season  of 
Palestine,  were  an  unlooked-for  phe 
nomenon,  1  Sam.  12:17,  18,  and  rising 
from  off  the  Mediterranean,  betokened 
rain,  1  Kin.  18 : 44  ;  Luke  12 : 54.  Clouds 
are  the  symbol  of  armies  and  multitudes, 
probably  by  their  grand  and  majestic 
movements,  Isa.  60:8;  Jer.  4:13;  Heb. 
12:1.  They  betokened  the  presence  of 
Jehovah,  as  on  mount  Sinai,  Ex.  19:9; 
24:12-18;  in  the  temple,  Ex.  40:34; 
1  Kin.  8:10;  in  the  cloudy  pillar,  and 
on  the  mount  of  Transfiguration.  They 
are  found  in  many  representations  of  the 
majesty  of  God,  Psa.  18:11, 12;  97:2,  and 
of  Christ,  Matt.  24:30;  Rev.  14:14-16. 

CNI'DUS,  a  town  and  peninsula  of 
Doris  in  Caria,  jutting  out  from  the 
south-west  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  be 
tween  the  islands  of  Rhodes  and  Cos. 
It  had  a  fine  harbor,  and  was  celebrated 
for  the  worship  of  Venus.  Paul  passed 
by  it  in  his  voyage  to  Rome,  Acts  27:7. 

COAL,  usually  in  Scripture,  charcoal, 
or  the  embers  of  fire.  Mineral  coal  is 
now  procured  in  mount  Lebanon,  eight 
hours  from  Beirut ;  but  we  have  no  cer 
tainty  that  it  was  known  and  used  by 
the  Jews.  The  following  passages  are 
those  which  most  strongly  suggest  this 
substance,  2  Sam.  22:9,  13  ;  Job  41:21. 

COCK'ATRICE,  an  old  English  word 
of  obscure  origin,  used  by  our  translat 
ors  to  designate  the  Hebrew  T/epha,  or 
Tsiphoni,  a  serpent  of  a  highly  venom 
ous  character,  Isa.  14:29;  5U:5;  Jer. 
8:17.  See  SEKPENT. 

COCK'-CROWING,  the  third  watch  of 
the  night,  in  the  time  of  Christ.  See 
HOUR. 

COCK'LE,  a  plant  growing  among 
wheat,  Job  31:40.  The  Hebrew  word 
seems  to  denote  some  noisome  weed 
which  infests  cultivated  grounds. 

COLOS'SE,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  situated 
on  a  hill  near  the  junction  of  the  Lycus 
with  the  Meander,  and  not  far  from  the 
cities  Hierapolis  and  Laodicea,  Col.  2:1 ; 
4:13,  15.  With  these  cities  it  was  de 
stroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  the  tenth 
year  of  Nero,  about  A.  D.  65,  while  Paul 
was  yet  living.  It  was  soon  rebuilt. 
The  church  of  Christians  in  this  city,  to 


COL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CON 


whom  Paul  wrote,  seems  to  have  been 
gathered  by  Epaphtas,  Col.  1:2.  Com 
pare  1:7,  8,  9,  and  4:12,  13.  In  modern 
times  the  place  is  called  Chonos. 

COLOS'SIANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE,  was 
written  by  Paul,  from  Rome,  A.  D.  62. 
The  occasion  of  the  letter  was  the  intel 
ligence  brought  him  by  Epaphras,  Col. 
1:6-8,  respecting  the  internal  state  of 
the  church,  which  apparently  he  himself 
had  not  yet  visited,  Col.  2:1,  though  fa 
miliar  with  their  history  and  affairs,  Acts 
16:6;  18:23.  Some  Jewish  philosopher 
professing  Christianity,  but  mingling 
with  it  a  superstitious  regard  for  the  law 
and  other  errors,  seems  to  have  gained 
a  dangerous  ascendancy  in  the  church. 
Paul  shows  that  all  our  hope  of  salva 
tion  is  in  Christ  the  only  mediator,  in 
whom  all  fulness  dwells ;  he  cautions 
the  Colossians  against  the  errors  intro 
duced  among  them,  as  inconsistent  with 
the  gospel,  and  incites  them  by  most 
persuasive  arguments  to  a  temper  and 
conduct  worthy  of  their  Christian  char 
acter.  The  epistle  was  written  at  the 
same  time  with  that  to  the  Ephesians, 
and  was  sent  by  the  same  bearer.  The 
two  closely  resemble  each  other,  and 
should  be  studied  together. 

COM'FORTER,  Greek  PAR'ACLETE,  an 
advocate,  teacher,  or  consoler.  This  title 
is  given  to  our  Saviour :  ' '  We  have  an 
advocate  (paraclete)  with  the  Father,  Je 
sus  Christ  the  righteous,"  1  John  2:1. 
But  more  frequently  it  designates  the 
Holy  Spirit.  He  is  the  "  other  Comfort 
er,"  succeeding  Christ,  the  great  promis 
ed  blessing  of  the  Christian  church,  John 
14:16,  17,  26  ;  15 ;  16  ;  Luke  24:49 ;  Acts 
1 : 4.  The  English  word  Comforter  does 
not  adequately  describe  the  office  of  the 
Paraclete,  who  was  not  only  to  console, 
but  to  aid  and  direct  them,  as  Christ  had 
done.  The  disciples  found  the  promise 
fulfilled  to  them.  The  Comforter  aided 
them  when  called  before  councils  ;  guid 
ed  them  into  all  truth  respecting  the 
plan  of  salvation ;  brought  to  their  re 
membrance  the  words  and  deeds  of 
Christ ;  and  revealed  to  them  things  to 
come.  His  presence  was  accompanied 
by  signal  triumphs  of  grace,  and  made 
amends  for  the  absence  of  Christ.  The 
church  is  still  under  the  dispensation  of 
the  Comforter,  and  still  he  convinces  the 
world  of  sin,  of  righteousness,  and  of  the 
judgment  to  come. 

COM'MON,  profane,  ceremonially  un 


clean,  Mark  7:2,5;  Acts  10:14,  15  < 
Bom.  14:14. 

CONCTS'IOX,  cutting,  a  term  of  re 
proach,  applied  to  certain  Judaizing 
teachers  at  Philippi,  as  mere  cutters  of 
the  flesh  ;  in  contrast  with  the  true  cir 
cumcision,  those  who  were  created  anew 
in  Christ  Jesus  unto  righteousness  and 
true  holiness,  Phil.  3:2. 

CON'CUBINE,  a  term  which,  in  mod- 
ern  authors,  commonly  signifies  a  woman 
who,  without  being  married  to  a  man, 
lives  with  him  as  his  wife ;  but  in  the 
Bible  the  word  concubine  is  understood  in 
another  sense — meaning  a  lawful  wife, 
but  of  a  secondary  rank.  She  differed 
from  a  proper  wife  in  that  she  was  not 
married  by  solemn  stipulation,  but  only 
betrothed  ;  she  brought  no  dowry  with 
her,  and  had  no  share  in  the  government 
of  the  family.  She  was  liable  to  be  re 
pudiated,  or  sent  away  with  a  gift,  Gen. 
21 : 14,  and  her  children  might  be  treated 
in  the  same  way,  and  not  share  in  their 
father's  inheritance,  Gen.  25:6.  One 
cause  of  concubinage  is  shown  in  the  his 
tory  of  Abraham  and  Jacob,  Gen.  16 ;  30. 
Concubinage,  however,  became  a  gen 
eral  custom,  and  the  law  of  Moses  re 
stricted  its  abuses,  Ex.  21 :  7-9  ;  Deut. 
21 : 10-14,  but  never  sanctioned  it.  The 
gospel  has  restored  the  original  law  of 
marriage,  Gen.  2:24;  Matt.  19:5;  ICor. 
7:2,  and  concubinage  is  ranked  with  for 
nication  and  adultery. 


CO'NEY,  an  old  English  name  for  the 
rabbit;  used  in  Scripture  to  translate 
the  Hebrew  SHAPHAN,  which  agrees  with 
the  Ashkoko  or  Syrian  Hyrax,  Lev.  11:5; 
Deut.  14:7;  Psa.  104:18;  Prov.  30:26. 
This  animal  is  externally  of  the  size  and 
form  of  the  rabbit,  and  of  a  brownish 
97 


CON 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COP 


color.  It  is,  however,  much  clumsier 
in  its  structure,  -without  tail,  and  hav 
ing  long  bristly  hairs  scattered  through 
the  fur.  The  feet  are  naked  below,  and 
the  nails  flat  and  rounded,  except  those 
on  the  inner  toe  of  the  hind  feet,  which 
are  long  and  awl-shaped.  They  cannot 
dig,  but  reside  in  the  clefts  of  rocks. 
They  are  called  by  Solomon,  "wise," 
and  "  a  feeble  folk ;"  they  are  timid  and 
i gregarious  in  their  habits,  and  so  gentle 
and  quiet,  that  they  shrink  from  the 
shadow  of  a  passing  bird.  The  name  of 
Spain  is  said  to  have  been  given  to  it  by 
Phoenician  voyagers,  who  seeing  its  west 
ern  coast  overrun  with  animals  resem 
bling  the  shaphan,  called  it  Hispania,  or 
Coney-land.  Some  eminent  interpreters 
think  the  SIIAPIIAN  means  the  Jerboa. 

CONI'AH.     See  JEIIOIACIIIN. 

CON'SCIENCE  is  that  faculty  common 
to  all  free  moral  agents,  Rom.  2:13-15, 
in  virtue  of  which  we  discern  between 
right  and  wrong,  and  are  prompted  to 
choose  the  former  and  refuse  the  latter. 
Its  appointed  sphere  is  in  the  regulation, 
according  to  the  will  of  God  revealed  in 
nature  and  the  Bible,  of  all  our  being 
and  actions  so  far  as  these  have  a  moral 
character.  The  existence  of  this  faculty 
proves  the  soul  accountable  at  the  bar  of 
its  Creator,  and  its  voice  is  in  an  impor 
tant  sense  the  voice  of  God.  We  feel 
that  when  pure  and  fully  informed,  it  is 
an  unerring  guide  to  duty,  and  that  no 
possible  array  of  inducements  can  justify 
us  in  disregarding  it.  In  man,  however, 
though  this  conviction  that  we  must  do 
what  is  right  never  fails,  yet  the  value 
of  conscience  is  greatly  impaired  by  its 
inhering  in  a  depraved  soul,  whose  evil 
tendencies  warp  and  pervert  our  judg 
ments  on  all  subjects.  Thus  Paul  verily 
thought  that  he  ought  to  persectite  the 
followers  of  Christ,  Acts  26:9.  His  sin 
was  in  his  culpable  neglect  to  enlighten 
his  conscience  by  all  the  means  in  his 
power,  and  to  purify  it  by  divine  grace. 
A  terrible  array  of  conscientious  errors 
and  persecutions,  which  have  infested 
and  afflicted  the  church  in  all  ages, 
warns  us  of  our  individual  need  of  per 
fect  light  and  sanctifying  grace.  A 
"good"  and  "pure"  conscience,  1  Tim. 
1:5;  3:9,  is  sprinkled  with  Christ's 
blood,  clearly  discerns  the  will  of  God, 
and  urges  us  to  obey  it  from  gospel  mo 
tives  ;  in  proportion  as  we  thus  obey  it, 
it  is  "void  of  offence,"  Acts  24:16,  and 
98 


its  approbation  is  one  of  the  most  essen« 
tial  elements  of  happiness.  A  "weak," 
or  irresolute  and  blind  conscience,  1  Cor. 
8:7;  a  "defiled"  conscience,  the  slave 
of  a  corrupt  heart,  Tit.  1  :  15  ;  Heb. 
10 : 22  ;  and  a  ' '  seared ' '  conscience,  1  Tim. 
4:2,  hardened  against  the  law  and  tho 
gospel  alike,  unless  changed  by  grace, 
will  at  length  become  an  avenging  con 
science,  the  instrument  of  a  fearful  and 
eternal  remorse.  The  case  of  Judas  shows 
its  terrific  power.  No  bodily  tortures 
can  equal  the  agony  it  inflicts ;  and 
though  it  may  slumber  here,  it  will 
hereafter  be  like  the  worm  that  never 
dies  and  the  lire  that  never  can  be 
quenched. 

CONVENIENT,  suitable  and  right, 
Rom.  1:28. 

CONVERSA'TION,  in  the  Bible,  usu~ 
ally  means  the  whole  tenor  of  one's  life, 
in  intercourse  with  his  fellow-men,  Gal. 
1:13;  Eph.  4:22;  1  Pet.  1:15.  Another 
word  is  employed  in  Phil.  3:20,  which 
means,  "our  citizenship  is  in  heaven." 
For  conversation  in  the  modern  sense  of 
discourse,  the  English  version  generally 
has  communication,  2  Kin.  9:11 ;  Matt. 
5:37;  Eph.  4:29,  etc. 

CO'OS,  a  small  island  of  the  Grecian 
archipelago,  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
south-west  point  of  Asia  Minor.  Paul 
passed  it  in  his  voyage  to  Jerusalem, 
Acts  21:1.  It  is  now  called  Stanchio. 
It  was  celebrated  for  its  fertility,  for 
wine  and  silkworms,  and  for  the  manu 
facture  of  silk  and  cotton  of  a  beautiful 
texture. 

COP'PER,  one  of  the  primitive  metals, 
and  the  most  ductile  and  malleable  after 
gold  and  silver.  Of  this  metal  and  zinc 
is  made  brass,  which  is  a  modern  inven 
tion.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that  cop 
per  is  intended  in  those  passages  of  our 
translation  of  the  Bible  which  speak  of 
brass.  Copper  was  known  prior  to  the 
flood,  and  was  wrought  by  Tubal-cain, 
Gen.  4:22.  Hiram  of  Tyre  was  a^ cele 
brated  worker  in  copper,  1  Kin.  7  : 14. 
Palestine  abounded  in  it,  Deut.  8:9,  and 
David  amassed  great  quantities  to  be 
employed  in  building  the  temple,  1  Chr. 
22:3-14.  In  Ezra  8:27,  two  vessels  are 
mentioned  "of  fine  copper,  precious  as 
gold."  This  was  probably  a  metal  com 
pounded  of  copper,  with  gold  or  silver, 
or  both.  It  was  extolled  for  its  beauty, 
solidity,  and  rarity,  and  for  some  uses 
was  preferred  to  gold  itself.  Some  com- 


COR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COR 


pound  of  this  kind  may  have  been  used 
for  the  small  mirrors  mentioned  in  Ex. 
33:8;  Job  37:18.  See  BRASS. 


COR'AL,  a  hard,  calcareous,  marine 
production,  produced  by  the  labors  of 
millions  of  insects,  and  often  resembling 
in  figure  the  stem  of  a  plant,  divided 
into  branches.  It  is  of  various  colors, 
black,  white,  and  red.  The  latter  is  the 
most  valuable.  It  is  ranked  by  Job, 
28  : 18,  and  Ezekiel,  27  :  16,  among  pre 
cious  stones.  It  abounds  in  the  Red  sea ; 
and  the  islands  of  the  South  seas  "are 
often  coral  reefs,  covered  over  with 
earth.  The  word  "rubies"  in  Prov. 
3:15  ;  8  : 11 ;  20  :  15 ;  31 : 10,  is  thought 
by  many  to  mean  ornaments  of  coral. 

COR'BAN,  a  sacred  gift,  a  present  de 
voted  to  God,  or  to  his  temple,  Matt. 
23:18.  Our  Saviour  reproaches  the  Jews 
with  cruelty  towards  their  parents,  in 
making  a  corban  of  what  should  have 
been  appropriated  to  their  use.  The  son 
would  say  to  his  needy  parents,  "  It  is  a 
gift — whatsoever  thou  mightest  be  prof 
ited  by  me,"  that  is,  I  have  already  de 
voted  to  God  that  which  you  request  of 
me,  Mark  7:11;  and  the  traditionary 
teachings  of  the  Jewish  doctors  would 
enforce  such  a  vow,  and  not  suffer  him 
to  do  aught  for  his  parents  against  it, 
although  it  was  contrary  to  nature  and 
reason,  and  made  void  the  law  of  God 
as  to  honoring  parents,  Matt.  15  :  3-9. 
The  Pharisees,  and  the  Talmudists  their 
successors,  permitted  even  debtors  to 
defraud  their  creditors  by  consecrating 
their  debt  to  God;  as  if  the  property 
were  their  own,  and  not  rather  the  right 
of  their  creditor. 


CORIAN'DER,  a  small  round  seed  of 
an  aromatic  plant.  The  plant  is  a  na 
tive  of  China,  and  is  widely  diffused  in 
Asia  and  the  south  of  Europe.  Its  seeds 
are  planted  in  March.  They  are  em 
ployed  as  a  spice  in  the  East,  and  are 
much  used  by  druggists,  confectionarists, 
etc.  The  manna  which  fell  in  the  wil 
derness  was  like  coriander-seed,  Exod. 
16:31 ;  Num.  11:7.  See  MANNA. 

COR'INTH,  see  page  100. 

CORIN'TIIIANS,  EPISTLE  I.  This  was 
written  by  Paul  at  Ephesus,  about  A.  D. 
57,  upon  the  receipt  of  intelligence  re 
specting  the  Corinthian  church,  convey 
ed  by  members  of  the  family  of  Chloe, 
chap.  1  : 11,  and  by  a  letter  from  the 
church  requesting  advice,  chap.  7:1, 
probably  brought  by  Stephanus,  etc., 
chap.  16: 17.  Certain  factions  had  arisen 
in  the  church,  using  his  name  and  those 
of  Peter,  Apollos,  and  of  Christ  himself, 
in. bitter  partisan  contentions.  In  the 
first  part  of  this  letter  he  endeavors  to 
restore  harmony  among  them,  by  reunit 
ing  them  to  the  great  and  sole  Head  of 
the  church.  He  then  takes  occasion  to 
put  them  on  their  guard  against  teach 
ers  of  false  philosophy,  and  resting  their 
faith  on  the  wisdom  of  men  instead  of 
the  simple  but  mighty  word  of  God.  He 
proceeds,  in  chap.  5,  to  reprove  them 
for  certain  gross  immoralities  tolerated 
among  them,  such  as  they  had  formerly 
practised  like  all  around  them,  but 
which  he  charges  them  to  banish  from 
the  church  of  Christ.  He  replies  to  their 
queries  respecting  celibacy  and  marriage, 
and  the  eating  of  food  offered  to  idols ; 
and  meets  several  errors  and  sins  preva 
lent  in  the  church  by  timely  instructions 
as  to  disputes  among  brethren,  decorum 
in  public  assemblies,  the  Lord's  supper, 
the  resurrection  of  believers,  true  chari 
ty,  and  the  right  use  of  spiritual  gifts, 
in  which  the  Corinthian  Christians  ex 
celled,  but  not  without  a  mixture  of  os 
tentation  and  disorder.  He  directs  them 
as  to  the  best  method  of  Christian  be 
neficence,  and  closes  with  friendly  greet 
ings. 

EPISTLE  II.  This  was  occasioned  by 
intelligence  received  through  Titus,  at 
Philippi.  Paul  learned  of  the  favorable 
reception  of  his  former  letter,  and  the 
good  effects  produced,  and  yet  that  a 
party  remained  opposed  to  him — accus 
ing  him  of  fickleness  in  not  fulfilling  his 
promise  to  visit  them ;  blaming  his  se- 
99 


COB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COR 


verity  towards  the  incestuous  person ; 
and  charging  him  with  an  arrogance 
and  assumption  unsuited  to  his  true 
authority  and  his  personal  appearance. 
In  the  course  of  his  reply  he  answers  all 
these  objections;  he  enlarges  upon  the 
excellence  of  the  new  covenant,  and  the 
duties  and  rewards  of  its  ministers,  and 


on  the  duty  of  the  Corinthian  Christians 
as  to  charitable  collections.  He  then 
vindicates  his  own  course,  his  dignity 
and  authority  as  an  apostle,  against 
those  who  assailed  him.  His  last  words 
invite  them  to  penitence,  peace,  and 
brotherly  love.  This  epistle  seems  to 
have  been  written  soon  after  the  lirst. 


MODERN  CORJHTH. 


COR'INTH,  called  anciently  Ephyra, 
the  capital  of  Achaia,  and  seated  on  the 
isthmus  which  separates  the  Ionian  sea 
from  the  yEgean,  and  hence  called  bima- 
ris,  "on  two  seas."  The  city  itself  stood 
a  little  inland ;  but  it  had  two  ports,  Le- 
chasum  on  the  west,  and  Cenchrea  on 
the  east.  Its  position  gave  it  great  com 
mercial  and  military  importance ;  for 
while  the  traffic  of  the  east  and  west 
poured  through  its  gates,  as  over  the 
isthmus  of  Darien  the  commerce  of  two 
oceans,  it  was  also  at  the  gate  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  and  was  the  highway  be 
tween  Northern  and  Southern  Greece. 
Its  defence,  besides  the  city  walls,  was 
in  the  Acro-corinth,  a  mass  of  rock,  ris 
ing  2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  with  pre 
cipitous  sides,  and  with  room  for  a  town 
upon  its  summit.  Corinth  thus  became 
one  of  the  most  populous  and  wealthy 
100 


cities  of  Greece  ;  but  its  riches  produced 
pride,  ostentation,  effeminacy,  and  all 
the  vices  generally  consequent  on  plen 
ty.  Lasciviousness,  particularly,  was 
not  only  tolerated,  but  consecrated  here, 
by  the  worship  of  Venus,  and  the  noto 
rious  prostitution  of  numerous  attend 
ants  devoted  to  her.  Corinth  was  de 
stroyed  by  the  Romans,  B.  c.  146.  It 
was  afterwards  restored  by  Julius  Caesar, 
who  planted  in  it  a  Roman  colony  ;  but 
though  it  soon  regained  its  ancient  splen 
dor,  it  also  relapsed  into  all  its  former 
dissipation  and  licentiousness.  Paul  ar 
rived  at  Corinth,  A.  D.  52,  Acts  18:1,  and 
lodged  with  Aquila  and  his  wife  Priscil- 
la,  who,  as  well  as  himself,  were  tent- 
makers.  Supporting  himself  by  this  la 
bor,  he  remained  at  Corinth  a  year  and 
a  half,  preaching  the  gospel  at  first  to 
the  Jews,  and  afterwards  more  success- 


COR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COR 


fully  to  the  Gentiles.  During  this  time 
he  wrote  the  epistles  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians;  and  in  a  subsequent  visit,  the 
epistles  to  the  Galatians  and  Romans. 
Some  suppose  he  made  a  short  interven 
ing  visit,  not  narrated  in  the  Bible. 
Compare  2  Cor.  13:1  with  2  Cor.  1:15; 
2:1;  12 : 14,  21 ;  13:2.  Apollos  followed 
him  in  his  labors  at  Corinth,  and  Aquila 
and  Sosthenes  were  also  among  its  early 
ministers,  Acts  18:1;  1  Cor.  1:1 ;  16:19. 
Its  site  is  now  unhealthy  and  almost  de 
serted,  with  few  vestiges  of  its  former 
greatness. 

COR'MORANT,  a  water-bird,  about 
the  size  of  a  goose.  It  lives  on  fish, 
which  it  catches  with  great  dexterity ; 
and  is  so  voracious  and  greedy,  that  its 
name  has  passed  into  a  kind  of  prover 
bial  use.  The  Hebrew  word  translated 
"cormorant"  in  Isa.  34:11 ;  Zeph.  2:14, 
should  rather  be  translated,  as  it  is  in 
other  passages,  "pelican,"  Lev.  11:17. 

CORN,  in  the  Bible,  is  the  general 
word  for  grain  of  .all  kinds,  including 
various  seeds,  peas,  and  beans.  It  never 
means,  as  in  America,  simply  maize,  or  In 
dian  corn.  Palestine  was  anciently  very 
fertile  in  grain,  which  furnished  in  a 
great  measure  the  support  of  the  inhab 
itants.  "Corn,  wine,  and  oil-olive" 
were  the  staple  products,  and  wheat 
and  barley  still  grow  there  luxuriantly, 
when  cultivated.  Wheat  was  often  eaten 
in  the  field,  the  ripe  ear  being  simply 
rubbed  in  the  hands  to  separate  the  ker 
nels,  Deut.  23:25  ;  Matt.  12:1.  Parched 
wheat  was  a  part  of  the  ordinary  food  of 
the  Israelites,  as  it  still  is  of  the  Arabs, 
Ruth  2  :  14  ;  2  Sam.  17  :  28,  29.  Their 
methods  of  preparing  grain  for  the  man 
ufacture  of  bread  were  the  following : 
The  threshing  was  done  either  by  the 
staff  or  the  flail,  Isa.  28:27,  28 ;  by  the 
feet  of  cattle,  Deut.  25:4  ;  or  by  "a  sharp 
threshing  instrument  having  teeth," 
Isa.  41:15,  which  was  something  resem 
bling  a  cart,  drawn  over  the  corn  by 
means  of  horses  or  oxen.  See  THRESH 
ING.  When  the  grain  was  threshed,  it 
was  separated  from  the  chaff  and  dust  by 
throwing  it  forward  across  the  wind,  by 
means  of  a  winnowing  fan,  or  shovel, 
Matt.  3.12;  after  which  the  grain  was 
sifted,  to  separate  all  impurities  from  it, 
Amos  9:9  ;  Luke  22:31.  Hence  we  see 
that  the  threshing-floors  were  in  the 
open  air,  and  if  possible  on  high  ground, 
as  travellers  still  find  them  in  actual  use, 


Judg.  6:11;  2  Sam.  24  : 18.  The  grain 
thus  obtained  was  sometimes  pounded  in 
a  mortar,  Num.  11:8;  Rev.  18:22,  but 
was  commonly  reduced  to  meal  by  the 
hand-mill.  This  consisted  of  a  lower 


millstone,  the  upper  side  of  which  was 
slightly  concave,  and  an  upper  mill 
stone,  the  lower  surface  of  which  was 
convex.  These  stones  were  each  about 
two  feet  in  diameter,  and  half  a  foot 
thick ;  and  were  called  ' '  the  nether 
millstone,"  and  the  rider,  Job  41  :  24 ; 
Judg.  9  :  53 ;  2  Sam.  11 :  21.  The  hole 
for  receiving  the  corn  was  in  the  centre 
of  the  upper  millstone  ;  and  in  the  oper 
ation  of  grinding,  the  lower  was  fixed, 
and  the  upper  made  to  move  round  upon 
it  with  considerable  velocity  by  means  of 
a  handle.  The  meal  came  out  at  the 
edges,  and  was  received  on  a  cloth  spread 
under  the  mill  on  the  ground.  Each 
family  possessed  a  mill,  and  the  law  for 
bade  its  being  taken  in  pledge,  Deut. 
24:6  ;  one  among  innumerable  examples 
of  the  humanity  of  the  Mosaic  legisla 
tion.  These  mills  are  still  in  use  in  the 
East,  and  in  some  parts  of  Scotland.  Dr. 
E.  D.  Clarke  says,  "In  the  island  of  Cy 
prus  I  observed  upon  the  ground  the  sort 
of  stones  used  for  grinding  corn,  called 
querns  in  Scotland,  common  also  in  Lap 
land,  and  in  all  parts  of  Palestine.  These 
are  the  primeval  mills  of  the  world  ;  and 
they  are  still  found  in  all  corn  coun 
tries  where  rude  and  ancient  customs 
have  not  been  liable  to  those  changes 
introduced  by  refinement.  The  employ 
ment  of  grinding  with  these  mills  is  con 
fined  solely  to  females,  who  sit  o»  the 
101 


COR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


COT 


ground  with  the  mill  before  them,  and 
•thus  may  be  said  to  be  "behind  the 
mill,"  Ex.  11:5;  and  the  practice  illus 
trates  the  prophetic  observation  of  our 
Saviour  concerning  the  day  of  Jerusa 
lem's  destruction  :  "Two  women  shall  be 
grinding  at  the  mill ;  one  shall  be  taken 
and  the  other  left,"  Matt.  24:41.  To 
this  feminine  occupation  Samson  was 
degraded,  Judg.  16:21.  The  women  al 
ways  accompany  the  grating  noise  of  the 
stones  with  their  voices ;  and  when  ten 
or  a  dozen  are  thus  employed,  the  fury 
of  the  song  rises  to  a  high  pitch.  As  the 
grinding  was  usually  performed  in  the 
morning  at  daybreak,  the  noise  of  the 
females  at  the  hand-mill  was  heard  all 
over  the  city,  and  often  awoke  their 
more  indolent  masters.  The  Scriptures 
mention  the  want  of  this  noise  as  a 
mark  of  desolation,  Jer.  25:10;  Rev. 
18:22. 

CORN"E'LIUS,  a  Roman  centurion,  sta 
tioned  at  C;csarea  in  Palestine,  supposed 
to  have  been  of  a  distinguished  family  in 
Rome.  He  was  "  the  first  gentile  con 
vert  ;"  and  the  story  of  his  reception  of 
the  gospel  shows  how  God  broke  down 
the  partition- wall  between  Jews  and  Gen 
tiles.  When  first  mentioned,  Acts  10:1, 
he  had  evidently  been  led  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  renounce  idolatry,  to  worship 
the  true  God,  and  to  lead,  in  the  midst 
of  profligacy,  a  devout  and  beneficent 
life  ;  he  was  prepared  to  receive  the  Sav 
iour,  and  God  did  not  fail  to  reveal  Him. 
Cornelius  was  miraculously  directed  to 
send  for  Peter,  who  was  also  miracu 
lously  prepared  to  attend  the  summons. 
He  went  from  Joppa  to  Cajsarea,  thirty- 
five  miles,  preached  the  gospel  to  Corne 
lius  and  his  friends,  and  saw  with  won 
der  the  miraculous  gifts  of  the  Spirit 
poured  upon  them  all.  Providence  thus 
explained  his  recent  vision  in  the  trance  ; 
he  nobly  discarded  his  Jewish  prejudices, 
and  at  once  began  his  great  work  as  apos 
tle  to  the  Gentiles  by  receiving  into  the 
church  of  Christ  those  whom  Christ  had 
so  manifestly  accepted,  Acts  10;  11. 

COPt'NER-STONE,  a  massive  stone, 
usually  distinct  from  the  foundation, 
Jer.  51:26  ;  and  so  placed  at  the  corner 
tof  the  building  as  to  bind  together  the 
'two  walls  meeting  upon  it.  Such  a  stone 
is  found  at  Baalbek,  twenty-eight  feet 
long,  six  and  a  half  feet  wide,  and  four 
feet  thick. 

Our  Lord  is  compared  in  the  New  Tes- 
102 


tament  to  a  corner-stone  in  three  differ 
ent  points  of  view.  First,  as  this  stone 
lies  at  the  foundation,  and  serves  to  give 
support  and  strength  to  the  building,  so 
Christ,  or  the  doctrine  of  a  Saviour,  is 
called  the  chief  corner-stone,  Eph.  2:20, 
because  this  doctrine  is  the  most  impor 
tant  feature  of  the  Christian  religion — as 
a  system  of  truths,  and  as  a  living  power 
in  the  souls  of  men.  Further,  as  the 
corner-stone  occupies  an  important  and 
conspicuous  place,  Jesus  is  compared  to 
it,  1  Pet.  2:6,  because  God  has  given  him, 
as  the  Mediator,  a  dignity  and  conspicu- 
ousness  above  all  others.  Lastly,  since 
men  often  stumble  against  a  projecting 
corner-stone,  Christ  is  so  called,  Matt. 
21  :  42,  because  his  gospel  will  be  the 
cause  of  aggravated  condemnation  to 
those  who  reject  it.. 

COR'NET,  a  wind  instrument  of  mu 
sic,  of  a  curved  form,  1  Chr.  15:28  ;  Dan. 
3:5,7.  See  Music. 

COTES,  inclosures  for  the  safe  keeping 
of  sheep,  2  Chr.  32:28.  See  SHEEP. 

COT'TAGE,  a  rustic  tent  or  shelter, 
made  perhaps  of  boughs,  Isa.  24:20. 


COT'TON  was  a  native  product  of  In 
dia,  and  perhaps  of  Egypt,  and  is  sup 
posed  to  be  intended  in  some  of  the  pas 
sages  where  the  English  version  has 
"fine  linen. 'J  It  has  been  much  dis-» 
puted  whether  cotton  cloth  was  used  by! 
the  ancient  Hebrews  and  Egyptians,  or' 
not ;  but  minute  examination  of  the 
cloths  in  which  Egyptian  mummies  were 
wrapped,  proves  that  this  material  was 
sometimes  used,  especially  for  children* 
See  FLAX,  LINEN. 


cou 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CRE 


COUCH.     See  BED. 

COUN'CIL  is  occasionally  taken  for 
any  kind  of  assembly  ;  sometimes  for 
that  of  the  Sanhedrim  ;  at  others,  for  a 
convention  of  pastors  met  to  regulate 
ecclesiastical  affairs.  Thus  the  assembly 
of  the  apostles,  etc.,  at  Jerusalem,  Acts 
15,  to  determine  whether  the  yoke  of 
the  law  should  be  imposed  on  gentile 
converts,  is  commonly  reputed  to  be  the 
first  council  of  the  Christian  church.  See 
SANHEDRIM. 

COUR'SES,  the  order  in  which  the 
priests  were  on  duty  at  the  temple.  See 
ABIA. 

COURT,  an  inclosed  space  or  yard 
within  the  limits  of  an  oriental  house, 
2  Sam.  17 : 18.  For  the  courts  of  the  tem 
ple,  see  TEMPLE.  The  tabernacle  also  had 
a  court.  All  oriental  houses  are  built  in 
the  form  of  a  hollow  square  around  a 
court.  See  HOUSE. 

COV'ENANT.  The  word  testamentum 
is  often  used  in  Latin  to  express  the 
Hebrew  word  which  signifies  covenant ; 
whence  the  titles,  Old  and  New  Testa 
ments,  are  used  to  denote  the  old  and 
new  covenants.  See  TESTAMENT. 

A  covenant  is  properly  an  agreement 
between  two  parties.  Where  one  of  the 
parties  is  infinitely  superior  to  the  other, 
as  in  a  covenant  between  God  and  man, 
there  God's  covenant  assumes  the  nature 
of  a  promise,  Isa.  59:21;  Jer.  31:33, 
34;  Gal.  3:15-18.  The  first  covenant 
with  the  Hebrews  was  made  when  the 
Lord  chose  Abraham  and  his  posterity 
for  his  people  ;  a  second  covenant,  or  a 
solemn  renewal  of  the  former,  was  made 
at  Sinai,  comprehending  all  who  ob 
serve  the  law  of  Moses.  The  "new 
covenant"  of  which  Christ  is  the  Me 
diator  and  Author,  and  which  was  con 
firmed  by  his  blood,  comprehends  all 
who  believe  in  him  and  are  born  again, 
Gal.  4:24;  Heb.  7:22;  8:6-13;  9:15- 
23;  12:24.  The  divine  covenants  were 
ratified  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  victim,  to 
show  that  without  an  atonement  there 
could  be  no  communication  of  blessing 
and  salvation  from  God  to  man,  Gen. 
15:1-18;  Ex.  24:6-8;  Heb.  9:6.  Emi 
nent  believers  among  the  covenant  peo 
ple  of  God  were  favored  by  the  establish 
ment  of  particular  covenants,  in  which 
he  promised  them  certain  temporal  fa 
vors  ;  but  these  were  only  renewals  to 
Individuals  of  the  "everlasting  cove 
nant,"  with  temporal  types  and  pledges 


of  its  fulfilment.  Thus  God  covenanted 
with  Noah,  Abraham,  and  David,  Gen. 
9:8,  9;  17:4,  5;  Psa.  89:3,  4;  etc.,  and 
gave  them  faith  in  the  Saviour  after 
wards  to  be  revealed,  Rom.  3:25;  Heb. 
9:15. 

In  common  discourse,  we  usually  say 
the  old  and  new  testaments,  or  cove 
nants — the  covenant  between  God  and 
the  posterity  of  Abraham,  and  that  which 
he  has  made  with  believers  by  Jesus 
Christ ;  because  these  two  covenants  con 
tain  eminently  all  the  rest,  which  are 
consequences,  branches,  or  explanations 
of  them.  The  most  solemn  and  perfect 
of  the  covenants  of  God  with  men  is  that 
made  through  the  mediation  of  our  Re 
deemer,  which  must  subsist  to  the  end 
of  time.  The  Son  of  God  is  the  guaran 
tee  pf  it ;  it  is  confirmed  with  his  blood ; 
the  end  and  object  of  it  is  eternal  life, 
and  its  constitution  and  laws  are  more 
exalted  than  those  of  the  former  cove 
nant. 

Theologians  use  the  phrase  ' '  covenant 
of  works"  to  denote  the  constitution 
established  by  God  with  man  before  the 
fall,  the  promise  of  which  was  eternal 
life  on  condition  of  obedience,  Hos.  6:7  ; 
Rom.  3:27;  Gal.  2:19.  They  also  use 
the  phrase,  ' '  covenant  of  grace  or  re 
demption,"  to  denote  the  arrangement 
made  in  the  counsels  of  eternity,  in  vir 
tue  of  which  the  Father  forgives  and 
saves  sinful  men  redeemed  by  the  death 
of  the  Son. 

CRACK'NELS,  a  sort  of  hard  brittle 
cakes,  1  Kin.  14:3. 

CRANE,  see  next  page. 

CREA'TION,  (1,)  the  act  by  which 
God  calls  into  existence  things  not  pre 
viously  in  being — material  or  spiritual, 
visible  or  invisible,  Psa.  148:5;  Rev. 
4:11;  (2,)  the  moulding  or  reconstitut 
ing  things,  the  elements  of  which  previ 
ously  existed;  and  (3,)  the  things  thus 
"created  and  made,"  2  Pet.  3:4;  Rev. 
3:14 ;  5:13.  It  is  probably  in  the  first 
of  these  senses  the  word  ' '  created  "  is  to 
be  understood  in  Gen.  1:1,  though  some 
understand  it  in  the  second  sense.  In 
either  case  the  idea  of  the  eternity  of 
matter  is  to  be  rejected,  as  contrary  to 
sound  reason  and  to  the  teachings  of 
Scripture,  Prov.  8:22-31;  John  1:1-3; 
Heb.  11:3. 

Creation  is  exclusively  the  work  of 
God.  The  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Spirit  are  each  in  turn  named  as  ite  au- 
103 


ORE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CRE 


thor,  Isa.  40:28;  Col.  1:16;  Gen.  2:2. 
It  is  a  work  the  mysteries  of  which  no 
finite  mind  can  apprehend ;  and  yet,  as 
it  reveals  to  us  the  invisible  things  of 
God,  Horn.  1:20,  we  may  and  ought  to 
learn  what  he  reveals  respecting  it  not 
only  in  revelation,  but  in  his  works. 
These  two  volumes  are  from  the  same 
divine  hand,  and  cannot  but  harmonize 
with  each  other.  The  Bible  opens  with 
an  account  of  the  creation  unspeakably 
majestic  and  sublime.  The  six  days  there 
spoken  of  have  usually  been  taken  for  our 
present  natural  days ;  but  modern  geo 
logical  researches  have  given  rise  to  the 
idea  that  ' '  day ' '  here  denotes  a  longer 
period.  The  different  rocks  of  our 
globe  lie  in  distinct  layers,  the  com 
parative  age  of  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  ascertained.  Only  the 
most  recent  have  been  found  to  con 
tain  human  remains.  Older  layers 
present  in  turn  different  fossil  re 
mains  of  animals  and  plants,  many 
of  them  supposed  to  be  now  extinct. 
These  layers  are  deeply  imbedded 
beneath  the  present  soil,  and  yet 
appear  to  be  formed  of  matter  wash 
ed  into  the  bed  of  some  primeval 
sea,  and  hardened  into  rock.  Above 
this  may  lie  numerous  other  strata 
of  different  materials,  but  which  ap 
pear  to  have  been  deposited  in  the 
same  manner,  in  the  slow  lapse  of 
time.  These  layers  are  also  thrown 
up  and  penetrated  all  over  the  world 
by  rocks  of  still  earlier  formations, 
apparently  once  in  a  melted  state. 

There  are  several  modes  of  recon 
ciling  these  geological  discoveries 
with  the  statements  of  Scripture : 
First,  that  the  six  days  of  Gen.  1  de 
note  six  long  epochs — periods  of  al 
ternate  progressive  formation  and  revo 
lution  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  To 
the  Lord  ' '  a  thousand  years  are  as  one 
day,"  Psa.  90:2,4;  2  Pet.  3:5-10;  Rev. 
20.  Secondly,  that  the  long  epochs  in 
dicated  in  the  geological  structure  of  the 
globe  occurred  before  the  Bible  account 
commences,  or  rather  in  the  interval 
between  the  first  and  second  verses  of 
Gen .  1 .  According  to  this  interpretation , 
verse  2  describes  the  state  of  the  earth  at 
the  close  of  the  last  revolution  it  experi 
enced,  preparatory  to  God's  fitting  it  up 
for  the  abode  of  man  as  described  in 
the  verses  following.  Thirdly,  that  God 
compressed  the  work  of  those  untold 
104 


ages  into  six  short  days,  and  created  the 
world  as  he  did  Adam,  in  a  state  of  ma 
turity,  embodying  in  its  rocks  and  fos 
sils  those  rudimental  forms  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life  which  seem  naturally  to 
lead  up  to  the  existing  forms. 

The  "creature"  and  "the  whole  cre 
ation,"  in  Rom.  8:19-22,  may  denote 
the  irrational  and  inferior  creation, 
which  shall  be  released  from  the  curse, 
and  share  in  the  glorious  liberty  of  the 
sons  of  God,  Isa.  11  :  6  ;  35  :  1 ;  2  Pet. 
3:7-13.  The  bodies  of  believers,  now 
subject  to  vanity,  are  secure  of  full  de 
liverance  at  the  resurrection —  • '  the  re 
demption  of  our  body,"  Rom.  8:23. 


THE  DEMOISELLE,  OR  NUMIDIAN  CRANE. 

CRANE.  In  Isa.  38:14,  and  Jer.  8:7, 
two  birds  are  mentioned,  the  sus  and  the 
AGUE,,  the  first  rendered  in  our  version 
crane,  the  second  swallow.  Bochart 
says  the  sus,  or  sis,  is  the  swallow  ;  the 
agur,  the  crane.  The  Numidian  crane, 
supposed  to  be  referred  to,  is  about  three 
feet  in  length,  is  bluish-grey,  with  the 
cheeks,  throat,  breast,  and  tips  of  the 
long  hinder  feathers  black,  with  a  tuft  of 
white  feathers  behind  each  eye.  "Like 
a  crane,  or  a  swallow,  so  did  I  chatter :" 
there  is  peculiar  force  and  beauty  in  the 
comparison  here  made  between  the  dy- 


CRE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CRO 


Ing  believer  and  migratory  birds  about 
to  take  their  departure  to  a  distant  but 
more  genial  clime.  They  linger  in  the 
scenes  which  they  have  frequented,  but 
instinct  compels  them  to  remove. 

CRES'CENS,  an  assistant  of  the  apos 
tle  Paul,  and  probably  one  of  the  seventy 
disciples  ;  supposed  to  have  exercised  his 
ministry  in  Galatia,  2  Tim.  4:10. 

CRETE,  a  large  island,  now  called 
Candia,  in  the  Mediterranean,  originally 
peopled  probably  by  a  branch  of  the 
Caphtorim.  It  is  celebrated  by  Homer 
for  its  hundred  cities.  Being  surround 
ed  by  the  sea,  its  inhabitants  were  excel 
lent  sailors,  and  its  vessels  visited  all 
coasts.  They  were  also  famous  for  arch 
ery,  which  they  practised  from  their  in 
fancy.  The  Cretans  were  one  of  the  three 
K's  against  whose  unfaithfulness  the 
Grecian  proverb  cautioned — Kappado- 
cia,  Kilicia,  and  Krete.  In  common 
speech,  the  expression,  "to  Cretanize," 
signified  to  tell  lies  ;  which  helps  to  ac 
count  for  that  detestable  character  which 
the  apostle  has  given  of  the  Cretans,  that 
they  were  "always  liars,"  brutes,  and 
gormandizers,  as  Epimenides,  a  Cretan 
poet,  described  them,  Tit.  1:12,  13. 

Crete  is  famous  as  the  birthplace  of 
the  legislator  Minos ;  and  in  the  Bible, 
for  its  connection  with  the  voyage  of 
Paul  to  Rome,  Acts  11,  The  ship  first 
made  Salmone,  the  eastern  promontory 
of  the  island,  and  took  shelter  at  Fair 
Havens,  a  roadstead  on  the  south  side, 
east  of  cape  Matala.  After  some  time, 
and  against  Paul's  warning,  they  set  sail 
for  Phenice,  a  more  commodious  harbor 
on  the  western  part  of  the  island ;  but 
were  overtaken  by  a  fierce  wind  from  the 
east-north-east,  which  compelled  them 
to  lie  to,  and  drifted  them  to  Malta. 
Paul  is  supposed  to  have  visited  Crete 
afterwards,  in  connection  with  one  of  his 
visits  to  Asia  Minor,  1  Tim.  1:3  ;  Phile. 
22.  Here  he  established  gospel  institu 
tions,  and  left  Titus  in  the  pastoral 
charge,  Tit.  1:5. 

CRIM'SON,  2  Chr.  2 : 7-14 ;  3 : 14.    See 

PuilPLE. 

CRISP'IXG-PINS  irons  for  curling  the 
hair,  Isa.  3:22. 

CRIS'PUS,  president  of  the  synagogue 
at  Corinth,  converted  under  the  preach 
ing  of  Paul,  Acts  18:8,  and  baptized  by 
him,  1  Cor.  1 : 14. 

CROSS,  a  kind  of  gibbet  made  of  pieces 
of  wood  placed  transversely,  whether 
5* 


crossing  at  right  angles,  one  at  the  top 
of  the  other,  T,  or  below  the  top,  f,  or 
diagonally,  X.  Death  by  the  cross  was 
a  punishment  of  the  meanest  slaves,  and 
was  a  mark  of  infamy,  Deut.  21 :23 ;  Gal. 
3: 13.  This  punishment  was  so  common 
among  the  Romans,  that  pains,  afflic 
tions,  troubles,  etc. ,  were  called  ' '  cross 
es.  ' '  Our  Saviour  says,  that  his  disciples 
must  take  up  the  cross  and  follow  Him. 
Though  the  cross  is  the  sign  of  ignominy 
and  sufferings,  yet  it  is  the  badge  and 
glory  of  the  Christian. 

The  common  way  of  crucifying  was  by 
fastening  the  criminal  with  nails,  one 
through  each  hand,  and  one  through 
both  his  feet,  or  through  each  foot. 
Sometimes  they  were  bound  with  cords, 
which,  though  it  seems  gentler,  because 
it  occasions  less  pain,  was  really  more 
cruel,  because  the  sufferer  was  hereby 
made  to  languish  longer.  Sometimes 
they  used  both  nails  and  cords  for  fasten 
ings  ;  and  when  this  was  the  case,  there 
was  no  difficulty  in  lifting  up  the  per 
son,  together  with  his  cross,  he  being 
sufficiently  supported  by  the  cords ;  near 
the  middle  of  the  cross  also  there  was  a 
wooden  projection,  which  partially  sup 
ported  the  body  of  the  sufferer.  Before 
they  nailed  him  to  the  cross,  they  gen 
erally  scourged  him  with  whips  or  leath 
ern  thongs,  which  was  thought  more  se 
vere  and  more  infamous  than  scourging 
with  cords.  Slaves  who  had  been  guilty 
of  great  crimes  were  fastened  to  a  gibbet 
or  cross,  and  were  thus  led  about  the 
city,  and  beaten.  Our  Saviour  was  load 
ed  with  his  cross,  and  as  he  sunk  under 
the  burden,  Simon  the  Cyrenian  was 
constrained  to  bear  it  after  him  and  with 
him,  Mark  15:21. 

After  the  person  had  been  nailed  to 
the  cross,  a  stupefying  draught  was  some 
times  administered,  in  order  to  render* 
him  less  sensible  to  pain,  an  alleviation 
which  our  Saviour  did  not  accept,  Matt 
105 


CRO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


CRY 


27  :  34 ;  Mark  15  :  23  ;  though  he  seems 
afterwaids  to  have  taken  a  little  of  the 
common  beverage  of  the  soldiers.  Sent 
by  the  Father  to  bear  the  heavy  load  of 
penal  suffering  for  a  lost  race,  he  felt 
that  he  had  no  right  to  the  palliatives 
resorted  to  in  ordinary  cases,  and  perfect 
ly  lawful  except  in  his  own.  ' '  The  cup 
which  my  Father  hath  given  me,  shall 
I  not  drink  it?"  John  18:11.  He  drank 
it,  and  to  the  very  dregs.  The  cross 
being  erected  under  the  burning  sun,  the 
wounds  made  by  the  scourge  and  the 
nails  soon  occasioned  a  general  fever  and 
an  intolerable  thirst.  The  blood,  inter 
rupted  in  its  regular  flow,  accumulated  in 
various  parts  of  the  body,  and  caused  pain 
ful  congestions.  Every  slight  writhing  of 
the  sufferer  increased  his  anguish,  which 
found  no  relief  but  in  final  mortification 
and  death.  Those  who  were  fastened  up 
on  the  cross  lived  in  that  condition  sever 
al  days,  and  sometimes  a  week  or  more. 
Hence  Pilate  was  amazed  at  our  Saviour's 
dying  so  soon,  because  naturally  he  must 
have  lived  longer,  Mark  15.44.  The  legs 
of  the  two  thieves  were  broken,  to  hasten 
their  death,  that  their  bodies  might  not 
remain  on  the  cross  on  the  Sabbath  day, 
Deut.  21:23  ;  Josh.  8:29  ;  but  the  cruci 
fied  were  usually  left  hanging,  under  the 
eye  of  guards,  till  their  bodies  fell  to  the 
ground,  or  were  devoured  by  birds  and 
beasts  of  prey. 

CROWN.  There  are  two  distinct  He 
brew  terms  rendered  crown.  The  one 
represents  such  headdresses  as  we  should 
designate  coronet,  band,  mitre,  tiara, 
garland,  etc.  The  other  is  generally 
applied  to  the  headdresses  of  kings.  The 
former  was  a  simple  fillet  or  diadem 
around  the  head,  variously  ornamented. 
Newly-married  persons  of  both  sexes 
wore  crowns  on  their  wedding-day,  Song 
3:11;  Ezek.  16: 12.  The  crowns  of  kings 
were  sometimes  white  fillets,  bound 
round  the  forehead,  the  ends  falling  back 
on  the  neck ;  or  were  made  of  gold  tis 
sue,  adorned  with  jewels.  That  of  the 
Jewish  high-priest  was  a  fillet,  or  dia 
dem,  tied  with  a  ribbon  of  a  hyacinth 
color,  Ex.  28:36;  39:30.  Occasionally 
the  crown  was  of  pure  gold,  and  was 
worn  by  kings,  2  Chr.  23:11,  sometimes 
when  they  went  to  battle,  2  Sam.  1:10  ; 
12:30.  It  was  also  worn  by  queens, 
Esth.  2:17.  The  crown  is  a  symbol  of 
honor,  power,  and  eternal  life,  Prov. 
12:4;  Lam.  5:16;  1  Pet.  6:4.  Crowns 
106 


ANTIQUE   GARLANDS,   DIADEMS,   AND  CROWNS. 

or  garlands  were  given  to  the  successful 
competitors  at  the  Grecian  games,  to 
which  frequent  allusion  is  made  in  the 
Epistles,  2  Tim.  4:7,8. 


CRUSE,  a  small  vessel  for  holding 
water  and  other  liquids,  1  Sam.  26:11. 
The  above  cut  represents  various  antique 
cups,  travelling  flasks,  and  cruses,  like 
those  still  used  in  the  East. 

CRYS'TAL.  The  same  Hebrew  word 
is  rendered  by  our  translators,  crystal, 
Ezek.  1:22;  frost,  Gen.  31:40;  and  ice, 
Job  6: 16.  The  word  primarily  denotes 
ice  ;  and  the  name  is  given  to  a  perfectly 
transparent  and  glass -like  gem,  from  its 


CUB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GYM 


resemblance  to  this  substance,  Job  28 : 17 : 
Rev.  4:G;  21:11. 

CU'BIT,  a  measure  used  among  the 
ancients.  A  cubit  was  originally  the 
distance  from  the  elbow  to  the  extrem 
ity  of  the  middle  finger,  which  is  the 
fourth  part  of  a  well-proportioned  man's 
stature.  The  Hebrew  cubit,  according 
to  some,  is  twenty-one  inches ;  but  oth 
ers  fix  it  at  eighteen.  The  Talmudists 
observe  that  the  Hebrew  cubit  was  larger 
by  one  quarter  than  the  Roman. 

CU'CUMBER,  a  vegetable  very  plenti 
ful  in  the  East,  especially  in  Egypt,  Num. 
11 : 5,  where  they  are  esteemed  delicacies, 
and  form  a  great  part  of  the  food  of  the 
lower  class  of  people,  especially  during 
the  hot  months.  The  Egyptian  cucum 
ber  is  similar  in  form  to  ours,  but  larger, 
being  usually  a  foot  in  length.  It  is 
described  by  Hasselquist  as  greener, 
smoother,  softer,  sweeter,  and  more  di 
gestible  than  our  cucumber. 

CUM'MIN,  a  plant  much  like  fennel, 
and  which  produces  blossoms  and  branch 
es  in  an  umbellatcd  form.  Its  seeds  yield 
an  aromatic  oil,  of  a  warm,  stimulating 
nature,  Isa.  28 : 25-27.  Our  Lord  reproved 
the  scribes  and  Pharisees  for  so  very  care 
fully  paying  tithe  of  mint,  anise,  and  cum 
min,  and  yet  neglecting  good  works  and 
obedience  to  God's  law,  Matt.  23:23. 

CUP.  This  word  is  taken  in  Scripture 
both  in  a  proper  and  in  a  figurative 
sense.  In  a  proper  sense,  it  signifies  a 
common  cup,  of  horn,  or  some  precious 
metal,  Gen.  40:13;  44:2;  1  Kin.  7:26, 
such  as  is  used  for  drinking  out  of  at 
meals ;  or  a  cup  of  ceremony,  used  at 
solemn  and  religious  meals — as  at  the 
passover,  when  the  father  of  the  family 
pronounced  certain  blessings  over  the 
cup,  and  having  tasted  it,  passed  it 
round  to  the  company  and  his  whole 
family,  who  partook  of  it,  1  Cor.  10:10. 
In  a  figurative  sense,  a  cup  is  spoken  of 
as  filled  with  the  portion  given  to  one 
by  divine  providence,  Psa  11:6;  16:5; 
with  the  blessings  of  life  and  of  grace, 
Psa.  23:5 ;  with  a  thank-offering  to  God, 
Ex.  29  :  40 ;  Psa.  116  :  13  ;  with  liquor 
used  at  idolatrous  feasts,  1  Cor.  10  : 21 ; 
with  love-potions,  Rev.  17:4;  with  sore 
afflictions,  Psa.  65  :  8  ;  Isa.  51  : 17  ;  and 
with  the  bitter  draught  of  death,  which 
was  often  caused  by  a  cup  of  hemlock  or 
some  other  poison,  Psa.  75:8.  See  Matt. 
16 : 28  ;  Luke  22 :  42 ;  John  18 : 11.  See 
CEUSB. 


CUSH,  I.,  the  eldest  son  of  Ham,  and 

father  of  Nimrod,  Seba,  Havilah,  Sab- 
tah,  Raamah,  and  Sabtecha,  most  of 
whom  settled  in  Arabia  Felix,  Gen. 
10:0-8. 

II.  The  countries  peopled  by  the  de 
scendants  of  Cush,  and  generally  called 
in  the  English  Bible,  Ethiopia,  though 
not  always.  But  under  this  name  there 
seem  to  be  included  not  less  than  three 
different  countries : 

1.  The  oriental  Cush,  comprehending 
the  regions  of  Persis,  Chusistan,  and  Su- 
siana,  in  Persia.     It  lay  chiefly  to  the 
eastward  of  the  Tigris.     Hither  we  may 
refer  the  river  Gihon,  Gen.  2:13  ;  Zeph. 
3:10.     See  EDEN. 

2.  The  Hebrews  also,  in  the  opinion  of 
many,  used  Cush  and  Cushan,  Hab.  3 : 7, 
to  designate  the  southern  parts  of  Arabia, 
and  the  coast  of  the  Red  sea.    From  this 
country  originated  Nimrod,  who  estab 
lished  himself  in  Mesopotamia,  Gen.  10 : 8. 
The  "Ethiopian  woman,"   too,   whom 
Moses  married  during  the  march  of  the 
Israelites  through  the  desert,  came  prob 
ably  from  this  Cush,   Exod.   2:16-21; 
Num.  12:1;  2  Chr.  21:.16. 

3.  But,  more  commonly,  Cush  signifies 
Ethiopia  proper,  lying  south  and  south 
east  of  Egypt,  and  now  called  Abys 
sinia,  Isa.  "18  :  1 ;  20  :  3-5  ;  Jer.  13  :  23 ; 
Ezek.  29:10;  Dan.  11:43. 

CUTH'ITES,  a  people  who  dwelt  be 
yond  the  Euphrates,  and  were  thence 
transplanted  into  Samaria,  in  place  of 
the  Israelites  who  had  before  inhabited 
it.  They  came  from  the  land  of  Cush,  or 
Cutha,  in  the  East ;  their  first  settlement 
being  in  the  cities  of  the  Medes,  subdued 
by  Shalmaneser  and  his  predecessors. 
See  Cusn.  The  Israelites  were  substi 
tuted  for  them  in  those  places,  2  Kin. 
17:24,  80. 

CYM'BAL,  a  musical  instrument  con 
sisting  of  two  broad  plates  of  brass,  of  a 
convex  form,  which  being  struck  to 
gether,  produce  a  shrill,  piercing  sound. 
From  Psa.  150:5,  it  would  appear  that 
both  hand-cymbals  and  finger-cymbals, 
or  castagnets,  were  used.  They  were 
used  in  the  temple,  and  upon  occasions 
of  public  rejoicings,  1  Chr.  13:8;  16:5, 
as  they  are  by  the  Armenians  at  the 
present  day.  In  1  Cor.  13:1,  the  apos 
tle  deduces  a  comparison  from  sounding 
brass  and  "tinkling"  cymbals;  perhaps 
the  latter  words  had  been  better  ren- 
|  dered  clanging  or  clattering  cymbals, 
107 


CYP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAG 


HAND   AND  FINGER  CYMBALS,  AND  TAMBOTTKITJB. 

since  such  is  the  nature  of  the  instru 
ment.     See  Music. 

CY'PRESS,  an  evergreen  tree,  resem 
bling  in  form  and  size  the  Lombardy 
poplar.  Its  wood  is  exceedingly  durable, 
and  seems  to  have  been  used  for  making 
idols,  Isa.  44:14.«  The  cypress  is  thought 
to  be  intended  in  some  of  the  passages 
where  "fir-tree"  occurs,  2  Sam.  6:5, 
etc. 

CY'PEUS,  a  large  island  in  the  Med 
iterranean,  situated  in  the  north-east 
part  of  that  sea  between  Cilicia  and 
Syria.  It  is  about  one  hundred  and  forty 
miles  long,  and  varies  from  five  to  fifty 
miles  in  breadth.  Its  inhabitants  were 
plunged  in  all  manner  of  luxury  and 
debauchery.  Their  principal  deity  was 
Venus,  who  had  a  celebrated  temple  at 
Paphos.  The  island  was  extremely  fertile, 
and  abounded  in  wine,  oil,  honey,  wool, 
copper,  agate,  and  a  beautiful  species  of 
rock  crystal.  There  were  also  large  for 
ests  of  cypress-trees.  Of  the  cities  in  the 
island,  Paphos  on  the  western  coast,  and 
Salamis  at  the  opposite  end,  are  men 
tioned  in  the  New  Testament.  The  gos 
pel  was  preached  there  at  an  early  day, 
Acts  11:19.  Barnabas  and  Mnason,  and 
other  eminent  Christians,  were  natives  of 
this  island,  Acts  11  :  20  ;  21  :  16.  The 
apostles  Paul  and  Barnabas  made  a  mis 
sionary  tour  through  it,  A.  D.  44,  Acts 
13: 4-1 S  See  also  Acts  15:39;  27:4. 

CYRE'NE,  a  city  and  province  of  Lib 
ya,  west  of  Egypt,  between  the  Great 
Syrtis  and  the  Marectis,  at  present  call 
ed  Cairoan,  in  the  pi  ovince  of  Barca.    It 
108 


was  sometimes  called  PENTAPOLIS,  from 
the  five  principal  cities  which  it  con 
tained — Gyrene,  Apollonia,  Arsinoe,  Be 
renice,  and  Ptolemais.  From  hence  came 
Simon  the  Cyrenian,  father  of  Alexander 
and  Rufus,  on  whom  the  Roman  soldiers 
laid  a  part  of  our  Saviour's  cross,  Matt. 
27:32;  Luke  23: 26.  There  were  many- 
Jews  in  the  province  of  Gyrene,  a  great 
part  of  whom  embraced  the  Christian 
religion,  though  others  opposed  it  with 
much  obstinacy,  Acts  11:20;  13:1.  Also 
Acts  6: 9. 

CYRE'NIUS,  or  Publius  Sulpitius  Qui- 
RINUS,  according  to  his  Latin  appellation, 
governor  of  Syria,  Luke  2:2.  According 
to  history,  Quirinus  was  not  properly 
governor  of  Syria  till  some  years  after 
this  date ;  and  the  only  census  of  that 
time  mentioned  by  secular  historians 
took  place  when  Christ  was  eight  or  ten 
years  old.  The  passage  in  Luke  may 
be  translated,  "This  enrolment  took 
place  first  under  Cyrenius  governor  of 
Syria- ' '  Compare  Acts  5 : 37. 

CY'RUS,  son  of  Cambyscs  king  of  Per 
sia,  and  Mandane,  daughter  of  Astyages 
king  of  the  Mecles.  He  aided  his  uncle 
Cyaxares  (called  ' '  Darius  the  Mede ' '  in 
the  Bible)  in  conquering  Asia  Minor, 
and  afterwards  their  joint  forces  cap 
tured  Babylon  and  overran  the  Assyrian 
empire.  He  married  his  cousin,  the 
daughter  of  Cyaxares,  and  thus  at  length 
inherited  and  united  the  crowns  of  Per 
sia  and  Media.  Cyrus  was  foretold  by 
the  prophet  Isaiah,  44  :  28  ;  45  :  1-7,  as 
the  deliverer  and  restorer  of  Judah,  as 
lie  proved  to  be,  2  Chr.  36:22,  23  ;  Ezn* 
1 : 1-4.  The  prophet  Daniel  was  his  fa 
vorite  minister,  Dan.  6 : 28. 


DAB'ERATH,  a  Levitical  town  in  the 
borders  of  Zebultm  and  Issachar,  Josh. 
19:12;  21:28;  1  Chr.  6:72.  Its  site  is 
probably  that  of  the  modern  Deburieh, 
i  small  village  at  the  foot  of  mount  Ta 
bor  on  the  north-west. 

DA'GON,  fish-god,  a  national  idol  of 
:he  Philistines,  with  temples  at  Gaza, 
Ashdod,  etc.,  1  Chr  10:10.  The  temple 
at  Gaza  was  destroyed  by  Samson,  Judg. 
16:21-30.  In  that  at  Ashdod,  Dagon 
;wice  miraculously  fell  down  before  the 
ark  of  God ;  and  in  the  second  fall  his 
lead  and  hands  were  broken  off,  leaving 


DAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAM 


only  the  body,  which  was  in  the  form  of 
a  large  fish,  1  Sam.  5  :  1-9.  See  Josh. 
15:41;  19:27.  There  were  other  idols 
of  like  form  among  the  ancients,  partic 
ularly  the  goddess  Derceto  or  Atergatis ; 
and  a  similar  form  or  ' '  incarnation ' '  of 
Vishnu  is  at  this  day  much  worshipped 
hi  India,  and  like  Dagon  is  destined  to 
be  prostrated  in  the  dust  before  the  true 
God. 

DALMANU'THA,  a  town  or  village 
near  the  city  of  Magdala,  Mark  8  :  10. 
Compare  Matt.  15:39.  The  exact  situa 
tion  of  this  place  is  uncertain ;  it  lay, 
however,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  north  of  Tiberias. 

DALMA'TIA,  a  province  of  Europe  on 
the  east  of  the  Adriatic  sea,  and  forming 
part  of  Illyricum.  It  was  contiguous  to 
Macedonia,  Upper  Mcesia.  and  Liburnia, 
from  which  latter  it  was  divided  by  the 
river  Titius.  Hither  Titus  was  sent  by 
Paul  to  spread  the  knowledge  of  Chris 
tianity,  2  Tim.  4:10. 

DAMARIS,  an  Athenian  lady,  honor 
ably  distinguished  as  one  of  the  few  who 
embraced  Christianity  at  Athens  under 
the  preaching  of  Paul,  Acts  17:34. 

DAMAS'CUS,  a  celebrated  metropolis 
of  Syria,  first  mentioned  in  Gen.  14:15  ; 
15:2,  and  now  probably  the  oldest  city 
on  the  globe.  It  stands  on  the  river 
Barada,  the  ancient  Chrysorrhoas,  in  a 
beautiful  and  fertile  plain  on  the  east 
and  south-east  of  Anti-Lebanon.  See 
ABANA.  This  plain  is  about  fifty  miles 
in  circumference ;  it  is  open  to  the  des 
ert  of  Arabia  on  the  south  and  east,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  other  sides  by  the 
mountains.  The  region  around  and 


north  of  Damascus,  including  probably 
the  valley  between  the  ridges  of  Leba 
non  and  Anti-Lebanon,  is  called  in  thu 
Scriptures,  "Syria  of  Damascus,"  2  Sam. 
8:5,  and  by  Strabo,  Ccelesyria.  This 
city,  which  at  first  had  its  own  kings, 
was  taken  by  David,  2  Sam.  8:5,  6,  and 
by  Jeroboam  II.,  2  Kings  14:28.  Its 
history  at  this  period  is  to  be  found  in 
the  accounts  given  of  Naaman,  Ben-ha- 
dad,  Hazael,  and  Rezin.  It  was  subdued 
by  Tiglath-pileser,  2  Kin.  16  :  9 ;  and 
was  afterwards  subject  to  the  Assyrians, 
Babylonians,  Persians,  Seleucidte,  and 
Romans.  In  the  days  of  Paul  it  appears 
to  have  been  held,  for  a  time  at  least, 
by  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia  Petraia,  the 
father-in-law  of  Herod  Antipas.  At  this 
period  the  city  was  so  much  thronged  by 
the  Jews,  that,  according  to  Josephus, 
ten  thousand  of  them,  by  command  of 
Nero,  were  put  to  death  at  once.  It  is 
memorable  to  Christians  as  the  scene  of 
the  miraculous  conversion  of  that  most 
illustrious  "servant  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,"  the  apostle  Paul,  Acts  9:1-27; 
22: 1-16.  Since  1506,  Damascus  has  been 
held  by  the  Turks ;  it  is  the  metropolis 
of  "  the  Pashalic  of  Damascus,"  and  has 
a  population  of  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand.  The  Arabs  call  it  Esh- 
shams.  It  is  still  celebrated,  with  the 
surrounding  country,  by  all  travellers, 
as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  luxuri 
ant  regions  in  the  world.  The  orientals 
themselves  call  it  the  "Paradise  on 
earth,"  and  it  is  pretended  that  Moham 
med  refused  to  enter  it,  lest  he  should 
thereby  forfeit  his  heavenly  Paradise. 
The  plain  around  the  city  is  well  water 
ed  and  of  exuberant  fertility ;  and  the 
eye  of  the  traveller  from  any  direction  is 
fascinated  by  the  view — a  wilderness  of 
verdure,  interspersed  with  innumerable 
villas  and  hamlets,  with  gardens,  foun 
tains,  and  groves.  A  nearer  view  of  the 
city  discloses  much  that  is  offensive  to 
the  senses,  as  well  as  to  the  spirit.  It 
is  the  most  purely  oriental  city  yet  re 
maining  of  all  that  are  named  in  the 
Bible.  Its  public  buildings  and  bazaars 
are  fine;  and  many  private  dwellings, 
though  outwardly  mean,  are  decorated 
within  in  a  style  of  the  most  costly  lux 
ury.  Its  position  has  made  it  from  the 
very  first  a  commercial  city,  Ezek.  27  •  18. 
The  cloth  called  Damask  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  here,  and  Damascus  steel 
has  never  been  equalled.  It  still  carriea 
109 


DAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAN 


on  an  extensive  traffic  in  woven  stuffs  of 
silk  and  cotton,  in  line  inlaid  cabinet 
work,  in  leather,  fruits,  sweetmeats,  etc. 
For  this  purpose  huge  caravans  assemble 
here  at  intervals,  and  traverse,  just  as  of 
old,  the  desert  routes  to  remote  cities. 
Here  too  is  a  chief  gathering-place  of  pil 
grims  to  Mecca.  People  from  all  the 
nations  of  the  East  resort  to  Damascus, 
a  fact  which  shows  its  importance  as 
a  missionary  station.  An  encouraging 
commencement  has  been  made  by  Eng 
lish  Christians,  and  the  fierce  and  bigot 
ed  intolerance  of  its  Mussulman  popula 
tion  has  begun  to  give  way.  A  street  is 
still  found  here  called  "Straight,"  prob 
ably  the  same  referred  to  in  Acts  9:11. 
It  runs  a  mile  or  more  through  the  city 
from  the  eastern  gate. 

DAMNATION,  the  state  of  being  ex 
cluded  from  God's  mercy,  and  condemn 
ed  to  the  everlasting  punishment  of  the 
wicked.  This  is  now  the  sense  of  the 
word  damnation,  in  our  language ;  but 
at  the  time  when  the  Bible  was  trans 
lated,  it  signified  the  same  as  condem 
nation.  The  words  damn  and  damna 
tion  ought  therefore  to  be  still  so  under 
stood,  in  such  passages  as  Rom.  13  :  2  ; 
14:23;  1  Cor.  11:29. 

DAN,  a  judge,  I.,  a  son  of  Jacob  by 
Bilhah,  Gen.  30:3;  35.25,  The  tribe 
of  Dan  was  second  only  to  that  of  Ju- 
dah  in  numbers  before  entering  Canaan, 
Num.  1:39;  26:43.  A  portion  was  as 
signed  to  Dan,  extending  south-east  from 
the  seacoast  near  Joppa.  It  bordered  on 
the  land  of  the  Philistines,  with  whom 
the  tribe  of  Dan  had  much  to  do,  Judg. 
13-16.  Their  territory  was  fertile,  but 
small,  and  the  natives  were  powerful. 
A  part  of  the  tribe  therefore  sought 
and  conquered  another  home,  Josh.  19 ; 
Judg.  18. 

II.  A  city  originally  called  Laish, 
Judg.  18:29,  at  the  northern  extremity 
of  Israel,  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali. 
"From  Dan  to  Beersheba"  denotes  the 
whole  extent  of  the  land  of  promise, 
Dan  being  the  northern  city,  and  Beer- 
Eheba  the  southern  one.  Dan  was  seat 
ed  at  the  foot  of  mount  Hermon,  four 
miles  west  of  Paneas,  near  one  source  of 
the  Jordan,  on  a  hill  now  called  Tell-el- 
Kady.  Laish  at  one  time  belonged  to 
Zidon,  and  received  the  name  of  Dan 
from  a  portion  of  that  tribe  who  con 
quered  and  rebuilt  it,  Judg.  18.  It  was 
an  idolatrous  city  even  then,  and  was 
110 


afterwards  the  seat  of  one  of  the  golden 
calves  of  Jeroboam,  1  Kin.  12:28  ;  Amos 
8:14.  Though  once  and  again  a  very 
prosperous  city,  Judg.  18  :  10 ;  Ezek. 
27:19,  only  slight  remains  of  it  now 
exist. 

DANC'ING.  The  Hebrew  word  signi 
fied  "to  leap  for  joy,"  Psa.  30:11 ;  and 
the  action  of  the  lame  man  healed  by 
Peter  and  John,  Acts  3:8,  more  nearly 
resembled  the  Hebrew  dancing  than  the 
measured  artificial  steps  of  modern  times 
do.  The  Jewish  dances  were  expressive 
of  religious  joy  and  gratitude.  Some 
times  they  were  in  honor  of  a  conqueror, 
as  in  the  case  of  David,  1  Sam.  18:6,  7  ; 
when  he  had  slain  the  Philistine  giant, 
' '  the  women  came  out  of  all  the  cities 
of  Israel  singing  and  dancing."  It  was 
practised  on  occasions  of  domestic  joy. 
See  the  case  of  the  prodigal  son's  return. 
In  the  religious  dance,  the  timbrel  was 
used  to  direct  the  ceremony,  and  some 
one  led,  whom  the  rest  followed  with 
measured  step  and  devotional  songs; 
thus  Miriam  led  the  women  of  Israel, 
Ex.  15:20,  21,  and  king  David  the  men, 
2  Sam.  6:14;  Psa.  150:4.  Several  im 
portant  conclusions  have  been  drawn 
from  a  careful  comparison  of  the  por 
tions  of  Scripture  in  which  there  is  allu 
sion  to  dancing.  It  was  religious  in  its 
character  ;  practised  exclusively  on  joy 
ous  occasions  ;  only  by  one  of  the  sexes ; 
usually  in  the  daytime,  and  in  the  open 
air  :  no  instances  are  on  record  in  which 
the  two  sexes  united  in  the  exercise  ;  and 
it  was  not  practised  for  amusement.  The 
exceptions  to  this  latter  assertion  are  the 
"vain  fellows,"  alluded  to  by  Michal, 
2  Sam.  6 : 20,  the  ungodly  rich  families  re 
ferred  to  by  Job,  21:11,  and  the  daugh 
ter  of  Herodias,  Mark  14:6.  Among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  dancing  was  a  com 
mon  pastime,  resorted  to  in  order  to  en 
liven  feasts,  and  also  on  occasions  of 
domestic  joy.  Still  Cicero  says,  "No 
one  dances,  unless  he  is  either  drunk  or 
mad  ;"  and  these  words  express  the  pre 
vailing  sense  as  to  the  impropriety  of 
respectable  individuals  taking  part  in 
the  amusement.  Hence  the  gay  circles 
of  Rome,  as  is  the  case  in  the  East  at  the 
present  time,  derived  their  entertain 
ment  from  the  performances  of  profes 
sional  dancers.  These  were  women  of 
abandoned  character  ;  and  their  dances, 
like  those  in  heathen  temples,  were 
often  grossly  indecent,  Isa.  23 : 16. 


DAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAN 


DAN'IEL,  I.,  called  Belteshazzar  by 
the  Chaldeans,  a  prophet  descended  from 
the  royal  family  of  David,  who  was 
carried  captive  to  Babylon,  when  very 
young,  in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim 
king  of  Judah,  B.  c.  606.  He  was  chosen, 
with  his  three  companions,  Hananiah, 
Mishael,  and  Azariah,  to  reside  at  Neb 
uchadnezzar's  court,  where  he  received 
a  suitable  education,  and  made  great 
progress  in  all  the  sciences  of  the  Chal 
deans,  but  declined  to  pollute  himself 
by  eating  provisions  from  the  king's  ta 
ble,  which  would  often  be  ceremonially 
unclean  to  a  Jew,  or  defiled  by  some  con 
nection  with  fdol-worship.  At  the  end 
of  their  three  years'  education,  Daniel 
and  his  companions  excelled  all  others, 
and  received  honorable  appointments  in 
the  royal  service.  Here  Daniel  soon  dis 
played  his  prophetic  gifts  in  interpreting 
a  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  by  whom  he 
was  made  governor  of  Babylon,  and  head 
of  the  learned  and  priestly  class.  He 
seems  to  have  been  absent,  perhaps  on 
some  foreign  embassy,  when  his  three 
companions  were  cast  into  the  iiery  fur 
nace.  At  a  later  period  he  interpreted 
another  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
afterwards  the  celebrated  vision  of  Bel- 
shazzar — one  of  whose  last  works  was 
to  promote  Daniel  to  an  office  much 
higher  than  he  had  previously  held  dur 
ing  his  reign,  Dan.  5:29;  8:27. 

After  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  the 
Medes  and  Persians,  under  Cyaxares  and 
Cyrus,  Daniel  was  continued  in  all  his 
high  employments,  and  enjoyed  the 
favor  of  these  princes  until  his  death, 
except  at  one  short  interval,  when  the 
envy  of  the  other  officers  prevailed  on 
the  king  to  cast  him  into  the  lions'  den, 
an  act  which  recoiled  on  his  foes  to 
their  own  destruction.  During  this  pe 
riod  he  earnestly  labored,  by  fasting  and 
prayer  as  well  as  by  counsel,  to  secure 
the  return  of  the  Jews  to  their  own  land, 
the  promised  time  having  come,  Dan.  9. 
He  lived  to  see  the  decree  issued,  and 
many  of  his  people  restored ;  but  it  is 
not  known  that  he  ever  revisited  Jeru 
salem.  In  the  third  year  of  Cyrus,  he 
had  a  series  of  visions  disclosing  the 
state  of  the  Jews  till  the  coming  of  the 
promised  Redeemer ;  and  at  last  we  see 
him  calmly  awaiting  the  peaceful  close 
of  a  well-spent  life,  and  the  gracious  res 
urrection  of  the  just.  Daniel  was  one  of 
the  most  spotless  characters  upon  record. 


His  youth  and  his  age  were  alike  devot 
ed  to  God.  He  maintained  his  integrity 
in  the  most  difficult  circumstances,  and 
amid  the  fascinations  of  an  eastern  court 
he  was  pure  and  upright.  He  confessed 
the  name  of  God  before  idolatrous»prin- 
ces ;  and  would  have  been  a  martyr,  but 
for  the  miracle  which  rescued  him  from 
death.  His  history  deserves  the  care 
ful  and  prayerful  study  of  the  young, 
and  the  lessons  which  it  inculcates  are 
weighty  and  rich  in  instruction. 

II.  The   second    son   of  David,    also 
called  Chileab,  1  Chr.  3:1  ;  2  Sam.  3:3. 

III.  A    descendant    of   Ithamar,    the 
fourth  son  of  Aaron.     He  was  one  of 
the  chiefs  who  accompanied  Ezra  from 
Babylon  to  Judea,  and  afterwards  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  reformation  of  the 
people,  Ezra  8: 2. 

DAN'IEL,  BOOK  OF.  This  is  a  mixture 
of  history  and  prophecy.  The  first  six 
chapters  are  chiefly  historical,  and  the 
remainder  prophetical.  It  was  complet 
ed  about  B.  c.  534.  The  wonders  related 
are  of  a  peculiar  and  striking  character, 
and  were  designed  to  show  the  people  of 
God  that,  amid  their  degeneracy,  the 
Lord's  hand  was  not  shortened  that  it 
could  not  save ;  and  also  to  exhibit  to 
their  enemies  that  there  was  an  essential 
difference  between  Jehovah  and  idols, 
between  the  people  of  God  and  the 
world.  The  prophecies  contained  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  book  extend  from  the 
days  of  Daniel  to  the  general  resurrec 
tion.  The  Assyrian,  the  Persian,  the 
Grecian,  and  the  Roman  empires  are  de 
scribed  under  appropriate  imagery.  The 
precise  time  of  Christ's  coming  is  told ; 
the  rise  and  fall  of  antichrist,  and  the 
duration  of  his  power,  are  accurately 
determined ;  the  victory  of  Christ  over 
his  enemies,  and  the  universal  preva 
lence  of  his  religion  arc  clearly  pointed 
out.  The  book  is  filled  with  the  most 
exalted  sentiments  of  piety  and  devout 
gratitude.  Its  style  is  simple,  clear,  and 
concise,  and  many  of  the  prophecies  are 
delivered  in  language  so  plain  and  cir 
cumstantial,  that  some  infidels  have  as 
serted  that  they  were  written  after  the 
events  they  describe  had  taken  place. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton  regards  Daniel  as  the 
most  distinct  and  plain  of  all  the  proph 
ets,  and  most  easy  to  be  understood; 
and  therefore  considers  that  in  things 
relating  to  the  last  times,  he  is  to  be  re 
garded  as  the  key  to  the  other  prophets. 
Ill 


CAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAV 


With  respect  to  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  book,  there  is  the 
strongest  evidence,  both  internal  and 
external.  We  have  the  testimony  of 
Christ  himself,  Matt.  24:15;  of  St.  John 
and  S4.  Paul,  who  have  copied  his  proph 
ecies  ;  of  the  Jewish  church  and  nation, 
who  have  constantly  received  this  book 
as  canonical ;  of  Josephus,  who  recom 
mends  him  as  the  greatest  of  the  proph 
ets  ;  and  of  the  Jewish  Targums  and 
Talmuds,  which  frequently  cite  his  au 
thority.  As  to  the  internal  evidence,  the 
style,  the  language,  the  manner  of  writ 
ing,  perfectly  agree  with  the  age ;  and 
especially,  he  is  proved  to  have  been  a 
prophet  by  the  exact  fulfilment  of  his 
predictions.  This  book,  like  that  of 
Ezra,  is  written  partly  in  Hebrew,  and 
partly  in  Chaldee,  the  prevailing  lan- 
guage  of  the  Babylonians. 

I.  DARI'US  THE  MEDE,  Dan.  5:31; 
9:1;  11:1,  was  son  of  Astyages  king  of 
the    Medes,    and   brother    of    Mandane 
mother  of  Cyrus,  and  of  Amyit  the  moth 
er  of  Evil-merodach  and  grandmother  of 
Belshazzar:  thus  he  was  uncle,  by  the 
mother's  side,  to  Evil-merodach  and  to 
Cyrus.    The  Hebrew  generally  calls  him 
Darius ;  the  Septuagint,  Artaxerxes  ;  and 
Xenophon,  Cyaxares.    Darius  dethroned 
Belshazzar  king  of  the  Chaldeans,  and 
occupied  the  throne  till  his  death  two 
years  after,  when  it  reverted  to  the  illus 
trious  Cyrus.     In  his  reign  Daniel  was 
cast  into  the  lions'  den,  Dan.  6. 

II.  DAPJ'US  HYSTAS'PIS,  spoken  of 
in  Ezra  4-7,  Haggai,  and  Zechariah,  as 
the  king  who  renewed  the  permission  to 
rebuild  the  temple,  given  to  the  Jews  by 
Cyrus  and  afterwards  recalled.     He  suc 
ceeded    Smerdis,    the   Magian    usurper, 
B.  c.  521,  and  reigned  thirty-six  years. 
He  removed  the  seat  of  government  to 
Susa,  whereupon  Babylon  rebelled  against 
him ;  but  he  subdued  the  rebellion  and 
broke  down  the  walls  of  Babylon,  as  was 
predicted,  Jer.  51:58. 

III.  DAPJ'US    CODOMA'NUS,    Neh. 
12:22,  was  one  of  the  most  brave  and 
generous  of  the  Persian  kings.     Alexan 
der  the  Great  defeated  him  several  times, 
and  at  length  subverted  the  Persian  mon 
archy,  after  it  had  been  established  two 
hundred  and  six  years.   Darius  was  killed 
by  his  own  generals,  after  a  short  reign 
of  six  years.      Thus  were  verified  the 
prophecies  of  Daniel,  ch.  8,  who  had  fore- 
t  Id  the  enlargement  of  the  Persian  mon- 

112 


archy,  under  the  symbol  of  a  ram,  "butt 
ing  with  its  horns  westward,  northward, 
and  southward,  which  nothing  could  re 
sist  ;  and  its  destruction  by  a  goat  hav 
ing  a  very  large  horn  between  his  eyes, 
(Alexander  the  Great,)  coming  from  the 
west,  and  overrunning  the  world  with 
out  touching  the  earth.  Nothing  can  be 
added  to  the  clearness  of  these  prophe 
cies,  so  exactly  describing  what  in  due 
time  took  place  arid  is  matter  of  history. 

DAPJv'NESS,  the  absence  of  natural 
light,  Gen.  1 : 2,  and  hence  figuratively  a 
state  of  misery  and  adversity,  Job  18:6  ; 
Psa.  107  : 10 ;  Isa.  8  : 22  ;  9:1;  also  the 
absence  of  the  sun  and  st&rs,  and  hence 
the  fall  of  chief  men  and  national  con 
vulsions,  Isa.  13:10;  Acts 2: 20.  "Works 
of  darkness, ' '  are  the  impure  mysteries 
practised  in  heathen  worship,  Eph.  5:11. 
"  Outer  darkness"  illustrates  the  gloom 
of  those  on  whom  the  gates  of  heaven 
are  closed,  Matt.  8:12.  The  darkness  in 
Egypt,  Ex.  10:21-23,  was  miraculous; 
also  that  which  covered  all  Judea  with 
sympathetic  gloom  at  the  crucifixion  of 
Christ,  Luke  23  : 43.  This  could  not 
have  been  caused  by  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun ;  for  at  the  Passover  the  moon  was 
full,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun. 

DATE,  the  fruit  of  the  palm-tree.  See 
PALM. 

DA'THAN,  one  of  the  rebels,  in  com- 
pany  with  Korah,  against  the  authority 
of  Moses  and  Aaron,  Num.  16. 

DA'VID,  beloved,  the  youngest  son  of 
Jesse,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  born  in 
Bethlehem  B.  c.  1085 ;  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  men  in  either  sacred  or  sec 
ular  history.  His  life  is  fully  recorded 
in  1  Sam.  16  to  1  Kin.  2.  He  was  "the 
Lord's  anointed,"  chosen  by  God  to  be 
king  of  Israel  instead  of  Saul,  and  coja- 
secrated  to  that  office  by  the  venerable 
prophet  Samuel  long  before  he  actually 
came  to  the  throne,  1  Sam.  16:1-13,  for 
which  God  prepared  him  by  the  gift  of 
his  Spirit,  and  a  long  course  of  vicissi 
tudes  and  dangers.  In  his  early  pasto 
ral  life  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
boldness,  fidelity,  and  faith  in  God  ;  and 
while  yet  a  youth  was  summoned  to 
court,  as  one  expert  in  music,  valiant, 
prudent  in  behavior,  and  comely  in  per 
son.  He  succeeded  in  relieving  from 
time  to  time  the  mind  of  king  Saul,  op 
pressed  by  a  spirit  of  melancholy  and 
remorse,  and  became  a  favorite  attend-. 


DAV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DAY 


ant,  ver.  21 ;  but  on  the  breaking  out  of 
war  with  the  Philistines  he  seems  to 
have  been  released,  and  to  have  returned 
to  take  care  of  his  father's  flock.  Prov 
idence  soon  led  him  to  visit  the  camp, 
and  gave  to  his  noble  valor  and  faith 
the  victory  over  the  giant  champion  Go 
liath.  He  returned  to  court  crowned 
with  honor,  received  a  command  in  the 
army,  acquitted  himself  well  on  all  occa 
sions,  and  rapidly  gained  the  coniidence 
and  love  of  the  people.  The  jealousy  of 
Saul,  however,  at  length  drove  him  to 
seek  refuge  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea ; 
where  he  soon  gathered  a  band  of  six 
hundred  men,  whom  he  kept  in  perfect 
control  and  employed  only  against  the 
enemies  of  the  land.  He  was  still  pur 
sued  by  Saul  with  implacable  hostility  ; 
and  as  he  would  not  lift  his  hand  against 
his  king,  though  he  often  had  him  in  his 
power,  he  at  length  judged  it  best  to 
retire  into  the  land  of  the  Philistines. 
Here  he  was  generously  received ;  but 
had  found  the  difficulties  of  his  position 
such  as  he  could  not  honorably  meet, 
when  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan 
opened  the  way  for  him  to  the  promised 
throne. 

He  was  at  once  chosen  king  over  the 
house  of  Judah,  at  Hebron ;  and  after 
about  seven  years  of  hostilities  was  unan 
imously  chosen  king  by  all  the  tribes  of 
Israel,  and  established  himself  at  Jerusa 
lem — the  founder  of  a  royal  family  which 
continued  till  the  downfall  of  the  Jewish 
state.  His  character  as  a  monarch  is 
remarkable  for  fidelity  to  God,  and  to 
the  great  purposes  for  which  he  was  call 
ed  to  so  responsible  a  position.  The  ark 
of  God  he  conveyed  to  the  Holy  City  with 
the  highest  demonstrations  of  honor  and 
of  joy.  The  ordinances  of  worship  were 
remodelled  and  provided  for  with  the 
greatest  care.  He  administered  justice 
to  the  people  with  impartiality,  and  gave 
a  strong  impulse  to  the  general  prosper 
ity  of  the  nation.  His  wisdom  and  en 
ergy  consolidated  the  Jewish  kingdom  ; 
and  his  warlike  skill  enabled  him  not 
only  to  resist  with  success  the  assaults  of 
invaders,  but  to  extend  the  bounds  of  the 
kingdom  over  the  whole  territory  prom 
ised  in  prophecy — from  the  Eed  sea  and 
Egypt  to  the  Euphrates,  Gen.  15  : 18 ; 
Josh.  1:3.  With  the  spoils  he  took  in 
war  he  enriched  his  people,  and  provided 
abundant  materials  for  the  magnificent 
temple  he  purposed  to  build  in  honor  of 


Jehovah,  but  which  it  was  Solomon's 
privilege  to  erect. 

David  did  not  wholly  escape  the  de 
moralizing  influences  of  prosperity  and 
unrestricted  power.  His  temptations 
were  numerous  and  strong  ;  and  though 
his  general  course  was  in  striking  con 
trast  with  that  of  the  kings  around  him, 
he  fell  into  grievous  sins.  Like  others 
in  those  days,  he  had  numerous  wives, 
and  his  later  years  were  imbittered  by 
the  evil  results  of  polygamy.  His  crimes 
in  the  case  of  Uriah  and  Bathsheba 
were  heinous  indeed ;  but  on  awaking 
from  his  dream  of  folly,  he  repented  in 
dust  and  ashes,  meekly  submitted  to 
reproof  and  punishment,  and  sought  and 
found  mercy  from  God.  Thenceforth 
frequent  afflictions  reminded  him  to  be 
humble  and  self-distrustful.  There  were 
discords,  profligacy,  and  murder  in  his 
own  household.  The  histories  of  Ta- 
mar,  Amnon,  and  Absalom  show  what 
anguish  must  have  rent  their  father's 
heart.  The  rebellions  of  Absalom,  She- 
ba,  and  Adonijah,  the  famine  and  plague 
that  afflicted  his  people,  j;he  crimes  of 
Joab,  etc.,  led  him  to  cry  out,  "0  that  I 
had  wings,  like  a  dove  ;  then  would  I  fly 
away,  and  be  at  rest."  Yet  his  trials 
bore  good  fruit.  His  firmness  and  de 
cision  of  character,  his  humility,  noble 
ness,  and  piety  shine  in  his  last  acts, 
on  the  occasion  of  Adonijah' s  rebellion. 
His  charge  to  Solomon  respecting  the 
forfeited  lives  of  Joab  and  Shimei,  was 
the  voice  of  justice  and  not  of  revenge. 
His  preparations  for  the  building  of  the 
temple,  and  the  public  service  in  which 
he  devoted  all  to  Jehovah,  and  called  on 
all  the  people  to  bless  the  Lord  God  of 
their  fathers,  crown  with  singular  beau 
ty  and  glory  the  life  of  this  eminent 
servant  of  God.  After  a  reign  of  forty 
years,  he  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-one. 

The  mental  abilities  and  acquirements 
of  David  were  of  a  high  order ;  his  gen 
eral  conduct  was  marked  by  generosity, 
integrity,  fortitude,  activity,  and  perse 
verance  ;  and  his  religious  character  em 
inently  adorned  by  sincere,  fervent,  and 
exalted  piety.  He  was  statesman,  war 
rior,  and  poet  all  in  one.  In  his  Psalms 
he  frankly  reveals  his  whole  heart.  They 
are  inspired  poems,  containing  many 
prophetic  passages,  and  wonderfully  fitted 
to  guide  the  devotions  of  the  people  of 
God  so  long  as  he  has  a  church  on  earth. 
Though  first  sung  by  Hebrew  tongues 
113 


DAY 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEB 


In  the  vales  of  Bethlehem  and  on  the 
heights  of  Zion,  they  sound  as  sweetly  in 
languages  then  unknown,  and  are  dear 
to  Christian  hearts  all  round  the  world. 
In  introducing  them  into  the  temple  ser 
vice,  David  added  an  important  means 
of  instruction  and  edification  to  the  for 
mer  ritual. 

In  his  kingly  character,  David  was  a 
remarkable  type  of  Christ ;  and  his  con 
quests  foreshadowed  those  of  Christ's 
kingdom.  His  royal  race  was  spiritually 
revived  in  the  person  of  our  Saviour, 
who  was  descended  from  him  after  the 
flesh,  and  who  is  therefore  called  "the 
Son  of  David,"  and  is  said  to  sit  upon 
his  throne. 

DAY.  The  day  is  distinguished  into 
natural,  civil,  and  artificial.  The  natu 
ral  day  is  one  revolution  of  the  earth  on 
its  axis.  The  civil  day  is  that,  the  begin1- 
ning  and  end  of  which  are  determined 
by  the  custom  of  any  nation.  The  He 
brews  began  their  day  in  the  evening, 
Lev.  23 : 32  ;  the  Babylonians  at  sunrise ; 
and  we  begin  at  midnight.  The  artifi 
cial  day  is  the  time  of  the  sun's  continu 
ance  above  the  horizon,  which  is  une 
qual  according  to  different  seasons,  on 
account  of  the  obliquity  of  the  equator. 
The  sacred  writers  generally  divide  the 
day  into  twelve  hours.  The  sixth  hour 
always  ends  at  noon  throughout  the 
year ;  and  the  twelfth  hour  is  the  last 
hour  before  sunset.  But  in  summer,  all 
the  -hours  of  the  day  were  longer  than 
in  winter,  while  those  of  night  were 
shorter.  See  HOURS,  and  THREE. 

The  word  day  is  also  often  put  for  an 
indeterminate  period,  for  the  time  of 
Christ's  coming  in  the  flesh,  and  of  his 
second  coming  to  judgment,  Isa.  2  :  12 ; 
Ezek.  13:5;  John  11:24;  1  Thess.  5:2. 
The  prophetic  "day"  usually  is  to  be 
understood  as  one  year,  and  the  pro 
phetic  "year"  or  "time"  as  360  days, 
Ezek.  4:6.  Compare  the  three  and  a 
half  years  of  Dan.  7:25,  with  the  forty- 
two  months  and  twelve  hundred  and 
sixty  days  of  Bev.  11:2,  3. 

DEA'CON.  The  original  meaning  of 
this  word  is  an  attendant,  assistant, 
helper.  It  is  sometimes  translated  min 
ister,  that  is,  servant,  as  in  Matt.  20 : 26 ; 
2  Cor.  6:4 ;  Eph.  3:7.  Deacons  are  first 
mentioned  as  officers  in  the  Christian 
church  in  Acts  6,  where  it  appears  that 
their  duty  was  to  collect  the  alms  of  the 
church,  and  distribute  them  to  such  as 
114 


had  a  claim  upon  them,  visiting  the  poor 
and  sick,  widows,  orphans,  and  sufferers 
under  persecution,  and  administering  all 
necessary  and  proper  relief.  Of  the  seven 
there  named,  Philip  and  Stephen  are 
afterwards  found  laboring  as  evangelists, 
The  qualifications  of  deacons  are  speci» 
tied  in  1  Tim.  3:8-12. 

DEA'CONESS.  Such  women  were 
called  deaconesses  as  served  the  church 
in  those  offices  in  which  the  deacons 
could  not  with  propriety  engage ;  such 
as  keeping  the  doors  of  that  part  of  the 
church  where  the  women  sat,  privately 
instructing  those  of  their  own  sex,  and 
visiting  others  imprisoned  for  the  faith. 
In  Bom.  16:1,  Phebe  is  said  to  be  a  "ser 
vant"  of  the  church  at  Cenchrea;  but 
in  the  original  Greek  she  is  called  dea 
coness. 

DEAD  SEA.  See  SEA. 
DEATH  is  taken  in  Scripture,  first, 
for  the  separation  of  body  and  soul,  the 
first  death,  Gen.  25  :  11  ;  secondly,  for 
alienation  from  God,  and  exposure  to 
his  wrath,  1  John  3  :  14,  etc.  ;  thirdly, 
for  the  second  death,  that  of  eternal  dam 
nation.  Death  was  the  penalty  affixed 
to  Adam's  transgression,  Gen.  2 : 17 ; 
3:19;  and  all  his  posterity  are  trans 
gressors,  and  share  the  curse  inflicted 
upon  him.  CHRIST  is  "our  life."  All 
believers  share  his  life,  spiritually  and 
eternally ;  and  though  sin  and  bodily 
death  remain  to  afflict  them,  their  sting 
is  taken  away,  and  in  the  resurrection 
the  last  enemy  shall  be  trampled  under 
foot,  Bom.  5:12-21 ;  1  Cor.  15. 

Natural  death  is  described  as  a  yield 
ing  up  of  the  breath,  or  spirit,  expiring, 
Psa.  104:29  ;  as  a  return  to  our  original 
dust,  Gen.  3:19;  Eccl.  12:7  ;  as  the  soul's 
laying  off  the  body,  its  clothing,  2  Cor. 
5:3, 4,  or  the  tent  in  which  it  has  dwelt, 
2  Cor.  5:1 ;  2  Pet.  1:13,  14.  The  death 
of  the  believer  is  a  departure,  a  going 
home,  a  falling  asleep  in  Jesus,  Phil. 
1:23;  Matt.  26:24;  John  11:11. 

The  term  death  is  also  sometimes  used 
for  any  great  calamity,  or  imminent  dan 
ger  threatening  life,  as  persecution,  2  Cor. 
1:10.  "  The  gates  of  death, ' '  Job  38 : 17, 
signify  the  unseen  world  occupied  by  de 
parted  spirits.  Death  is  also  figuratively 
used  to  denote  the  insensibility  of  Chris 
tians  to  the  temptations  of  a  sinful  world, 
Col.  3:3. 

DE'BIB,  a  word,  an  oracle,  Judg.  1:11, 
a  place  called  also  KIRJATH-SEPKEB.,  a 


DEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEE 


city  of  books ;  and  KIRJATH-SANNAH,  a 
city  of  literature,  Josh.  15: 15, 49.  Judg 
ing  from  the  names,  it  appears  to  have 
been  some  sacred  place  among  the  Ca- 
naanites,  and  a  repository  of  their  rec 
ords.  It  was  a  city  in  the  south-west 
part  of  Judea,  conquered  from  the  Ana- 
kim  by  Joshua,  but  recaptured  by  the 
Canaanites,  and  resubdued  by  Othniel, 
and  afterwards  given  to  the  priests,  Josh. 
10 : 38,  39  ;  15 : 15-17  ;  21 : 15.  Its  site  is 
wholly  lost.  There  was  another  Debir 
in  Gad,  and  a  third  011  the  border  of 
Benjamin,  Josh.  13:26;  15:7. 

DEB'ORAH,  I.,  a  prophetess,  and  wife 
of  Lapidoth,  judged  the  Israelites,  and 
dwelt  under  a  palm-tree  between  Ramah 
and  Bethel,  Judg.  4:4,  5.  She  sent  for 
Barak,  directed  him  to  attack  Sisera, 
and  promised  him  victory.  Barak,  how 
ever,  refused  to  go  unless  she  accompa 
nied  him,  which  she  did,  but  told  him 
that  the  success  of  the  expedition  would 
be  imputed  to  a  woman  and  not  to  him. 
After  the  victory,  Deborah  composed  a 
splendid  triumphal  song,  which  is  pre 
served  in  Judg.  5. 

II.  The  nurse  of  Rebekah,  whom  she 
accompanied  from  Aram  into  Canaan, 
Gen.  24.  At  her  death,  near  Bethel,  she 
was  buried  with  honorable  marks  of  af 
fection,  Gen.  35:8.  There  is  something 
very  beautiful  in  this  simple  and  artless 
record,  which  would  scarcely  find  a  place 
in  our  grand  histories,  treating  only  of 
kings,  statesmen,  and  renowned  war 
riors.  They  seldom  take  the  trouble  of 
erecting  a  memorial  to  obscure  worth 
and  a  long  life  of  humble  usefulness. 

DEBT'OR,  one  under  obligations, 
whether  pecuniary  or  moral,  Matt. 
23  : 16  ;  Rom.  1  :  14  ;  Gal.  5:3.  If  the 
house,  cattle,  or  goods  of  a  Hebrew 
would  not  meet  his  debts,  his  land 
might  be  appropriated  for  this  purpose 
until  the  year  of  Jubilee,  or  his  person 
might  be  reduced  into  servitude  till  he 
had  paid  his  debt  by  his  labor,  or  till  the 
year  of  Jubilee,  which  terminated  He 
brew  bondage  in  all  casos,  Lev.  25:29- 
41;  2  Kin.  4:1;  Neh.  5:3-5. 

DEC'ALOGUE,  the  ten  principal  com 
mandments,  Exod.  20  :  3-17,  from  the 
Greek  words  deka,  ten,  and  logos,  word. 
The  Jews  call  these  precepts,  The  Ten 
Words.  The  usual  division  of  the  ten 
commandments  among  Protestants,  is 
that  which  Josephus  tells  us  was  em 
ployed  by  the  Jews  in  his  day. 


DECAP'OLIS,  (from  the  Greek  words, 
de/ca,  ten,  aiulpolis,  a  city,)  a  country  in 
Palestine,  which  contained  ten  principal 
cities,  on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan,  chief 
ly  the  east,  Matt.  4  :  25  ;  Mark  5  :  20 ; 
7:31.  According  to  Pliny,  they  were, 
Scythopolis,  Philadelphia,  Raphanas,  Ga- 
dara,  Hippos,  Dios,  Pella,  Gerasa,  Cana- 
tha,  and  Damascus.  Josephus  inserts 
Otopos  instead  of  Cariatha.  Though 
within  the  limits  of  Israel,  the  Decapolis 
was  inhabited  by  many  foreigners,  and 
hence  it  retained  a  foreign  appellation. 
This  may  also  account  for  the  numerous 
herds  of  swine  kept  in  the  district,  Matt. 
8:30 ;  a  practice  which  was  forbidden  by 
the  Mosaic  law. 

DE'DAN,  I.,  the  grandson  of  Gush, 
Gen.  10:7  ;  and  II.,  the  son  of  Jokshan, 
Abraham's  son  by  Kcturah,  Gen.  25:3. 
Both  were  founders  of  tribes  frequently 
named  in  Scriptuie.  The  descendants  of 
the  Cushite  Dcclan  are  supposed  to  have 
settled  in  southern  Arabia,  near  the  Per 
sian  gulf,  in  which  there  is  an  island 
called  by  the  Arabs  Daclen.  The  de 
scendants  of  the  Abrahamite  Dedan  liv 
ed  in  the  neighborhood  of  Idumaia,  Jer. 
49 : 8.  It  is  not  clear,  in  all  cases  where 
the  name  occurs,  which  of  the  tribes  is 
intended.  It  was  probably  the  Cushite 
tribe  which  was  emplbyed  in  trade.  The 
"travelling  companies"  of  Dcdan  are 
mentioned  by  Isaiah,  21  :  13.  They  are 
also  named  with  the  merchants  of  Tar- 
sliish  by  Ezckiel,  38:13,  and  were  cele 
brated  on  account  of  their  trade  with  the 
Phoenicians. 

DEDICATION,  a  religious  ceremony 
by  which  any  person,  place,  or  thing 
was  devoted  to  a  holy  purpose.  Thus 
the  tabernacle  and  the  first  and  second 
temples  were  dedicated  to  God,  Ex.  40 ; 
1  Kin.  8  ;  Ezra  6.  The  Jews  also  prac 
tised  a  certain  dedication  of  walls,  houses, 
etc.,  Deut.  20:5 ;  Neh.  12:27.  The  "feast 
of  the  dedication"  was  a  yearly  com 
memoration  of  the  cleansing  and  reded- 
ication  of  the  temple,  when  polluted  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  John  10:22. 

DEEP  and  DEPTHS.  The  deep,  or  the 
great  deep,  signifies  in  Scripture,  hell,  the 
place  of  punishment,  the  bottomless  pit, 
Luke  8:31,  compare  Rev.  9:1;  11:7; 
the  grave,  Rom.  10:7  ;  the  deepest  parts 
of  the  sea,  Psa.  69  : 15  ;  107  :  26 ,;  chaos 
in  the  beginning  of  the  world,  Gen.  1:2. 
See  HELL. 

DEER,  a  wild  quadruped,  of  a  middle 
115 


DEF 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEL 


THE    FALLOW-DEER. 

size  between  the  stag  and  the  roebuck ; 
its  horns  turn  inward,  and  are  large  and 
flat.  The  fallow-deer  is  naturally  very 
timorous :  it  was  reputed  clean,  and  good 
for  food,  Deut.  14:5.  Young  deer  are 
noticed  in  Proverbs,  Songs,  and  Isaiah, 
as  beautiful  creatures,  and  very  swift, 
Prov.  5:19.  See  HIND. 

DEFILE',  DEFILEMENT.  Many 
were  the  blemishes  of  person  and  con 
duct  which,  under  the  Jewish  ceremo 
nial  law,  were  esteemed  defilements : 
some  were  voluntary,  some  involuntary  ; 
some  were  inevitable,  being  defects  of 
nature,  others  the  consequences  of  per 
sonal  transgression.  Under  the  gospel, 
defilements  are  those  of  the  heart,  of  the 
mind,  the  temper,  the  conduct.  Moral  de 
filements  are  as  numerous,  and  as  strong 
ly  prohibited  under  the  gospel  as  ever, 
though  ceremonial  defilements  have  ceas 
ed,  Matt.  15:18;  Rom.  1 : 24.  See  CLEAN. 

DEGREES',  PSALMS  orf  is  the  title  pre 
fixed  to  fifteen  psalms,  from  Psa.  120  to 
Psa.  134  inclusive.  Of  this  title  com 
mentators  have  proposed  a  variety  of  ex 
planations.  The  most  probable  are  the 
following :  First,  pilgrim  songs,  sung  by 
the  Israelites  while  going  up  to  Jerusalem 
to  worship  ;  compare  Psa.  122:4  ;  but  to 
this  explanation  the  contents  of  only  a 
few  of  these  psalms  are  appropriate,  as 
for  instance,  of  Psa.  122.  Secondly,  oth 
ers  suppose  the  title  to  refer  to  a  species 
of  rhythm  in  these  psalms ;  by  which 
116 


the  sense  ascends,  as  it  were,  by  degrees, 
one  member  or  clause  frequently  repeat 
ing  the  words  with  which  the  preceding 
member  closes.  Thus  in  Psa.  121, 

1.  I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  hills, 
From  whence  cometh  my  help. 

1.  My  help  cometh  from  the  Lord, 
Who  made  heaven  and  earth. 

3.  He  will  not  suffer  thy  foot  to  be  moved  5 
Thy  keeper  will  not  slumber. 

4.  ~Lo,not  slumber  nor  sleep  will  the  keepef 

of  Israel. 

I  But  this  solution  does  not  well  apply  to 
'  all  these  psalms. 

DEHAVITES,  a  people  beyond  the 
Euphrates,  who  furnished  colonists  for 
Samaria,  2  Kin.  17:24;  Ezra  4:9;  sup 
posed  to  be  the  Daha3,  on  the  east  of  the 
Caspian  sea,  and  under  the  Persian  gov 
ernment. 

DELI'LAH,  a  Philistine  woman,  whom 
Samson  loved,  and  who  betrayed  him  to 
the  enemies  of  Israel,  Judg.  16. 

DEL'UGE,  that  universal  flood  which 
was  sent  upon  the  earth  in  the  time  of 
Noah,  and  from  which  there  were  but 
eight  persons  saved.     Moses'  account  of 
this  event  is  recorded  in  Gen.  6-8.     See 
ARK  OF  NOAH.   The  sins  of  mankind  were 
the  cause  of  the  deluge  ;  and  most  com 
mentators  agree  to  place  it  A.  M.  1656, 
B.  c.  2348.      After  the  door  of  the  ark 
had  been  closed  upon  those  that  were  to 
be   saved,    the  deluge  commenced :    it 
rained  forty  days ;  ' '  the  fountains  of  the 
great  deep  were  broken  up,  and  the  win 
dows  of  heaven  were  opened."    All  men 
and  all  creatures  living  on  the  land  per 
ished,  except  Noah  and  those  with  him. 
For  five  months  the  waters  continued  to 
rise,  and  reached  fifteen  cubits  above  the 
highest  summits  to  which  any  could  fly 
for  refuge  ;  "  a  shoreless  ocean  tumbled 
round  the  world."     At  length  the  wa 
ters  began  to  abate;   the  highest  land 
appeared,  and  the  ark  touched  ground 
upon  mount  Ararat.     In  three  months 
more  the  hills  began  to  appear.     Forty 
days  after,  Noah  tested  the  state  of  the 
earth's  surface  by  sending  out  a  raven ; 
and  then  thrice,  at  intervals  of  a  week, 
a  dove.     At  length  he  removed  the  cov 
ering  of  the  ark,  and  found  the  flood  had 
disappeared  ;  he  came  forth  from  the  ark, 
reared  an  altar,  and  offered  sacrifices  to 
God,  who  appointed  the  rainbow  as  a 
pledge  that  he  would  no  more  destroy 
mankind  with  a  flood. 


DEM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DEV 


Since  all  nations  have  descended  from 
the  family  then  preserved  in  the  ark,  it 
is  natural  that  the  memory  of  such  an 
event  should  be  perpetuated  in  various 
national  traditions.  Such  is  indeed  the 
fact.  These  traditions  have  been  found 
among  the  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  Phoe 
nicians,  Greeks,  Hindoos,  Chinese,  Jap 
anese,  Scythians,  and  Celts,  and  in  the 
western  hemisphere  among  the  Mexi 
cans,  Peruvians,  and  South  sea  island 
ers.  Much  labor  has  been  expended  in 
searching  for  natural  causes  adequate 
to  the  production  of  a  deluge ;  but  we 
should  beware  of  endeavoring  to  account 
on  natural  principles  for  that  which  the 
Bible  represents  as  miraculous. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  deluge  is 
spoken  of  as  a  stupendous  exhibition  of 
divine  power,  like  the  creation  and  the 
final  burning  of  the  world.  It  is  applied 
to  illustrate  the  long  suffering  of  God, 
and  assure  us  of  his  judgment  on  sin, 
2  Pet.  3:5-7,  and  of  the  second  coming 
of  Christ,  Matt.  24:38. 

DE'MAS,  a  fellow-laborer  with  Paul  at 
Thessalonica,  who  afterwards  deserted 
him,  either  discouraged  by  the  hard 
ships  of  the  work,  or  allured  by  the  love 
of  the  world,  Col.  4  :  14  ;  2  Tim.  4  :  10  ; 
Phile.  24. 

DEME'TRIUS,  I.,  a  goldsmith  of  Eph- 
esus,  who  made  models  of  the  famous 
temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  which  he 
sold  to  foreigners,  Acts  19  :  24-41.  Ob 
serving  the  progress  of  the  gospel,  not 
in  Ephesus  only,  but  in  the  regions 
around,  he  assembled  his  fellow-crafts 
men,  and  represented  that,  by  this  new 
doctrine,  not  only  their  trade  would  suf 
fer,  but  the  worship  of  the  great  Diana 
of  Ephesus  was  in  danger  of  being  en 
tirely  forsaken.  This  produced  an  up 
roar  and  riot  in  the  city,  which  the  town- 
clerk  with  difficulty  appeased  by  linn- 
ness  and  persuasion. 

II.  A  disciple,  and  probably  a  minis 
ter,  of  high  repute,  3  John  12.  He  may 
have  been  formerly  the  silversmith  of 
Ephesus ;  but  this  can  be  neither  proved 
nor  disproved. 

DEB/BE,  a  small  town  of  Lycaonia,  in 
Asia  Minor,  to  which  Paul  and  Barnabas 
fled  from  Lystra,  A.  D.  41,  Acts  14  :  20. 
It  lay  at  the  foot  of  the  Taurus  moun 
tains  on  the  north,  sixteen  or  twenty 
miles  east  of  Lystra.  The  two  mission 
aries  gained  many  disciples  here,  and 
among  them  perhaps  Gaius,  who  after 


wards  labored  with  Paul,  Acts  14:21; 
20:4. 

DES'ERT.  The  Scriptures,  by  "des« 
ert,"  generally  mean  an  uncultivated 
place,  a  wilderness,  or  grazing  tract. 
Some  deserts  were  entirely  dry  and  bar 
ren  ;  others  were  beautiful,  and  had 
good  pastures.  David  speaks  of  the 
beauty  of  the  desert,  Psa.  65  :  12,  13. 
Scripture  names  several  deserts  in  the 
Holy  Land.  Other  deserts  particularly 
mentioned,  are  "that  great  and  terrible 
wilderness ' '  in  Arabia  Petriea,  south  of 
Canaan,  Num.  21  :  20 ;  also  the  region 
between  Canaan  and  the  Euphrates,  Ex. 
23  :  31 ;  Deut.  11  :  24.  The  pastures  of 
this  wilderness  are  clothed  in  Avinter  and 
spring  with  rich  and  tender  herbage  ; 
but  the  heat  of  summer  soon  burns  this 
up,  and  the  Arabs  are  driven  to  seek 
pasturage  elseAvhere. 

DEUTEPtON'OMY,  or  the  repetition 
of  the  law,  the  fifth  book  of  the  Penta 
teuch,  so  called  by  the  Greeks,  because 
in  it  Moses  recapitulates  what  he  had 
ordained  in  the  preceding  books,  Deut. 
1:1-6;  29:1;  31:1;  33.  This  book  con 
tains  the  history  of  what  passed  in  the 
wilderness  from  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  month,  to  the  seventh  day  of 
the  twelfth  month,  in  the  fortieth  year 
after  the  Israelites'  departure  from 
Egypt,  that  is,  about  six  weeks,  u.  c. 
1451.  That  part  which  mentions  the 
death  of  Moses  was  added  afterwards, 
very  probably  by  Joshua. 

The  book  of  Deuteronomy  is  the  sub 
lime  and  precious  valedictory  address  of 
the  inspired  "man  of  God,"  now  ven 
erable  for  his  age  and  experience,  and 
standing  almost  in  the  gate  of  heaven. 
He  gives  the  people  of  God  his  fatherly 
counsel  and  blessing,  and  then  goes  up 
into  mount  Pisgah  alone  to  die.  He  re 
counts  the  dealings  of  God  with  them ; 
recapitulates  his  laws  ;  shows  them  why 
they  should  love  him,  and  how  they 
should  serve  him.  It  is  full  of  tender 
solicitude,  wise  instruction,  faithful 
warning,  and  the  zealous  love  of  a  pa 
triot  and  a  prophet  for  the  people  of 
God,  whom  he  had  borne  on  his  heart 
so  long.  It  is  often  quoted  \)j>  later  in 
spired  writers,  and  by  our  Lord,  Matt. 
4:4,  7,  10. 

DEVTL,  a  fallen  angel ;  and  particu* 
larly  the  chief  of  them,  the  devil,  or  Sa 
tan.  He  is  the  great  principle  of  evil  in 
the  world ;  and  it  is  his  grand  object  to 
117 


DEV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DIA 


counteract  the  good  which  God  desires 
to  do.  He  exerts  himself,  especially  with 
his  angels,  to  draw  away  the  souls  of 
men  from  embracing  salvation  through 
Jesus  Christ. 

His  name  signifies  the  calumniator, 
©r  false  accuser ;  as  the  Hebrew  Satan 
means  the  adversary.  But  the  Scrip 
tures  give  him  various  other  appella 
tions  descriptive  of  his  character.  He  is 
called,  "The  prince  of  this  world,"  John 
12 : 31 ;  "  The  prince  of  the  power  of  the 
air, ' '  Eph.  2:2;  "  The  god  of  this  world, ' ' 
2  Cor.  4:4;  "The  dragon,  that  old  ser 
pent,  the  devil,"  Rev.  20:2  ;  "That  wick 
ed  one,"  1  John  5: 18;  "A  roaring  lion," 
1  Pet.  5:8;  "A  murderer,"  "a  liar," 
John  8:44;  "Beelzebub,"  Matt.  12:24; 
"Belial,"  2  Cor.  6.15;  "The  accuser  of 
the  brethren,"  Rev.  12:10.  He  is  every 
where  shown  to  be  full  of  malignity,  cru 
elty,  and  deceit,  hating  God  and  man. 
He  is  ceaselessly  active  in  his  efforts  to 
destroy  souls,  and  uses  innumerable  de 
vices  and  wiles  to  adapt  his  temptations 
to  the  varying  characters  and  conditions 
of  men,  enticing  wicked  men,  and  even 
good  men  at  times,  as  well  as  his  own 
angels,  to  aid  in  his  work.  Almost  the 
whole  world  has  been  under  his  sway. 
But  he  is  a  doomed  foe.  Christ  shall 
bruise  the  serpent's  head ;  shall  dispos 
sess  him  from  the  world,  as  he  has  done 
from  individuals,  and  at  length  confine 
him  for  ever  in.  the  place  prepared  for 
him  and  his  angels,  Matt.  25:41. 

The  word  "devils"  occurs  frequently 
in  the  gospels  ;  but  it  is  the  translation 
of  a  different  Greek  word  from  that  used 
to  denote  the  devil,  and  might  be  ren 
dered  ' '  demons. ' '  The  Bible  applies  the 
other  word  only  to  Satan — "the  devil, 
and  his  angels,"  who  are  like  their 
leader  in  nature  and  in  actions.  There 
are  many  examples  in  the  New  Testa 
ment  of  persons  possessed  by  demons. 
These  are  often  called  demoniacs.  Some 
have  argued  that  these  were  afflicted  by 
natural  diseases,  such  as  epilepsy,  in 
sanity,  etc.,  and  were  not  possessed  by 
evil  spirits.  But  our  Saviour  speaks  to 
and  commands  the  demons  who  actuated 
the  possessed,  which  demons  answered 
and  obeyed,  and  gave  proofs  of  their 
presence  by  tormenting  those  whom  they 
were  obliged  to  quit.  Christ  alleges,  as 
proof  of  his  mission,  that  the  demons  are 
cast  out ;  he  promises  his  apostles  the 
same  power  that  he  himself  exercised 
118 


against  those  wicked  spirits.  Campbell 
says,  "  When  1  rind  mention  made  of  the 
number  of  demons  in  particular  posses 
sions,  their  actions  so  particularly  distin 
guished  from  the  actions  of  the  man  pos 
sessed,  conversations  held  by  the  former 
in  regard  to  the  disposal  of  them  after 
their  expulsion,  and  accounts  given  how 
they  were  actually  disposed  of — when  I 
find  desires  and  passions  ascribed  partic 
ularly  to  them,  and  similitudes  taken 
from  the  conduct  which  they  usually 
observe,  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  deny 
their  existence." 

DEW.  The  dews  in  Palestine  and 
some  other  oriental  countries  are  very 
copious,  and  serve  very  greatly  to  sus 
tain  and  promote  vegetation  in  seasons 
when  little  or  no  rain  falls.  Maundrell 
tells  us  that  the  tents  of  his  company, 
when  pitched  on  Tabor  and  Hermon, 
"were  as  wet  with  dew  as  if  it  had  rain 
ed  on  them  all  night,"  Judg.  6:38 ;  Song 
5 : 2.  Dew  was  especially  heavy  near  the 
mountains,  and  just  before  and  after  the 
rainy  season.  It  was  prized  as  a  precious 
boon  of  Providence,  Gen.  27:28;  Deut. 
33  :  28  ;  1  Kin.  17  : 1 ;  Job  29:19  ;  Hag. 
1:10;  Zech.  8:12.  The  dew  furnishes 
the  sacred  penmen  with  many  beautiful 
allusions,  Deut.  32  :  2  ;  2  Sam.  17  :  12  ; 
Psa.  110  :  3  ;  Prov.  19 : 12 ;  Hos.  14  :  5 ; 
Mic.  5:7. 


ANTIQUE   STONE    SUN-DIAZ.. 

» 

DI'AL,  an  instrument  much  used  be« 
fore  the  invention  of  clocks,  to  tell  the 
time  of  day  by  the  progress  of  the  sun's 
shadow.  The  dial  of  Ahaz,  2 Kin.  20: 11 ; 
Isa.  38 : 1-9,  seeme  to  have  been  peculiar 
either  in  structure  or  size,  and  was  per 
haps  borrowed  from  Babylon  or  Damas- 


DIA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DIO 


cus,  2  Kin.  16  : 10.  The  causing  the 
shadow  upon  it  to  go  back  ten  degrees, 
to  assure  king  Hezekiah  of  his  recovery 
from  sickness,  was  probably  effected  not 
by  arresting  and  turning  backwards  the 
revolution  of  the  earth,  but  by  a  mirac 
ulous  refraction  of  the  sun's  rays,  ob 
served  only  in  Judea,  though  the  fame 
of  it  reached  Babylon,  2  Chr.  32:31. 

DIAMOND,  the  hardest  and  most 
brilliant  of  gems,  very  rare  and  costly. 
The  largest  diamonds  known  in  the 
world,  procured  from  India  and  Brazil, 
are  guarded  among  the  royal  treasures 
of  England,  Russia,  etc.,  and  valued  at 
immense  sums.  Common  diamonds  are 
uued  not  only  for  ornaments,  but  for  cut 
ting  and  graving  hard  substances,  Jer. 
17:1.  The  Hebrew  word  here  used  is 
called  "adamant"  in  Ezek.  3:9;  Zech. 
7 : 12.  See  ADAMANT.  There  is  another 
Hebrew  word  also  translated  "dia 
mond,"  Ex.  28:18;  39:11 ;  Ezek.  28:13, 
and  thought  by  some  to  mean  the  topaz. 
The  diamond  is  carbon  in  its  purest  and 
crystalline  form. 

DIAN'A,  or  AR'TEMIS,  a  celebrated  god 
dess  of  the  Romans  and  Greeks,  and  one 
of  their  twelve  superior  deities.  In  the 
heavens  she  was  Luna,  (the  moon,)  on 
earth  Diana,  in  the  unseen  world  Hecate. 
She  was  invoked  by  women  in  childbirth 
under  the  name  of  Lucina.  She  was  usu 
ally  represented  with  a  crescent  on  her 
head,  a  bow  in  her  hand,  and  dressed  in 
a  hunting-habit,  because  she  was  said  to 
preside  over  forests  and  hunting.  Diana 
was  said  to  be  the  daughter  of  Jupiter 
by  Latona,  and  twin  sister  of  Apollo. 
As  Hecate,  she  was  regarded  as  sangui 
nary  and  pitiless;  as  goddess  of  hunt 
ing  and  the  forests,  she  was  chaste,  but 
haughty  and  vindictive ;  as  associated 
with  the  moon,  she  was  capricious  and 
wanton.  The  Diana  of  Ephesus  was  like 
the  Syrian  goddess  Ashtoreth,  and  ap 
pears  to  have  been  worshipped  with  im- 
?ure  rites  and  magical  mysteries,  Acts 
9:19.  Her  image,  fabled  to  have  fallen 
down  from  Jupiter  in  heaven,  seems  to 
have  been  a  block  of  wood  tapering  to 
the  foot,  with  a  female  bust  above  cov 
ered  with  many  breasts,  the  head  crown 
ed  with  turrets,  and  each  hand  resting 
on  a  staff.  It  was  of  great  antiquity,  and 
highly  venerated. 

The  temple  of  this  goddess  was  the 
pride  and  glory  of  Ephesus.  It  was  425 
feet  long,  and  220  broad,  and  had  127 


columns  of  white  marble,  each  60  feet 
high.  Its  treasures  were  of  immense 
value.  It  was  220  years  in  building, 
and  was  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world.  In  the  year  when  Alexander  the 
Great  was  born,  B.  c.  356,  it  was  burned 
down  by  one  Herostratus,  in  order  to 
immortalize  his  name,  -but  was  after 
wards  rebuilt  with  even  greater  splen 
dor.  The  "silver  shrines  for  Diana," 
made  by  Demetrius  and  others,  were 
probably  small  models  of  the  same  for 
domestic  use,  and  for  sale  to  travellers 
and  visitors.  Ancient  coins  of  Ephesus  . 
represent  the  shrine  and  statue  of  Diana, 
with  a  Greek  inscription,  meaning  "oi 
the  Ephesians,"  Acts  19:28,  34,  35. 

DI'BON,  DI'MON,  Isa.  15  ;  9,  and  Dr- 
BON-GAD',  Num.  33  :  45,  46,  a  town  of 
Gad,  Num.  32 : 34,  but  afterwards  of 
Reuben,  Josh.  13:17.  It  lay  in  a  plain 
just  north  of  the  Arnon,  and  was  the 
first  encampment  of  the  Israelites  upon 
crossing  that  river.  Later  we  find  it  in 
the  hands  of  the  Moabites,  Isa.  15:2; 
Jer.  48  :  22.  Traces  of  it  remain  at  a 
place  now  called  Diban. 

DIK'LAH,  a  tribe  descended  from  Jok- 
tan,  Gen.  10:27,  and  dwelling  in  South 
ern  Arabia,  or  perhaps  near  the  head  of 
the  Persian  gulf. 

DI'NAH,  daughter  of  Jacob  by  Leah, 
Gen.  30:21,  his  only  daughter  named  in 
Scripture.  While  the  family  were  so 
journing  near  Shalem,  she  heedlessly 
associated  with  the  Canaanitish  maid 
ens,  and  fell  a  victim  to  the  seductive 
arts  of  Shechem,  a  young  prince  of  the 
land  ;  but  was  perfidiously  and  savagely 
avenged  by  Simeon  and  Levi,  her  full 
brothers,  to  the  great  grief  of  Jacob 
their  father,  Gen.  34 ;  49  :  5,  7.  She 
seems  to  have  gone  with  the  family  to 
Egypt,  Gen.  46:15. 

"DIONYS'IUS,  a  member  of  the  court 
of  the  Areopagus  at  Athens,  converted 
under  the  preaching  of  Paul,  Acts  17 :34. 
Tradition  says  that  he  was  eminent  for 
learning,  that  he  was  ordained  by  Paul 
at  Athens,  and  after  many  labors  and 
trials,  suffered  martyrdom  by  fire.  The 
works  ascribed  to  him  are  spurious,  be 
ing  the  product  of  some  unknown  writer 
in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century. 

DIOT'REPHES,  an  influential  mem 
ber,  perhaps  minister,  of  some  early 
church,  censured  by  John  for  his  jealous 
ambition,  and  his  violent  rejection  of 
the  best  Christians,  3  John  9,  10. 
119 


DIS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DOE 


DISCERN'ING  OF  SPIRITS,  1  Cor. 
12:10,  a  miraculous  gift  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  certain  of  the  early  church, 
empowering  them  to  judge  of  the  real 
character  of  those  who  professed  to  love 
Christ,  and  to  he  inspired  to  teach  in  his 
name,  1  John  4:1 ;  2  John  7.  Compare 
Acts  5: 1-10;  1-3:6-12. 

DISCI'PLE,  a  scholar,  Matt.  10:24.  In 
the  New  Testament  it  is  applied  princi 
pally  to  the  followers  of  Christ ;  some 
times  to  those  of  John  the  Baptist,  Matt. 
9:14,  and  of  the  Pharisees,  Matt.  22:16. 
It  is  used  in  a  special  manner  to  point 
out  the  twelve,  Matt.  10: 1 ;  11 : 1 ;  20: 17. 
A  disciple  of  Christ  may  now  be  defined 
as  one  who  believes  his  doctrine,  rests 
upon  his  sacrifice,  imbibes  his  spirit,  im 
itates  his  example,  and  lives  to  do  his 
work. 

DISCOVER,  Mic.  1:6,  to  uncover,  or 
lay  bare. 

DISEAS'ES  were  introduced  into  the 
world  by  sin,  and  have  been  greatly 
increased  by  the  prevalence  of  corrupt, 
indolent,  and  luxurious  habits.  Besides 
the  natural  causes  of  diseases,  evil  spir 
its  were  charged  with  producing  them 
among  the  .Hebrews,  Job  2:7;  Mark 
9  : 17  ;  Luke  13  : 16  ;  2  Cor.  12  :  7.  The 
pious  Jews  recognized  the  hand  of  God 
in  sending  them,  Psa.  39:9-11 ;  90:3-12 ; 
and  in  many  cases  special  diseases  were 
sent  in  punishment  of  particular  sins, 
as  Abimelech,  Gehazi,  Jehoram,  Uzziah, 
Miriam,  Herod,  the  Philistines,  etc., 
and  those  who  partook  of  the  Lord's 
supper  unworthily,  1  Cor.  11:30.  Christ 
manifested  his  divine  goodness  and  pow 
er  by  healing  every  form  of  disease  ;  and 
in  these  cases,  as  in  that  of  king  Asa, 
2  Chr.  16  :  12,  it  is  shown  that  all  the 
skill  of  physicians  is  in  vain  without 
God's  blessing.  The  prevalent  diseases 
in  Bible  lands  were  malignant  fevers, 
cutaneous  diseases,  palsy,  dysentery,  and 
ophthalmia.  Almost  every  form  of  bod 
ily  disease  has  a  counterpart  in  the  mal 
adies  of  the  soul. 

DISPENSATION,  the  charge  of  pro 
claiming  the  gospel  of  Christ,  1  Cor. 
9  :  17  ;  Eph.  3  :  2.  Also  the  scheme  or 
plan  of  God's  dealings  with  men.  In 
the  Patriarchal,  Mosaic,  and  Christian 
dispensations,  God  has  commenced,  en 
larged,  and  perfected  his  revelation  of 
himself  and  his  grace  to  this  world,  Eph. 
1:10;  Col.  1:25.  The  whole  develop 
ment  of  his  great  plan  has  been  gradual, 
120 


and  adapted  at  every  stage  to  the  exist 
ing  state  of  the  human  family. 

DIVINATION.  The  Eastern  people 
were  fond  of  divination,  magic,  and  the 
pretended  art  of  interpreting  dreams 
and  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  futurity. 
When  Moses  published  the  law,  this 
disposition  had  long  been  common  in 
Egypt  and  the  neighboring  countries ; 
and  to  correct  the  Israelites'  inclination 
to  consult  diviners,  wizards,  fortune-tell 
ers,  and  interpreters  of  dreams,  it  was 
forbidden  them  under  very  severe  pen 
alties,  and  the  true  spirit  of  prophecy 
was  promised  to  them  as  infinitely  supe 
rior,  Ex.  22:18  ;  Lev.  19:26,  31 ;  20  :  27. 
Those  were  to  be  stoned  who  pretended 
to  have  a  familiar  spirit,  or  the  spirit 
of  divination,  Deut.  18  :  9-12  ;  and  the 
prophecies  are  full  of  invectives  against 
the  Israelites  who  consulted  such,  as 
well  as  against  false  prophets,  who  se 
duced  the  people,  Isa.  8:19;  47:11-14; 
Ezek.  13:6-9.  A  fresh  impulse  to  these 
superstitions  was  gained  from  inter 
course  with  the  Chaldeans,  during  the 
reign  of  the  later  kings  of  Judah  and 
the  captivities  in  Babylon,  2  Kin.  21:6  ; 
2  Chr.  33:6.  See  MAGIC,  SORCERERS. 

Divination  was  of  several  kinds:  by 
water,  fire,  earth,  air ;  by  the  flight  of 
birds,  and  their  singing ;  by  lots,  dreams, 
arrows,  clouds,  entrails  of  sacrifices,  pre 
tended  communication  with  spirits,  etc., 
Ezek.  21:21. 

DIVORCE'  was  tolerated  by  Moses  for 
sufficient  reasons,  Deut.  24:1-4  ;  but  our 
Lord  has  limited  it  to  the  single  case  of 
adultery,  Matt.  5:31,  32. 

DOC'TOR  OF  THE  LAW  may  perhaps 
be  distinguished  from  SCRIBE,  as  rather 
teaching  orally,  than  giving  written 
opinions,  Luke  2  :  46.  It  implies  one 
learned  in  the  divine  law.  Doctors  of 
the  law  were  mostly  of  the  sect  of  the 
Pharisees,  but  are  distinguished  from 
that  sect  in  Luke  5:17,  where  it  appears 
that  the  novelty  of  our  Saviour's  teach 
ing  drew  together  a  great  company  both 
of  Pharisees  and  doctors  of  the  law. 

DODANIM,  or  RODANIM,  1  Chr.  1:7, 
a  people  descended  from  Japhet  through 
Javan,  Gen.  10:4.  They  are  associated, 
by  the  above  passage,  and  by  dim  ety 
mological  inferences,  with  the  island  of 
Rhodes  or  some  location  on  the  north 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean. 

DO'EG,  an  Edomite,  overseer  of  Saul's 
flocks.  At  Nob  he  witnessed  the  relief 


DOG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


DRA 


kindly  furnished  to  David  when  fleeing 
from  Saul,  by  Ahimelech  the  high-priest, 
and  carried  a  malicious  and  distorted  re 
port  of  it  to  his  master.  The  king  gladly 
seized  the  opportunity  to  wreak  his  pas 
sion  on  a  helpless  victim  ;  and  when  the 
Jews  around  him  refused  to  slay  the 
priests  of  God,  infamously  used  the  will 
ing  services  of  this  alien  and  heathen. 
Doeg  not  only  slew  Ahimelech  and 
eighty-four  other  priests,  but  put  the 
town  in  which  they  dwelt  to  the  sword, 
1  Sam.  21 ;  22.  David  forebodes  his 
wretched  fate,  Psa.  52  ;  120  ;  140. 

DOGS  were  held  in  great  contempt  by 
the  Jews,  but  were  worshipped,  as  well 
as  cats,  by  the  Egyptians.  Among  the 
Jews,  to  compare  a  person  to  a  dog  was 
the  most  degrading  expression  possible, 
1  Sam.  17:43;  24:14;  2  Sam.  9:8.  The 
state  of  dogs  among  the  Jews  was  the 
same  that  now  prevails  in  the  East, 
where,  having  no  owners,  they  run 
about  the  streets  in  troops,  and  are  fed 
by  charity  or  caprice,  or  live  on  such 
offal  as  they  can  pick  up.  As  they  are 
often  on  the  point  of  starvation,  they 
devour  corpses,  and  in  the  night  even 
attack  living  men,  Psa.  59  :  6,  14,  15 ; 
1  Kin.  14: 1 1.  In  various  places  in  Scrip 
ture  the  epithet  ' '  dogs ' '  is  given  to  cer 
tain  classes  of  men,  as  expressing  their 
insolent  rapacity,  Matt.  7:6  ;  Psa.  22: 16 ; 
Phil.  3:2,  and  their  beastly  vices,  Deut. 
23:18;  2  Pet.  2:22;  Rev.  22:15. 

DOR,  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites, 
on  the  Mediterranean  between  Cassarea 
and  mount  Carmel ;  after  the  conquest 
it  was  assigned  to  Manasseh,  Josh.  11 :2; 
12:23;  17:11;  1  Kin.  4:11;  1  Chr.  7:29. 
There  is  now  a  small  port  there,  with 
about  500  inhabitants. 

DOR'CAS  in  Greek,  the  same  as  TABI- 
THA  in  Syriac,  that  is,  gazelle,  the  name 
of  a  pious  and  charitable  woman  at  Jop- 
pa.  whom  Peter  raised  from  the  dead, 
Acts  9: 36-42. 

DO'THAN,  or  DOTHA'IN,  the  place 
where  Joseph  was  sold  to  the  Ishmael- 
ites,  Gen.  37:17,  and  where  the  Syrians 
were  smitten  with  blindness  at  Elisha's 
word,  2  Kin.  6:13.  It  was  on  the  cara 
van-route  from  Syria  to  Egypt,  about 
eleven  miles  north  of  Samaria. 

DOVES  were  clean  according  to  the 
Mosaic  ritual,  and  were  offered  in  sacri 
fice,  especially  by  the  poor,  Gen.  15:9; 
Lev.  5:7;  12:6-8;  Luke  2:24.  Several 
kinds  of  doves  or  pigeons  frequented  the 
6 


THE   EASTERN   CARRIER-DOVE. 

Holy  Land ;  and  the  immense  flocks  of 
them  sometimes  witnessed  illustrate  a 
passage  in  Isaiah,  60:8.  They  are  sym 
bols  of  simplicity,  innocence,  and  fidel 
ity,  Hos.  7:11 ;  Matt.  10:16.  The  dove 
was  the  chosen  harbinger  of  God's  re 
turning  favor  after  the  flood,  Gen.  8,  and 
was  honored  as  an  emblem  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  Matt.  3:16.  See  TURTLEDOVE. 

DOVES'  DUNG.  It  is  said,  2  Kin. 
6:25,  that  during  the  siege  of  Samaria, 
"the  fourth  part  of  a  cat>,"  little  more 
than  half  a  pint,  ' '  of  doves'  dung  was 
sold  for  five  pieces  of  silver,"  about  two 
and  a  half  dollars.  As  doves'  dung  is 
not  a  nourishment  for  man,  even  in  the 
most  extreme  famine,  the  general  opin 
ion  is,  that  it  was  a  kind  of  chick-pea, 
lentil,  or  tare,  which  has  very  much  the 
appearance  of  doves'  dung.  Great  quan 
tities  of  these  are  sold  in  Cairo  to  the 
pilgrims  going  to  Mecca  ;  and  at  Damas 
cus  there  are  many  shops  where  nothing 
else  is  done  but  preparing  chick-peas. 
These,  parched  in  a  copper  pan,  and 
dried,  are  of  great  service  to  those  who 
take  long  journeys. 

DOW'RY.  In  eastern  countries  the 
bridegroom  was  required  to  pay  the  fa 
ther  of  his  betrothed  a  stipulated  por 
tion,  in  money  or  other  valuables,  pro 
portioned  to  the  rank  and  station  of  the 
family  to  which  she  belonged  ;  this  was 
the  dowry.  Jacob  purchased  his  wives 
by  his  services  to  their  father,  Gen. 
29:18-27;  34:12;  Ex.  22: 16-17;  ISam. 
18:25;  Hos.  3:2. 

DRAG'ON  answers,  in  the  English  Bi 
ble,  to  the  Hebrew  word  signifying  a  sea- 
monster,  huge  serpent,  etc.  Thus  in 
Deut,  32:33,  Jer.  51:34,  and  Rev.  12,  it 
evidently  implies  a  huge  serpent ;  in 
Isa.  27  : 1 ;  51 :  9  ;  Ezek.  29  :  3,  it  may 
121 


DRA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


DRU 


mean  the  crocodile,  or  any  large  sea- 
monster  ;  while  in  Job  30:29  ;  Lain.  4:3  ; 
Mic.  1:8,  it  seems  to  refer  to  some  wild 
animal  of  the  desert,  most  probably  the 
jackal.  The  animul  known  to  modern 
naturalists  under  the  name  of  dragon,  is 
a  harmless  species  of  lizard,  found  in  Asia 
and  Africa. 

DRAG'ON-WELL,  Neh.  2:13;  proba 
bly  the  fountain  of  Gihon,  on  the  west 
side  of  Jerusalem. 

DBAM,  Ezra  2:69,  a  gold  coin  of  Per 
sia,  worth  about  five  dollars. 

DRAUGHT,  a  cess-pool  or  receptacle 
for  filth,  2  Kin.  10  :  27  ;  Matt.  15  : 17. 
Also,  all  the  fishes  taken  at  one  drawing 
of  a  net,  Luke  5:9. 

DREAM.  The  orientals,  and  in  partic 
ular  the  Jews,  greatly  regarded  dreams, 
and  applied  for  their  interpretation  to 
those  who  undertook  to  explain  them. 
We  see  the  antiquity  of  this  custom  in 
the  history  of  Pharaoh's  butler  and  bak 
er,  Gen.  40 ;  and  Pharaoh  himself  and 
Nebuchadnezzar  are  also  instances.  God 
expressly  forbade  his  people  to  observe 
dreams,  and  to  consult  explainers  of 
them.  He  condemned  to  death  all  who 
pretended  to  have  prophetic  dreams, 
even  though  what  they  foretold  came  to 
pass,  if  they  had  any  tendency  to  pro 
mote  idolatry,  Deut.  13:1-3.  But  they 
were  not  forbidden,  when  they  thought 
they  had  a  significant  dream,  to  address 
the  prophets" of  the  Lord,  or  the  high- 

?riest  in  his  ephod,  to  have  it  explained, 
'he  Lord  frequently  made  known  his 
will  in  dreams,  and  enabled  persons  to 
explain  them,  Gen.  20:3-7;  28:12-15; 
1  Sam.  28:6;  Dan.  2;  Joel  2:28;  Matt. 
1 : 20  ;  Acts  27 : 22.  Supernatural  dreams 
are  distinguished  from  visions,  in  that 
the  former  occurred  during  sleep,  and 
the  latter  when  the  person  was  awake. 
God  spoke  to  Abimelech  in  a  dream,  but 
to  Abraham  by  vision.  In  both  cases  he 
left  on  the  mind  an  assurance  of  the  cer 
tainty  of  whatever  he  revealed.  Both 
are  now  superseded  by  the  Bible,  our 
sure  and  sufficient  guide  through  earth 
to  heaven. 

DREGS.     See  LEES. 

DRESS'ES.     See  GARMENTS. 

DRINK'-OFFERING,  a  small  quantity 
of  wine,  part  of  which  was  to  be  poured 
on  the  sacrifice  or  meat-offering,  and  the 
residue  given  to  the  priests,  Ex.  29:40 ; 
Lev.  23:18  ;  Num.  15:5,  7.  It  may  have 
been  appointed  as  an  acknowledgment 
122 


that  all  the  blessings  of  the  earth  ar® 
from  God,  Gen.  35:14. 

DROM'EDARY.  See  CAMEL. 
DROUGHT  was  an  evil  to  which  Pal 
estine  was  naturally  subject,  as  no  rain 
fell  from  May  to  September.  During 
these  months  of  summer,  the  ground 
became  parched  and  cleft,  the  streams 
and  springs  became  dry,  and  vegetation 
was  kept  from  extinction  by  the  dews  at 
night  and  by  artificial  irrigation.  If  rain 
did  not  come  in  its  season  and  abun 
dantly,  the  distress  was  general  and 
dreadful.  A  drought  therefore  is  threat* 
ened  as  one  of  God's  sorest  judgments, 
Job  24  : 19  ;  Jer.  50  :  38  ;  Joel  1  : 10-20 ; 
Hag.  1:11;  and  there  are  many  allusions 
to  its  horrors  in  Scripture,  Deut.  28:23  ; 
Psa.  32:4;  102:4. 

DRUNK'ENNESS  is  referred  to  in  the 
Bible  both  in  single  instances  and  as  a 
habit.  Its  folly  is  often  illustrated,  Psa. 
107:27;  Isa.  19:14;  24:20;  28:7,  8,  its 
guilt  denounced,  Isa.  5:22,  its  ill  results 
traced,  1  Sam.  25  :  36  ;  1  Kin.  16  :  9  ; 
20:16,  and  its  doom  shown,  1  Cor.  6:9, 
10.  It  is  produced  by  wine,  Gen.  9:21 ; 
21:33;  Jer.  23:9;  Eph.  5:18,  as  well  as 
by  "strong  drink,"  1  Sam.  1:13-15; 
Isa.  5:11.  Hence  the  use  of  these  was 
forbidden  to  the  priests  at  the  altar,  Lev. 
10:9;  and  all  are  cautioned  to  avoid 
them,  Prov.  20  :  1  ;  23  :  30,  To  tempt 
others  to  drunkenness  is  a  ain  accursed 
of  God,  2  Sam.  11 :  13  ;  Hab.  2  :  15,  16. 
Its  prevalence  in  a  community  is  insep 
arable  from  the  habitual  use  of  any  in 
ebriating  liquor.  Hence  the  efforts  made 
by  the  wise  and  good  to  secure  absti 
nence  from  all  intoxicating  drinks,  1  Cor. 
8:13.  See  WINE. 

DRUSIL'LA,  the  youngest  daughter 
of  Herod  Agrippa  I.,  and  sister  of  the 
younger  Agrippa  and  Bernice,  celebrated 
for  her  beauty  and  infamous  for  her  li 
centiousness.  She  was  first  espoused  to 
Epiphanes,  son  of  Anticchus  king  of  Co- 
magena,  on  condition  of  his  embracing 
the  Jewish  religion ;  but  as  he  after 
wards  refused  to  be  circumcised,  Drusilla 
was  given  in  marriage  by  her  brother  to 
Azizus  king  of  Emessa.  When  Felix 
came  as  governor  of  Judea,  he  persuaded 
her  to  abandon  her  husband  and  her  re 
ligion,  and  become  his  wife.  Paul  bore- 
testimony  before  them  to  the  truth  of 
the  Christian  religion,  Acts  24:24.  She 
and  her  son  afterwards  perished  in  an 
eruption  of  Vesuvius. 


DUK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EAG 


DUKE.  In  Gen.  36:15-43,  is  a  long 
list  of  "  dukes  "  of  Edom  ;  but  the  word 
duke,  from  the  Latin  dux,  merely,  signi 
fies  a  leader,  and  not  an  order  of  nobili 
ty  ;  and  the  word  chief  or  sheikh  would 
have  been  preferable  in  our  translation, 
IChr.  1:51. 

DULCIMER,  Dan.  3:5,  10,  an  instru 
ment  of  music,  which  the  rabbins  de 
scribe  as  a  sort  of  bagpipe,  composed  of 
two  pipes  connected  with  a  leathern  sack, 
and  of  a  harsh,  screaming  sound.  The 
modern  dulcimer  is  an  instrument  of  a 
triangular  form,  strung  with  about  fifty 
wires,  and  struck  with  an  iron  key  while 
lying  on  the  table  before  the  performer. 
See  Music. 

DU'MAH,  a  tribe  and  country  of  the 
Ishmaelites  in  Arabia,  Gen.  25 : 14 ;  1  Chr. 
1:30  ;  Isa.  21:11.  This  is  doubtless  the 
same  which  is  still  called  by  the  Arabs 
"Duma  the  stony"  and  "the  Syrian 
Duma,"  situated  on  the  confines  of  the 
Arabian  and  Syrian  desert,  with  a  for 
tress. 

DUNG.  Among  the  Israelites,  the 
dung  of  animals  was  used  not  only  for 
manure,  but,  when  dried,  for  fuel.  In 
districts  where  wood  is  scarce,  the  in 
habitants  are  very  careful  in  collecting 
the  dung  of  camels  or  asses  ;  it  is  mixed 
with  chopped  straw,  and  dried.  It  is 
not  unusual  to  see  a  whole  village  with 
portions  of  this  material  adhering  to  the 
walls  of  the  cottages  to  dry ;  and  towards 
the  end  of  autumn  it  is  piled  in  conical 
heaps  or  stacks  on  the  roof.  It  is  em 
ployed  in  heating  ovens,  and  for  other 
similar  purposes,  Ezek.  4  :  12-16.  The 
use  of  dung  for  manure  is  intimated  in 
Isa.  25:10. 

DU'RA,  the  plain  in  Babylon  where 
Nebuchadnezzar  set  up  his  golden  im 
age,  Dan.  3:1. 

DUST,  Josh.  7:6.  Dust  or  ashes  put  1 
upon  the  head  was  a  sign  of  mourning  ;  ! 
sitting  in  the  dust,  a  sign  of  affliction,  : 
Lam.  3:2'J;  Isa.  47:1.  "Dust"  is  also  i 
put  for  the  grave,  Gen.  3:19  ;  Job  7:21. 
It  signifies  a  multitude,  Gen.  13:16,  and 
a  low  and  mean  condition,  1  Sam.  2:8. 
We  have  two  remarkable  instances  of 
casting  dust  recorded  in  Scripture,  and 
they  seem  ^  to  illustrate  a  practice  com 
mon  in  Asia :  those  who  demanded  jus 
tice  against  a  criminal  were  accustomed 
to  throw  dust  upon  him,  signifying  that 
he  deserved  to  be  cast  into  the  grave. 
Shimei  cast  dust  upon  David  when  he 


fled  from  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  16:13.    The 
Jews  treated  the  apostle  Paul  in  a  simi 
lar  manner  in  the  same  city  :    ' '  They 
cried  out,  '  Away  with  such  a  fellow  from 
the  earth ;  for  it  is  not  fit  that  he  should 
live.'     And  as  they  cried  out,  and  cast 
off  their  clothes,  and  threw  dust  into  the 
air,  the  chief  captain  commanded  him  to 
be  brought  into  the  castle,"  Acts  22:22- 
24.     To  shake  off  the  dust  of  the  feet 
against  another  was  expressive  of  entire 
renunciation,  Matt.  10:14;  Mark  6:11; 
Acts  13  :  51.     The  threatening  of  God, 
recorded  in  Deut.   28:24,    "The  Lord 
shall  make1  the  rain  of  thy  land  povvdei 
and  dust:   from  heaven  shall   it  conn 
down  upon  thee,  until  thou  be  destroy 
ed,"   means  that  instead   of  fertilizing 
rains,  clouds  of  fine  dust,   raised  from 
the  parched  ground  and  driven  by  fierce 
and  burning  winds,   shall   fill  the  air. 
Of -such  a  rain  of  dust,  famine  and  dis 
ease  would  be  the  natural  attendants. 
See  WIND. 


E. 

EA'GLE,  Job  39  : 27-30,  a  large  and 
very  powerful  bird  of  prey,  hence  called 
the  King  of  birds.  There  are  several 
species  of  eagle  described  by  naturalists, 


and  it  is  probable  that  this  word  in  the 
Bible  comprehends  more  than  one  of 
these.  The  noble  eastern  species,  called 
by  Mr.  Bruce  "the  golden  eagle,"  meas 
ures  eight  feet  four  inches  from  wing  to 
wing ;  and  from  the  tip  of  his  tail  to  the 
point  of  his  beak,  when  dead,  four  feet 
123 


EAK, 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EAS 


seven  inches.  Of  all  known  birds,  the 
eagle  flies  not  only  the  highest,  Frov. 
23:5 ;  Jcr.  49:10  ;  Obad.  4,  but  also  with 
the  greatest  rapidity.  To  this  circum 
stance  there  are  several  striking  allusions 
in  the  sacred  volume,  2  Sam.  1:23 ;  Job 
9  :  26  ;  Lam.  4  :  19.  Among  the  evils 
threatened  to  the  Israelites  in  case  of 
their  disobedience,  the  prophet  names 
one  in  the  following  terms :  "The  Lord 
shall  bring  a  nation  against  thee  from 
far,  from  the  end  of  the  earth,  as  swift 
as  the  eagle  flieth,"  Deut.  28:49.  The 
inarch  of  Nebuchadnezzar  against  Jeru 
salem,  is  predicted  in  similar  terms : 
"Behold,  he  shall  come  up  as  clouds, 
and  his  chariots  as  a  whirlwind :  his 
horses  are  swifter  than  eagles,"  Jer. 
4  : 13  ;  48  :  40  ;  49  :  22  ;  Hos.  8  : 1.  This 
bird  was  a  national  emblem  on  Persian 
and  Roman  standards,  as  it  now  is  on 
United  States'  coins. 

The  eagle,  it  is  said,  lives  to  a  great 
age  ;  and  like  other  birds  of  prey,  sheds 
his  feathers  in  the  beginning  of  spring, 
after  which  his  old  age  assumes  the  ap 
pearance  of  youth.  To  this  David  al 
ludes,  when  gratefully  reviewing  the 
mercies  of  Jehovah  :  ' '  Who  satisiieth 
thy  mouth  with  good  things,  so  that  thy 
youth  is  renewed  like  the  eagle's,"  Psa. 
103 : 5  ;  Isa.  40 : 3 1 .  The  careful  pains  of 
the  eagle  in  teaching  its  young  to  fly,  beau 
tifully  illustrate  God's  providential  care 
over  Israel,  Ex.  19:4;  Deut.  32:11,  12. 

The  eagle  is  remarkable  for  its  keen 
sight  and  scent.  Its  flesh,  like  that  of 
all  birds  of  prey,  was  unclean  to  the 
Jews ;  and  is  never  eaten  by  any  body, 
unless  in  cases  of  necessity,  Matt.  24:28 ; 
Luke  17: 37. 

EAR/ING,  an  old  agricultural  term  for 
ploughing.  Thus,  in  Isa.  30  :  24,  it  is 
said,  "The  oxen  also,  and  the  young 
asses  which  ear,"  that  is,  plough,  "the 
ground."  So  also  in  Gen.  45:6;  Exod. 
34:21;  Deut.  21:4;  1  Sam.  8:12. 

EAR'NEST,  a  pledge  of  the  perform 
ance  of  a  promise ;  or  part  of  a  debt, 
paid  in  assurance  of  the  payment  of  the 
whole ;  or  part  of  the  price,  paid  down 
to  confirm  a  bargain ;  or  part  of  a  ser 
vant's  wages,  paid  at  the  time  of  hiring, 
to  ratify  the  engagement.  In  the  New 
Testament  it  describes  the  gifts  of  God 
to  his  people  here,  as  the  assurance  and 
commencement  of  the  far  superior  bless 
ings  of  the  life  to  come,  2  Cor.  1 : 22  ;  5 : 5 ; 
Eph.  1:13,  14. 

124 


EAR'-RINGS.  See  RINGS. 
EARTH.  In  both  Hebrew  and  Greek 
the  same  word  is  used  to  denote  the 
earth  as  a  whole,  and  a  particular  land. 
Only  the  context  can  enable  us  to  decide 
in  which  of  these  senses  it  is  to  be  taken 
in  a  given  passage.  Thus  in  Matt.  27:45 
we  might,  so  far  as  the  original  word  is 
concerned,  render  either  "there  was 
darkness  over  all  the  land,"  or  over  all 
the  earth.  The  expression  "all  the 
earth ' '  is  sometimes  used  hyperbolically 
for  a  large  portion  of  it,  Ezra  1:2.  The 
word  is  used  of  the  whole  world,  or  its 
surface,  in  distinction  from  the  heavens ; 
of  the  mould  or  arable  land  of  the  world ; 
of  the  people  who  inhabit  the  world,  etc. 
In  a  moral  sense,  earthly  is  opposed  to 
what  is  heavenly,  spiritual  and  holy, 
John  3  :  31 ;  1  Cor.  15  : 47  ;  Col.  3:2; 
James  3  : 15..  ' '  The  lower  parts  of  the 
earth,"  means  the  unseen  world  of  the 
dead,  Psa.  63:9;  Isa.  44:23;  Eph.  4:9. 

EARTH'QUAKE,  a  convulsion  of  the 
earth  common  in  volcanic  regions,  &nd 
well  known  in  all  parts  of  the  world ; 
probably  occasioned  by  the  action  of  in 
ternal  heat  or  fire.  Scripture  speaks  of 
several  earthquakes,  Num.  16  ;  1  Kin. 
19:11,  12.  One  occurred  in  the  twenty- 
seventh  year  of  Uzziah  king  of  Judah, 
and  is  mentioned  in  Amos  1:1;  Zech. 
14  :  5.  A  very  memorable  earthquake 
Avas  that  at  our  Saviour's  death.  Matt. 
27  :  51,  which  some  suppose  extended 
throughout  the  world.  Palestine  has 
been  often  visited  by  earthquakes.  So 
late  as  1837  one  occurred  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  sea  cf  Galilee,  by  which  about  a 
third  part  of  Tiberias  was  destroyed,  and 
thousands  of  people  perished  there  and 
in  the  towns  near  by.  Earthquakes  were 
among  the  calamities  foretold  as  con 
nected  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusa 
lem,  Matt.  24:7  ;  and  history  proves  the 
truth  of  the  prediction. 

The  word  earthquake  is  also  used  fig 
uratively  to  denote  God's  power  and 
wrath,  as  in  Psa.  18:7;  46:2;  104:32, 
etc.  ;  and  as  an  emblem  of  a  great  civil 
or  national  catastrophe,  Matt.  24:7,  29; 
Rev.  16:18,  19. 

EAST.  The  Hebrews,  in  speaking  of 
the  different  quarters  of  the  heaven,  al 
ways  suppose  the  face  to  be  turned  tow 
ards  the  east.  Hence  "before,"  or  "for 
wards,"  means  the  east;  "behind"  is 
the  west,  the  right-hand  is  south,  and 
the  left-hand,  north.  Besides  the  ordi- 


EAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EAT 


nary  meanings  of  the  word  east,  Josh. 
4:19;  Psa.  103:12,  the  Jews  often  used 
it  to  designate  a  large  region  lying  north 
east  and  south-east  as  well  as  east  of  Pal 
estine,  including  Syria  and  Arabia  near 
at  hand,  and  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Arme 
nia,  etc. ,  with  the  whole  region  from  the 
Caspian  sea  to  the  Arabian  gulf.  Gen. 
29  :  1 ;  Num.  23  :  7  ;  Judg.  6  :  3  ;  7  : 12  ; 
8:10.  The  wise  men  who  visited  the 
infant  Saviour  dwelt  somewhere  in  this 
region;  and  being  "in  the  east,"  saw 
his  star — not  east  of  them,  but  in  the 
direction  to  guide  them  to  Jerusalem, 
Matt.  2:1,  2. 

EAST  WIND.     See  WIND. 

EAST'ER  is  improperly  put  for  PASS 
OVER,  Acts  12  :  4  ;  Passover  being  the 
name  of  the  ancient  Jewish  festival  here 
referred  to  ;  while  Easter-,  from  the  Sax 
on  goddess  Eostre,  is  the  modern  name 
of  a  Christian  festival,  in  commemora 
tion  of  the  events  of  Passover- week,  and 
fixed  at  the  same  period  of  the  year. 

EAT'ING.  The  Jews  would  have  con 
sidered  themselves  polluted  by  eating 
with  people  of  another  religion,  or  with 
any  who  were  ceremonially  unclean  or 


disreputable — as  with  Samaritans,  John 
4:9,  publicans,  Matt.  9:11,  or  Gentiles 
Acts  10:28  ;  Gal.  2:12.  Eating  together 
was  an  established  token  of  mutual  con- 
iidence  and  friendship,  a  pledge  of  friend 
ly  relations  between  families,  which  theii 
children  were  expected  to  perpetuate. 
The  rites  of  hospitality  were  held  sacred ; 
and  to  this  day,  among  the  Arabs,  a  fugi« 
tive  is  safe  for  the  time,  if  he  gains  the 
shelter  of  even  an  enemy's  tent.  The 
abuse  of  hospitality  was  a  great  crime. 
Psa.  41:9. 

To  "eat"  a  book,  is  to  make  its  pre 
cepts,  promises,  and  spirit  one's  own, 
Jer.  15:16  ;  Ezek.  3:1 ;  John  4:14  ;  Rev. 
10  :  9.  So  to  eat  Christ's  flesh  and  drink 
his  blood,  is  to  receive  him  as  a  Saviour, 
and  by  a  living  faith  to  be  imbued  with 
his  truth,  his -Spirit,  and  his  heavenly 
life,  John  6:32-58. 

EATING,  MODE  OF.  The  Hebrews  an 
ciently  sat  at  their  meals,  Gen.  43:83  ; 
1  Sam.  9  :  22  ;  2*0  :  25  ;  Psa.  128  :  3  ;  but 
afterwards  adopted  the  practice  of  reclin 
ing  on  table-beds  or  divans,  like  the  Per 
sians,  Chaldeans,  Romans,  etc.,  Amos 
6:4.  The  accempanying  engraving  of  a 


Roman  triclinium,  three  beds,  will  illus 
trate  several  points  obscure  to  the  mod 
ern  reader  of  the  Bible.  It  will  be  seen 
that  three  low  tables  are  so  placed  as 
to  form  three  sides  of  a  hollow  square 


accessible  to  the  waiters.  Around  these 
tables  are  placed,  not  seats,  but  couches, 
or  beds,  one  to  each  table,  fr.rmed  of 
mattresses  stufl'ed,  and  often  highly  or*- 
namented,  Est.  1:6  ;  7:1,  8.  The  guests 
125 


EAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EAT 


reclined  with  their  heads  to  the  tahle, 
each  one  leaning  on  his  left  elbow,  and 
therefore  using  principally  his  right  hand 
in  taking  food.  Observe  also  that  the 
feet  of  the  person  reclining  being  tow 
ards  the  external  edge  of  the  bed,  they 
were  much  more  readily  reached  by  any 
one  passing  than  any  other  part  of  the 
person  so  reclining,  Luke  7 : 36-50  ;  John 
12:3. 

This  mode  of  reclining  at  table  ren 
dered  it  easy  for  our  Lord  to  wash  the 
feet  of  his  disciples  at  the  last  supper, 
John  13:5-12, and  "wipe  them  with  the 
towel  wherewith  he  was  girded. ' '  It  also 
explains  the  position  of  John  at  the  same 
supper ;  for  if  he  reclined  next  in  front 
of  the  Saviour,  he  lay  as  it  were  in  his 
bosom,  John  13:23,  25,  and  might  read 
ily  lean  back  his  head  upon  the  Saviour's 
breast. 

It  is  unknown,  however,  how  far  or 
how  long  this  custom  displaced  the  prim 
itive  eastern  mode  still  prevalent  in  Pal 
estine  and  vicinity.  The  ordinary  table 
was  no  more  than  a  circular  skin  or  car 
pet  spread  upon  the  floor,  around  which 
the  family  sat  on  the  floor,  or  on  rugs  or 
cushions.  Sometimes  there  Avas  a  small 
table  in  the  centre,  raising  the  principal 
dish  a  little  above  the  floor. 

The  meals  of  the  Jews  were  generally 
two,  loosely  distinguished  as  dinner  and 
supper,  Luke  14:12;  John  21:12.  The 
first  meal  was  usually  light,  consisting  of 
milk,  cheese,  bread,  or  fruits,  and  eaten 
at  various  hours  from  early  morning  to 
the  middle  of  the  forenoon.  In  the  ear 
ly  history  of  the  Hebrews,  the  principal 
meal,  corresponding  with  our  dinner, 
was  eaten  about  noon,  Gen.  43  : 25 ; 
1  Kin.  20 :  16.  At  a  later  period,  at 
least  on  festive  occasions,  it  was  taken 
after  the  heat  of  the  day  was  over. 
This  was  the  "  supper."  The  Jews  were 
wont  to  wash  their  hands  before  eating, 
a  custom  rendered  necessary  by  their 
mode  of  eating,  but  made  by  the  Phari 
sees  a  test  of  piety,  Mark  7:2,  3  ;  Luke 
11 -38.  Devout  Jews,  not  only  in  their 
sacred  feasts,  but  in  their  daily  enjoy 
ments  at  the  family  meal,  recognized  the 
Giver  of  all  good,  and  implored  his  bless 
ing  on  their  food,  1  Sam.  9:13;  Matt. 
14:19;  15:36;  26:26;  Luke  9: 16;  John 
6:11;  1  Tim.  4  :  3.  Some  families  re 
peated  the  twenty-third  Psalm  as  they 
seated  themselves  at  meals.  The  food 
consisted  of  flesh,  fish,  or  fowls,  butter, 
126 


honey,  bread,  and  fruits.  See  FOOD.  An» 
imal  food  was  often  cut  into  small  pieces, 
or  stewed,  and  served  up  in  one  large 
dish  with  melted  butter,  vegetables,  etc. 


MODERN   SYRIANS   AT  DINNER. 

Knives,  forks,  and  spoons  were  unknown 
as  table-furniture  ;  and  the  food  was  con 
veyed  to  the  mouth  by  the  right  hand, 
Prov.  19:24.  Each  person  took  a  por 
tion  from  the  dish  either  with  his  thumb 
and  fingers,  or  with  the  help  of  a  small 
piece  of  thin  bread.  Several  hands  were 
occasionally  plunged  into  the  same  dish 
at  once,  John  13:26.  The  head  of  the 
family  was  wont  to  send  a  double  por 
tion  of  food  to  a  stranger,  as  an  honor, 
and  to  furnish  him  a  greater  variety, 
Gen.  43:31;  1  Sam.  1:4;  9:22-24;  and 
often  would  select  the  choicest  morsels 
and  present  them  to  his  guest  with  his 
own  fingers.  Compare  Ruth  2:14,  and 
John  13:26.  This  is  still  customary  in 
the  East.  After  eating,  the  hands  were 
again  cleansed  by  pouring  water  upon 
them,  2  Kin.  3  :  11.  See  FEAST,  WASH 
ING. 

The  following  description  of  a  dinner 
at  Hebron  is  from  Dr.  Robinson.  "They 
were  dining  in  the  true  oriental  style. 
A  very  large  circular  tray  of  tinned  cop 
per,  placed  upon  a,  coarse  wooden  stool 
about  a  foot  high,  served  as  the  table. 
In  the  centre  of  this  stood  a  large  dish 
with  a  mountain  of  pillaw,  composed  of 
rice  boiled  and  buttered,  with  small 
pieces  of  meat  strewed  through  and 
upon  it.  This  was  the  chief  dish,  al 
though  there  Avere  also  other  smaller 
dishes,  both  of  meat  and  vegetables. 


EBA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EDE 


Around  this  table  ten  persons,  including 
the  three  governors — of  Gaza,  Hebron, 
and  Jerusalem — were  seated,  or  rather, 
squatted  on  their  feet.  Each  had  before 
him  a  plate  of  tinned  copper  and  a  wood 
en  spoon.  Some  used  the  spoon  without 
the  plate  ;  but  the  most  preferred  to  eat 
with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  with 
out  either  spoon  or  plate.  When  any 
one  had  finished,  he  immediately  rose, 
and  went  and  washed  his  hands  by  hav 
ing  water  poured  over  them  in  an  ad 
joining  room.  The  vacant  place  at  table 
was  immediately  filled  by  a  new  comer." 
E'BAL,  Deut.  27  ;  28  ;  a  mountain  in 
Ephraim,  over  against  mount  Gerizim, 
from  which  it  is 'separated  by  a  valley 
about  five  hundred  yards  wide  and  three 
miles  long,  in  which  stands  the  town  of 
Shechem.  Both  mountains  are  much 
alike  in  length,  height,  and  form,  and 
their  altitude  is  stated  not  to  exceed 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  or  eight  hun 
dred  feet  from  the  level  of  the  valley. 
As  you  journey  from  Jerusalem,  and 
turn  to  pass  through  the  valley  west- 
north-west  to  Shechem,  mount  Ebal  is 
on  the  right  hand  and  mount  Gerizim 
on  the  left.  Some  have  described  the 
mount  of  cursing  as  sterile  and  desolate, 
and  Gerizim  as  smiling  and  fertile.  But 
at  present  there  is  little  difference  be 
tween  their  opposing  fronts,  which  are 
alike  steep  and  barren.  Mount  Gerizim, 
however,  is  said  to  have  a  more  fertile 
background,  and  to  be  a  little  higher 
than  mount  Ebal.  The  base  of  the  lat 
ter  is  full  of  sepulchral  excavations.  -See 
GERIZIM,  SHECHEM. 

EBED'-MELECH,  an  Ethiopian  ser 
vant  of  king  Zedekiah,  who  was  instru 
mental  in  saving  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
from  famishing  in  a  filthy  dungeon,  and 
was  therefore  preserved  when  Jerusalem 
was  taken  by  Nebuzaradan,  Jer.  38:7- 
13;  39:15-18.  The  Lord  knoweth  them 
that  are  his. 

EBENE'ZER,  stone  of  help,  the  place 
where  Samuel  erected  a  monument,  in 
grateful  remembrance  of  the  divine  help, 
given  in  answer  to  prayer,  in  a  great  bat 
tle  with  the  Philistines.  The  same  place 
had  before  witnessed  the  defeat  of  Israel 
and  the  capture  of  tne  ark,  1  Sam.  4:1; 
5:1;  7:5-12. 

E'BEE.     See  HEBER. 

EB'ONY,  the  wood  of  a  tree  of  no 
great  size,  growing  in  India  and  Africa ; 
it  Is  black,  hard,  heavy,  and  fine-grain 


ed,  and  receives  a  beautiful  polish.  It 
was  anciently  highly  prized,  Ezek.  27:15, 
and  is  still  much  used  for  musical  instru 
ments  and  fancy  articles. 

ECCLESIAS'TES,  thepreacJier,  the  name 
of  a  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  usually 
ascribed  to  Solomon.  Compare  1  Kin. 
3:12andEccl.l:lC;  1  Kin.  10:21,  27  and 
Eccl.  2:4-9;  1  Kin.  11:3,  4  and  Eccl. 
7:26,  28.  It  appears  to  have  been  writ 
ten  by  Solomon  in  his  old  age,  when 
freed  from  the  entanglements  of  idola 
try,  luxury,  and  lust,  u.  c.  977.  It  is  a 
discourse  upon  the  true  wisdom ;  with 
many  isolated  precepts,  illustrated  from 
his  own  unexampled  experience  and 
from  the  most  sagacious  observation  of 
the  course  of  life ;  the  whole  demon 
strating  the  vanity  of  all  earthly  good, 
and  showing  that  there  is  a  better  life 
to  come,  and  that  the  only  true  wisdom 
is  to  "  fear  God  and  keep  his  command 
ments."  This,  he  says,  is  the  conclusion 
of  the  whole  matter,  Eccl.  12:13.  In 
reading  this  book,  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  deduce  opinions  from  detached 
sentiments,  but  from  the  general  scope 
and  combined  force  of  the  whole. 

E'DEN,  a  province  in  Asia,  in  which 
was  Paradise.  "The  Lord  God  planted 
a  garden  eastward  in  Eden,  and  there  he 
put  the  man  whom  he  had  formed," 
Gen.  2:8.  The  topography  of  Eden  is 
thus  described  :  ' '  And  a  river  went  out 
of  Eden  to  water  the  garden,  and  from 
thence  it  was  parted,  and  became  into 
four  heads.  The  name  of  the  first  is 
Pison,"  etc. 

^This  obscure  passage  has  received  many 
different  explanations  and  applications, 
none  of  which  are  fully  satisfactory ;  and 
now  it  is  impossible  to  say  with  certainty 
where  Eden  lay.  Most  writers  have  sought 
for  it  in  some  elevated  and  central  region, 
the  heights  of  which  would  give  rise  to 
various  rivers  flowing  off  in  different  di 
rections  through  lower  grounds  to  their 
outlets.  Such  a  region  exists  in  the  high 
lands  of  Armenia,  west  of  mount  Ararat 
and  5,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Here,  with 
in  a  circle  but  a  few  miles  in  diameter, 
four  large  rivers  rise  :  the  Euphrates,  and 
Tigris,  or  Hiddekel,  flowing  south  into 
the  Persian  gulf ;  the  Araxes,  flowing 
north-east  into  the  Caspian  sea  ;  and  the 
Phasis,  or  the  Halys,  flowing  north-west 
into  the  Black  sea.  This  fourth  river 
may  have  been  the  Pishon  of  Eden  ;  and 
the  Araxes  may  well  be  the  Gihon,  since 
127 


EDO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EGY 


both  words  mean  the  same,  and  describe 
its  dart-like  swiftness.  This  elevated 
country,  still  beautiful  and  fertile,  may 
have  been  the  land  of  Eden ;  and  in  its 
choicest  portion,  towards  the  east,  the 
garden  may  once  have  smiled. 

Another  location  of  Eden  is  now  pre 
ferred  by  many  interpreters — near  the 
spot  where  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
form  a  junction  after  their  long  wander 
ings,  a  hundred  and  twenty  miles  north 
of  the  Persian  gulf,  and  where  the  river 
Ulai  flows  in  from  the  north-east.  This 
region  may  have  been  greatly  changed 
by  the  lapse  of  many  thousand  years, 
and  may  now  bear  little  resemblance  to 
the  luxuriant  and  beautiful  plain  of 
primeval  times.  Yet  long  after  the 
flood  the  plain  of  Shinar  in  the  same 
region  attracted  the  admiration  of  the 
sons  of  Gush,  Gen.  10:8-10;  11:2.  As 
two  of  the  rivers  of  Eden  bear  the  fa 
miliar  names  of  the  Euphrates  and  Ti 
gris,  it  seems  probable  that  it  was  in 
one  or  the  other  of  the  regions  above 
named.  Wherever  it  was,  it  is  there  no 
more  since  the  fall  and  the  curse.  The 
first  chapters  of  the  Bible  show  Paradise 
withdrawn  from  man's  view,  and  no  pil 
grimage  can  discover  it  upon  earth.  The 
last  chapters  of  the  Bible  restore  to  our 
view  a  more  glorious  and  enduring  Par 
adise:  "Blessed  are  they  that  do  his 
commandments,  that  they  may  have 
right  to  the  tree  of  life. ' ' 

E'DOM,  red,  a  name  of  Esau,  Isaac's 
eldest  son,  appropriate  on  account  of  his 
natural  complexion,  but  given,  it  would 
seem,  from  the  current  name  of  the  food 
for  which  he  sold  his  birthright — "  that 
same  red,"  Gen.  25  :  25,  30.  See  ESAU 
and  IDUMEA. 

ED'REI,  one  of  the  capitals  of  Bashan, 
near  which  Og  and  his  forces  were  de 
stroyed,  Num.  21  :  33-35  ;  Deut.  1:4; 
3:1-3.  It  afterwards  fell  within  the  lim 
its  of  Manasseh,  Josh.  13:31.  Its  ruins 
cover  a  large  space  ;  it  was  a  place  of  some 
note  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  and 
in  the  era  of  the  crusades.  It  is  now  call 
ed  Draa,  and  lies  about  thirty-five  miles 
east  of  the  outlet  of  the  sea  of  Galilee. 

EG'LON,  a  king  of  Moab,  who,  with 
the  help  of  Ammon  and  Amalek,  sub 
dued  the  southern  and  eastern  tribes  of 
the  Jews.  He  made  Jericho  his  seat  of 
government,  and  held  his  power  eighteen 
years,  but  was  then  slain  by  Ehud,  and 
his  people  expelled,  Judg.  3:12-33. 
128 


E'GYPT,  a  celebrated  country  in  the 
north  of  Africa,  at  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Mediterranean  sea.  The  Hebrews 
called  it  Mizraim,  Gen.  10:6,  and  hence 
it  is  now  called  by  the  Arabs,  Mizr.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  called  it  Jigyptus, 
whence  Egypt ;  but  the  origin  of  this 
name  is  unknown. 

The  habitable  land  of  Egypt  is  for  the 
most  part  a  great  valley,  through  which 
the  river  Nile  pours  its  waters,  extending 
in  a  straight  line  from  north  to  south,  and 
skirted  on  the  east  and  west  by  ranges  of 
mountains,  which  approach  and  recede 
from  the  river  more  or  less  in  different 
parts.  Where  this  valley  terminates, 
towards  the  north,  the  Nile  divides  it 
self,  about  forty  or  fifty  miles  from  the 
seacoast,  into  several  aims,  which  in 
close  the  so  called  Delta.  The  ancients 
numbered  seven  aims  and  mouths ;  the 
eastern  was  that  of  Pelusium,  now  that 
of  Tineh  ;  and  the  western  that  of  Ca- 
nopus,  now  that  of  Aboukir.  As  these 
branches  all  separate  from  one  point  or 
channel,  that  is,  from  the  main  stream, 
and  spread  themselves  more  and  more 
as  they  approach  the  coast,  they  form 
with  the  latter  a  triangle,  the  base  of 
which  is  the  seacoast ;  and  having  thus 
the  form  of  the  Greek  letter  A,  delta,  this 
part  of  Egypt  received  the  name  of  the 
|  Delta,  which  it  has  ever  since  retained. 
The  prophet  Ezekiel  describes  Egypt  as 
extending  from  Migdol,  that  is,  Magdo- 
lum,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Pe- 
lusian  arm,  to  Syene,  now  Essuan,  name 
ly,  to  the  border  of  Ethiopia,  Ezek. 
29  :  10  ;  30  :  6,  margin.  Eesuan  is  also 
assigned  by  Greek  and  Arabian  writers 
as  the  southern  limit  of  Egypt.  Here 
the  Nile  issues  from  the  granite  rocks  of 
the  cataracts,  and  enters  Egypt  proper. 
The  length  of  the  country,  therefore,  in 
a  direct  line,  is  about  four  hundred  and 
fifty  miles,  and  its  area  about  eleven 
thousand  square  miles.  The  breadth  of 
the  valley,  between  Essuan  and  the  Del 
ta,  is  very  unequal ;  in  some  places  the 
inundations  of  the  river  extend  to  the 
foot  of  the  mountains ;  in  other  parts 
there  remains  a  strip  of  a  mile  or  two  in 
breadth  which  the  water  never  covers, 
and  which  is  therefore  always  dry  and 
barren.  Originally  the  name  Egypt  des 
ignated  only  the  valley  and  the  Delta ; 
but  at  a  later  period  it  came  to  include 
also  the  region  between  this  and  the  Eed 


EGY 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EGY 


ANCIENT  STATUES  OF  MEMNON,  IN   THE    PLAIN    OF    THEBES 


The  country  around  Syene  and  the 
Cataracts  is  highly  picturesque  ;  the  oth 
er  parts  of  Egypt,  and  especially  the 
Delta,  are  uniform  and  monotonous. 
The  prospect,  however,  is  extremely  dif 
ferent,  according  to  the  season  of  the 
year.  From  the  middle  of  spring,  when 
the  harvest  is  over,  one  sees  nothing  but 
a  grey  and  dusty  soil,  so  full  of  cracks 
and  chasms  that  he  can  hardly  pass 
along.  At  the  time  of  the  autumnal 
equinox,  the  country  presents  nothing 
but  an  immeasurable  surface  of  reddish 
or  yellowish  water,  out  of  which  rise 
date-trees,  villages,  and  narrow  dams, 
which  serve  as  a  means  of  communica 
tion.  After  the  waters  have  retreated, 
and  they  usually  remain  only  a  short 
time  at  this  height,  you  see,  till  the  end 
of  autumn,  only  a  black  and  slimy  mud. 
But  in  winter,  nature  puts  on  all  her 
splendor.  In  this  season,  the  freshness 
and  power  of  the  new  vegetation,  the 
variety  and  abundance  of  vegetable  pro 
ductions,  exceed  every  thing  that  is 
known  in  the  most  celebrated  parts  of 
the  European  continent ;  and  Egypt  is 
then,  from  one  end  of  the  country  to 
6* 


the  other,  like  a  beautiful  garden,  a 
verdant  meadow,  a  field  sown  with  flow 
ers,  or  a  waving  ocean  of  grain  in  the 
ear.  This  fertility,  as  is  well  known, 
depends  upon  the  annual  and  regular 
inundations  of  the  Nile.  Hence  Egypt 
was  called  by  Herodotus,  ' '  the  gift  of  the 
Nile."  See  NILE. 

The  sky  is  not  less  uniform  and  mo 
notonous  than  the  earth  ;  it  is  constant 
ly  a  pure  unclouded  arch,  of  a  color  and 
light  more  white  than  azure.  The  at 
mosphere  has  a  splendor  which  the  eye 
can  scarcely  bear,  and  a  burning  sun, 
whose  glow  is  tempered  by  no  shade, 
scorches  through  the  whole  day  these 
vast  and  unprotected  plains.  It  is  al 
most  a  peculiar  trait  in  the  Egyptian 
landscape,  that  although  not  without 
trees,  it  is  yet  almost  without  shade. 
The  only  tree  is  the  date-tree,  which  is 
frequent ;  but  with  its  tall,  slender  stem, 
and  bunch  of  foliage  on  the  top,  this  tree 
does  very  little  to  keep  off  the  light,  and 
casts  upon  the  earth  only  a  pale  and  un 
certain  shade.  Egypt,  accordingly,  has 
I  a  very  hot  climate  ;  the  thermometer  in 
|  summer  standing  usually  at  eighty  or 
129 


EGY 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EGY 


ninety  degrees  of  Fahrenheit ;  and  in 
Upper  Egypt  still  higher.  The  burning 
•wind  of  the  desert,  Simoom,  or  Camsin, 
is  also  experienced,  usually  about  the 
time  of  the  early  equinox.  The  coun 
try  is  not  unfrequently  visited  by  swarms 
of  locusts.  See  LOCUSTS. 

In  the  very  earliest  times,  Egypt  ap 
pears  to  have  been  regarded  under  three 
principal  divisions  ;  and  writers  spoke  of 
Upper  Egypt  or  Thebais ;  Middle  Egypt, 
Heptanomis  or  Heptapolis ;  and  Lower 
Egypt  or  the  Delta,  including  the  dis 
tricts  lying  east  and  west  of  the  river. 
The  provinces  and  cities  of  Egypt  men 
tioned  in  the  Bible  may,  in  like  manner, 
be  arranged  under  these  three  great  di 
visions: 

1.  LOWER  EGYPT.  The  north-eastern 
point  of  this  was  "the  river  of  Egypt," 
(see  below,)  on  the  border  of  Palestine. 
The  desert  between  this  point,  the  Red 
sea,  and  the  ancient  Pelusium,  seems  to 


have  been  the  desert  of  Shur,  Gen  20:1, 
now  El-Djefer.  Sin,  ••  the  strength  [key] 
of  Egypt,"  Ezek.  30:15,  was  probably 
Pelusium.  The  land  of  GOSIIEN  appears 
to  have  lain  between  Pelusium,  its  branch 
of  the  Nile,  and  the  Red  sea,  having  been 
skirted  on  the  north-east  by  the  desert  of 
Shur ;  constituting  perhaps  a  part  of  the 
province  Rameses,  Gen.  47:11.  In  this 
district,  or  adjacent  to  it,  are  mentioned 
also  the  cities  Pithom,  Raamses,  Pi-Be- 
seth,  and  On  or  Heliopolis.  In  the  prop 
er  Delta  itself,  lay  Tahapanes,  that  is, 
Taphne  or  Daphne  ;  Zoan,  the  Tanis  of 
the  Greeks  ;  Leontopolis,  alluded  to  per 
haps  in  Isa.  19:18.  West  of  the  Delta 
was  Alexandria. 

2.  MIDDLE  EGYPT.    Here  are  mention 
ed  Moph  or  Memphis,  and  Hanes,  the 
Heracleopolis  of  the  Greeks. 

3.  UPPER  EGYPT.     The  southern  part 
of  Egypt,  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have 
called  Pathros,  Jer.  44:1,  15.    The  Bible 


TEMPLE    OF  ABOO-S1MBEL,   NUBIA,   HALF   BURIED    IN   SAND  ;    STATTJES   SIXTY  FEET   TIIGH. 


mentions  here  only  two  cities,  namely, 
No,  or  more  fully  No-Ammon,  for  which 
the   Seventy  put   Diospolis,    the  Greek 
name  for  Thebes,  the  most  ancient  capi 
tal  of  Egypt,  (see  AMMON  ;)  and  Syene, 
the  southern  city  and  limit  of  Egypt. 
The  chief  agricultural  productions  «f 
130 


Egypt  are  wheat,  durrah,  or  small  maize, 
Turkish  or  Indian  corn  or  maize,  rice, 
barley,  beans,  cucumbers,  water-melons, 
leeks,  and  onions ;  also  flax  and  cotton. 
The  date-tree  and  vine  are  frequent. 
The  papyrus  is  still  found  in  small  quan- 
tHy,  chiefly  near  Damietta ;  it  is  a  reed 


EOT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


F>  r~<  \y 
'L.  1 


about  nine  feet  high,  as  thick  as  a  man's  ! 
thumb,  with  a  tuft  of  down  on  the  top.  1 
See  BOOK,    BULRUSH.      The  animals  of 
Egypt,  besides  the  usual  kinds  of  tame 
cattle,  are  the  wild  ox  or  buffalo  in  great 
numbers,  the  ass  and  camel,  dogs  in  mul 
titudes  without  masters,  the  ichneumon, 
the  crocodile,  and  the  hippopotamus. 

The  inhabitants  of  Egypt  may  be  con 
sidered  as  including  three  divisions : 
1.  The  Copts,  or  descendants  of  the  an 
cient  Egyptians.  2.  The  Fellahs,  or 
husbandmen,  who  are  supposed  to  repre 
sent  the  people  in  Scripture  called  Phul. 
3.  The  Arabs,  or  conquerors  of  the  coun 
try,  including  the  Turks,  etc.  The  Copts 
are  nominal  Christians,  and  the  clerks 
and  accountants  of  the  country.  They 
have  seen  so  many  revolutions  in  the 
governing  powers,  that  they  concern 
themselves  very  little  about  the  successes 
or  misfortunes  of  those  who  aspire  to 
dominion.  The  Fellahs  suffer  so  much 
oppression,  and  are  so  despised  by  the 
Bedaween  or  wandering  Arabs,  and  by 
their  despotic  rulers,  that  they  seldom  ac 
quire  property,  and  very  rarely  enjoy  it  in 
security  ;  yet  they  are  an  interesting  race, 
and  devotedly  attached  to  their  native 
country  and  the  Nile.  The  Arabs  hate 
the  Turks ;  yet  the  Turks  enjoy  most  offi 
ces  of  government,  though  they  hold  their 
superiority  by  no  very  certain  tenure. 

The  most  extraordinary  monuments  of 
Egyptian  power  and  industry  were  the 
pyramids,  which  still  subsist,  to  excite 
the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the  world. 
No  work  of  man  now  extant  is  so  ancient 
or  so  vast  as  these  mysterious  structures. 
The  largest  of  them  covers  a  square  area 
of  thirteen  acres,  and  is  still  four  hun 
dred  and  seventy-four  feet  high.  They 
have  by  some  been  supposed  to  have 
been  erected  by  the  Israelites  during 
their  bondage  in  Egypt.  But  the  tenor 
of  ancient  history  in  general,  as  well  as 
the  results  of  modern  researches,  is 
against  this  supposition.  It  is  generally 
believed  that  they  were  erected  more 
than  two  thousand  years  before  Christ, 
as  the  sepulchres  of  kings. 

But  besides  these  imperishable  monu 
ments  of  kings  long  forgotten,  Egypt 
abounds  in  other  structures  hardly  less 
wonderful ;  on  the  beautiful  islands  above 
the  cataracts,  near  Syene,  and  at  other 
in  Upper  Egypt ;  and  especially  in 
5  valley  of  the  Nile  near  The 


the  whole  va 

including  Carnac,  Luxor,  etc. 


bes, 
The  tern- 


AVENUE  IN  THE  GREAT  HALL  OF  COLUMNS,  AT 
KARNAC,  THEBES. 

pies,  statues,  obelisks,  and  sphinxes  that 
cover  the  ground  astonish  and  awe  the 
beholder  with  their  colossal  height,  their 
massive  grandeur,  and  their  vast  ex 
tent  ;  while  the  dwellings  of  the  dead, 
tombs  in  the  rock  occupied  by  myriads 
of  mummies,  extend  far  into  the  adja- 
cant  mountains.  The  huge  columns  of 
these  temples,  their  vast  walls,  and  many 
of  the  tombs,  are  covered  with  sculptures 
and  paintings  which  are  exceedingly  val 
uable  as  illustrating  the  public  and  the 
domestic  life  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
See  SIIISHAK.  With  these  are  mingled 
many  hieroglyphic  records,  which  have 
begun  to  yield  their  long-concealed 
meaning  to  the  inquisitions  of  modern 
science.  Some  of  these  are  mere  sym 
bols,  comparatively  easy  i9  understand. 
But  a  large  portion  of  them  are  now 
found  to  be  written  with  a  sort  of  picto 
rial  alphabet— each  symbol  representing, 
the  sound  with  which  its  own  name 
commences.  Thus  OSIR,  the  name  of  the 
Egyptian  god  Osiris,  would  be  represent 
ed  by  the  picture  of  a  reed,  a  child,  and 
a  mouth ;  because  the  initial  sounds  of 
the  Coptic  words  for  these  three  objects, 
namely,  Oke,  Si,  and  Ro,  make  up  the 
131 


EGY 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EGY 


SCULPIUREn  TABLET,   ON  A  TEMPLE   IN  UPPER  EGYPT. 


name  osm.  There  is,  however,  great  am 
biguity  in  the  interpretation  of  these  rec 
ords  ;  and  in  many  cases  the  words,  when 
apparently  made  out,  are  as  yet  unintel 
ligible,  and  seem  to  be  part  of  a  priestly 
dialect  understood  only  by  the  learned. 

The  early  history  of  ancient  Egypt  is 
involved  in  great  obscurity.  All  ac 
counts,  however,  and  the  results  of  all 
modern  researches,  seem  to  concur  in 
representing  culture  and  civilization  as 
having  been  introduced  and  spread  in 
Egypt  from  the  south,  and  especially 
from  Meroe  ;  and  that  the  country  in  the 
earliest  times  was  possessed  by  several 
contemporary  kings  or  states,  which  at 
length  were*  all  united  into  one  great 
kingdom.  The  common  name  of  the 
Egyptian  kings  was  Pharaoh,  which  sig 
nified  sovereign  power.  History  has 
preserved  the  names  of  several  of  these 
kings,  and  a  succession  of  their  dynas 
ties.  But  the  inclination  of  the  Egyp 
tian  historians  to  magnify  the  great  an 
tiquity  of  their  nation,  has  destroyed 
their  credibility.  See  PHARAOH. 

This  ancient  and  remarkable  land  is 
often  mentioned  in  Scripture.  A  grand- 
132 


son  of  Noah  s.eems  to  have  given  it  hi* 
name,  Gen.  10:6.     In  the  day  of  Abra 
ham  it  was  the  granary  of  the  world, 
and  the  patriarch  himself  resorted  thith 
er  in  a  famine,   Gen.   12:10.     His  wife 
had  an  Egyptian  handmaid,  Hagar  the 
mother  of  Ishmael,  who  also  sought  a 
wife  in  Egypt,  Gen.  21:9,  21.     Another 
famine,    in   the    days   of   Isaac,   nearly 
drove  him  to  Egypt,  Gen.  26:2  ;  and  Ja 
cob  and  all  his  household  ended  their 
days  there,  Gen.  39-50.   After  the  escape 
of  Israel  from  their  weary  bondage  in 
Egypt,  we  read  of  little  intercourse  be 
tween  the  two  nations  for  many  years. 
In  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon,  men 
tion  is  again  made  of  Egypt.     Solomon 
married  an  Egyptian   princess,   1  Kin. 
3:7;  9;  11.     But  in  the  fifth  year  of  his 
son  Rehoboam,  Judah  was  humbled  at 
the  feet  of  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  2  Chr. 
12  ;  and  for  many  generations  afterwards 
the  Jews  were  alternately  in  alliance  and 
at  war  with  that  nation,  until  both  were 
subjugated  to  the  Assyrian  empire,  2  Kin. 
17;  18:21;  23:29;  24;  Jer.  25;  37:5; 
44 ;  46. 

Egypt  was  conquered  by  Cambyses, 


EHU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ELA 


and  became  a  province  of  the  Persian 
empire  about  525  B.  c.  Thus  it  contin 
ued  until  conquered  by  Alexander,  850 
B.  c.,  after  whose  death  it  formed,  along 
with  Syria,  Palestine,  Lybia,  etc.,  the 
kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies.  After  the 
battle  of  Actium,  30  B.  c.,  it  became  a 
Roman  province.  In  the  time  of  Christ, 
great  numbers  of  Jews  were  residents  of 
Alexandria,  Leontopolis,  and  other  parts 
of  Egypt ;  and  our  Saviour  himself  found 
an  asylum  there  in  his  infancy,  Matt. 
2:13.  Since  that  time  it  has  ceased  to 
be  an  independent  state,  and  its  history 
is  incorporated  with  that  of  its  different 
conquerors  and  possessors.  In  A.  D.  640, 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs ;  and  in 
later  periods  has  passed  from  the  hands 
of  the  caliphs  under  the  power  of  Turks, 
Arabs,  Kurds,  Mamelukes;  and  since 
1517,  has  been  governed  as  a  province  of 
the  Turkish  empire.  Thus  have  been 
fulfilled  the  ancient  predictions  recorded 
in  God's  word,  Ezek.  29:14,  15;  30:7, 
12,  13;  32:15.  Its  present  population 
is  about  two  millions. 

The  religion  of  Egypt  consisted  in  the 
worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  the 
powers  of  nature  ;  the  priests  cultivated 
at  the  same  time  astronomy  and  astrol 
ogy,  and  to  these  belong  probably  the 
wise  men,  sorcerers,  and  magicians  men 
tioned  in  Ex.  7:11,  22.  They  were  the 
.most  honored  and  powerful  of  the  castes 
into  which  the  people  were  divided.  It 
was  probably  this  wisdom,  in  which  Mo 
ses  also  was  learned,  Acts  7:22.  But  the 
Egyptian  religion  had  this  peculiarity, 
that  it  adopted  living  animals  as  sym 
bols  of  the  real  objects  of  worship.  The 
Egyptians  not  only  esteemed  many  spe 
cies  of  animals  as  sacred,  which  might 
not  be  killed  without  the  punishment  of 
death,  but  individual  animals  weie  kept 
in  temples  and  worshipped  Avith  sacrifi 
ces,  as  gods. 

"The  river  of  Egypt,"  Num.  34:5; 
Josh.  15  :  4,  47  ;  1  ^Kin.  8 :  65 ;  2  Kin. 
24 :  7  ;  Isa.  27 : 12  ;  Ezek.  47 : 19  ;  48  : 28, 
(and,  according  to  some,  Gen.  15:18, 
though  in  this  passage  a  different  word 
is  used  signifying  a  permanent  stream,) 
designates  the  brook  El-Arish,  emptying 
into  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Medi 
terranean  at  Rhinocolura. 

E'HUD,  a  Benjamite,  who  delivered 
Israel  from  the  Moabites,  by  first  slay 
ing  Eglon  their  king,  and  then -raising 
an  army  and  defeating  his  people.  He 


judged  Israel  with  honor  for  many  years, 
Judg.  3:12-31;  4:1. 

EK'RON,  the  most  northern  city  of 
the  Philistines,  allotted  to  Judah  by 
Joshua,  15:45,  but  afterwards  given  to 
Dan,  19:43,  though  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  Jews  ever  peaceably  possessed 
it.  It  is  memorable  for  its  connection 
with  the  captivity  of  the  ark  and  its 
restoration  to  the  Jews,  1  Sam.  5:10; 
6:1-18.  The  fly-god  was  worshipped 
here,  2  Kin.  1:2.  Its  ruin  was  foretold, 
Amos  1:8;  Zeph.  2:4;  Zech.  9:5,  7. 
Robinson  found  its  site  at  the  Moslem 
village  Akir,  some  ten  miles  north-east 
of  Ashdod.  There  are  no  ruins. 

EL,  strength,  one  of  the  names  of  God, 
especially  in  poetry,  Gen.  33:18-20.  It 
is  very  often  found  in  proper  names,  as 
Bethel,  Daniel,  Elijah,  etc.  Eloi,  like 
Eli,  means,  My  God. 

E'LAH,  I.,  a  valley  in  which  David 
slew  Goliath,  1  Sam.  17:2,  3,  19.  It 
was  probably  about  eleven  miles  south 
west  from  Jerusalem. 

II.  Son  and  successor  of  Baasha,  king 
of  Israel,  B.  c.  926.  After  reigning  two 
years,  he  was  slain  while  intoxicated, 
by  Zimri,  one  of  his  officers,  who  suc 
ceeded  him  as  king.  Zimri  destroyed 
all  the 'family  of  Baasha,  according  to 
the  prediction  of  Jehu,  1  Kin.  16:6-10. 

E'LAM,  the  region  afterwards  called 
Persia,  Gen.  14:1.  It  was  called  Elam 
after  a  son  of  Shem,  Gen.  10:22.  It.cor- 
rcsponded  to  the  Elymais  of  Greek  and 
Roman  writers,  which  comprehended  a 
part  of  Susiana,  now  Khusistan,  or  more 
probably  included  the  whole  of  Susiana. 
The  city  Susa,  or  Shushan,  was  in  it, 
Dan.  8:2.  See  also  Acts  2:9. 

E'LATH,  or  E'LOTH,  a  city  of  Idu- 
mea,  situated  at  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  eastern  gulf  of  the  Red  sea,  which 
was  anciently  called  the  Elanitic  gulf, 
and  now  the  gulf  of  Akaba.  Ezion- 
Gaber  was  also  situated  here,  and  very 
near  Elath,  Deut.  2:8;  1  Kin.  9:26. 
This  gulf,  although  known  to  the  an 
cients,  has  been  almost  unknown  to 
modern  geographers  until  the  time  of 
Burckhardt.  This  enterprising  traveller 
explored  it,  and  gave  the  first  full  ac 
count  of  it.  The  great  sand  valley  call 
ed  El-Arabah,  and  towards  the  north  El- 
Ghor,  runs  from  this  gulf  to  the  Dead 
sea.  Elath  was  annexed  to  Judah  by 
David,  who  established  there  an  exten> 
sive  commerce,  2  Sam.  8:14.  Solomon 
133 


ELD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ELI 


also  built  ships  there,  2  Chr.  8:17,  18. 
In  the  reign  of  Joram  the  Edomites  re 
covered  it,  but  lost  it  again  to  Uzziah, 
2  Kin.  8:20;  14:22;  and  he  to  Rezin, 
16:6.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Romans  it 
was  a  flourishing  commercial  town,  with 
the  ordinances  of  Christianity.  In  630 
A.  D.  it  fell  under  the  power  of  Moham 
med,  and  is  now  in  ruins.  The  fortress 
of  Akaba,  near  by,  now  often  visited  by 
travellers  from  mount  Sinai  to  Palestine, 
is  only  important  for  the  protection  of 
pilgrims  to  Mecca. 

EL'DAD,  and  ME'DAD,  two  of  the 
seventy  elders  appointed  to  aid  Moses  in 
governing  the  people.  The  spirit  of 
prophecy  coming  upon  them,  they  proph 
esied  in  the  camp  at  a  distance  from 
Moses.  Joshua  censured  them  for  this 
as  an  irregularity,  but  they  were  nobly 
vindicated  by  Moses,  Num.  11:24-29. 

ELDERS  or  ISRAEL,  the  heads  of  tribes, 
who,  before  the  settlement  of  the  He 
brew  commonwealth,  had  a  government 
and  authority  over  their  own  families 
and  the  people.  Moses  and  Aaron  treat 
ed  the  elders  as  representatives  of  the 
nation,  Ex.  3:16;  4:29;  12:21.  When 
the  law  was  given,  God  directed  Moses 
to  take  the  seventy  elders,  as  well  as 
Aaron,  and  Nadab  and  Abihu  his  sons, 
that  they  might  be  witnesses,  Ex.  24:1, 
9.  Ever  afterwards  we  find  this  num 
ber  of  seventy,  or  rather,  seventy-two, 
elders ;  six  from  each  tribe. 

In  allusion  to  the  Jewish  elders,  the 
ordinary  governors  and  teachers  of  the 
Christian  church  are  called  elders,  or 
presbyters,  Acts  20:17,  28;  Titus  1:5, 
7;  IPet.  5:1;  2  John  1. 

ELEA'LEH,  a  town  of  the  Amorites, 
near  Heshbon  their  capital,  assigned  to 
the  tribe  of  Reuben,  Num.  32:3,  37,  and 
long  afterwards  threatened  as  a  city  of 
Moab,  Isa.  15:4;  16:9;  Jer.  48:34.  Its 
ruins,  now  El-Aal,  are  a  mile  or  more 
north-east  of  Heshban. 

ELEA'ZAR,  I.,  the  third  son  of  Aaron, 
and  high-priest  after  him,  Ex.  6 : 23  ; 
-Num.  20:25-28.  The  high-priesthood 
continued  in  his  family  through  seven 
generations ;  till  the  time  of  Eli,  when 
we  find  it  transferred  to  the  line  of  Itha- 
mar.  In  the  reigns  of  Saul  and  David, 
it  was  restored  to  the  line  of  Eleazar, 
and  so  continued  till  after  the  captivity. 

II.  A  son  of  Abinadab,  honored  with 
the  charge  of  the  ark  while  it  was  in  his 
father's  house,  1  Sam.  7:1. 
134 


III.  One  of  David's  champions,  2  Sam. 
23:9;  1  Chr.  11:11-18. 

E'LI,  a  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  the 
first  in  the  line  of  Ithamar,  1  Sam.  2:27. 
He  was  also  a  judge  of  Israel  forty  years, 
and  was  eminent  for  piety  and  useful 
ness,  but  criminally  negligent  of  family 
discipline.  For  this  the  judgments  of 
God  fell  upon  his  house,  1  Sam.  3:11-18. 
In  battle  with  the  Philistines  his  two 
sons  were  slain,  and  Israel  defeated  ;  but 
it  was  the  capture  of  the  ark  of  God  that 
broke  his  heart,  1  Sam.  4.  The  divine 
threatening  was  fully  performed  in  the 
day  of  Abiathar,  which  see. 

ELIAB,  the  oldest  brother  of  David, 
towards  whom  his  conduct  was  passion 
ate  and  jealous,  thus  confirming  the 
judgment  of  Him  who  looks  not  on  the 
appearance,  but  the  heart,  1  Sam.  16:6, 
7;  17:28. 

ELIAKIM,  I.,  a  king  of  Judah,  2  Kin. 
23:34.  See  JEHOIAKIM. 

II.  An  officer  of  king  Hezekiah's  court, 
appointed  with  others  to  treat  with  Rab- 
shakeh,  general  of  the  Assyrian  forces 
then  besieging  Jerusalem,  2  Kin.  18 ; 
19  ;  Isa.  36  ;  37.  See  SENNACHERIB. 
ELI/ AS,  see  ELIJAH. 
ELIASHIB,  a  high-priest  in  the  days 
of  Nehemiah,  who  took  part  in  rebiiild- 
ing  the  wall  of  Jerusalem,  Neh.  3  : 1. 
The  same  person  probably  wras  after 
wards  censured  for  profaning  the  tem 
ple,  by  giving  the  use  of  one  of  its  cham 
bers  to  a  heathen  and  an  Ammonite,  his 
relative,  Deut.  23  :  3,  4  ;  Neh.  12  : 10  ; 
13:1-9. 

ELIE'ZER,  I.,  of  Damascus,  the  law 
ful  heir  of  Abraham,  should  he  die  child 
less,  Gen.  15:2.  He  is  generally  assum 
ed  to  be  the  ' '  eldest  servant, ' '  who  was 
sent,  sixty-five  years  afterwards,  to  ob 
tain  a  wife  for  Isaac,  Gen.  24.  But  as 
the  name  of  the  latter  is  not  given ;  as 
Abraham  had  near  relatives,  Lot  and 
others ;  and  as  there  is  no  evidence  that 
he  ever  lived  in  Damascus,  some  think 
Eliezer  must  have  been  a  near  relative 
of  Abraham  residing  at  Damascus ;  and 
that  ' '  steward  of  my  house ' '  and  ' '  born 
in  my  house ' ' — literally  son  of  my  house. 
Gen.'  15:2,  3— mean  the  same  thing,  the 
lawful  family  heir. 

II.  Several  others  of  this  name  are 
mentioned,  Ex.  18:4;  1  Chr.  15:24; 
27 : 16 ;  2  Chr.  20 : 37  ;  Luke  3 : 29. 

EL'IHU,  a  native  of  Buz,  Gen.  22:2L 
which  was  probably  a  city  of  Edom,  Jer. 


ELI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ELI 


25:23,  perhaps  Bozrah,  Jer.  49:7,  8,  13. 
He  came  to  condole  with  Job  in  his  ca 
lamities.  Young,  ardent,  sagacious,  and 
devout,  he  listened  attentively  to  the 
discourses  of  Job  and  his  three  friends ; 
and  at  length  broke  in,  with  profuse 
apologies,  to  set  them  all  right,  Job  32. 
His  address  to  Job  is  friendly  and  sooth 
ing,  yet  faithful ;  he  censures  him  for 
justifying  himself,  rather  than  God.  The 
adversaries  of  Job  he  blames  for  con 
demning  him  as  a  hypocrite,  in  their 
ignorance  of  the  wonders  of  God's  prov 
idence.  In  several  sentences  he  beauti 
fully  expresses  his  faith  in  the  pardon 
ing  and  restoring  grace  of  God  towards 
sinners,  Job  33:23,  24,  27-30,  passages 
in  probably  the  oldest  book  of  the  Bible 
in  the  very  spirit  of  the  parable  of  the 
prodigal  son. 

ELI'JAH,  the  prophet,  a  native  of 
Tishbeh  in  Gilead,  1  Kin.  17:1.  His 
parentage  and  early  history  are  un 
known.  His  bold  faithfulness  provoked 
the  wrath  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  especial 
ly  when  he  threatened  several  years  of 
drought  and  famine  as  a  punishment  for 
the  sins  of  Israel,  B.  c.  908.  By  the 
divine  direction  the  prophet  took  refuge 
on  the  bank  of  the  brook  Cherith,  where 
he  was  miraculously  fed  by  ravens. 
Thence  he  resorted  to  Zarephath,  in  Pho3- 
nicia ;  where  one  miracle  provided  him 
with  sustenance,  and  another  restored 
to  life  the  child  of  his  hostess.  Return 
ing  to  king  Ahab,  he  procured  the  great 
assembling  at  mount  Carmel,  where  God 
"answered  by  lire,"  and  the  prophets  of 
Baal  were  destroyed.  Now  too  the  long 
and  terrible  drought  was  broken,  and  a 
plentiful  rain  descended  at  the  prophet's 
prayer.  Finding  that  not  even  these 
mighty  works  of  God  would  bring  the 
nation  and  its  rulers  to  repentance,  Eli 
jah  was  almost  in  despair.  He  fled  into 
the  wilderness,  and  was  brought  to  Ho- 
reb,  the  mount  of  God,  where  he  was 
comforted  by  a  vision  of  God's  power 
and  grace.  Again  he  is  sent  on  a  long 
journey  to  Damascus,  to  anoint  Hazael 
as  king  of  Syria.  Jehu  also  he  anoints 
to  be  king  of  Israel,  and  Elisha  he  sum 
mons  to  become  a  prophet.  Six  years 
later,  he  denounces  Ahab  and  Jezebel 
for  their  crimes  in  the  matter  of  Naboth ; 
and  afterwards  again  is  seen  foretelling 
the  death  of  king  Ahaziah,  and  calling  fire 
from  heaven  upon  two  bands  of  guards 
sent  to  arrest  him.  Being  now  forewarn 


ed  of  the  approach  of  his  removal  from 
earth,  he  gives  his  last  instructions  to 
the  school  of  the  prophets,  crosses  the  Jor 
dan  miraculously,  and  is  borne  to  heaven 
in  a  iiery  chariot  without  tasting  death, 
leaving  his  mantle  and  office  to  Elisha, 
IKin.  17-19;  21;  2  Kin.  1;2. 

His  translation  occurred  about  B.  c. 
896.  Previously,  it  is  supposed,  he  had 
written  the  letter  which,  eight  years 
afterwards,  announced  to  king  Jehoram 
Ins  approaching  sickness  and  death, 
2  Chr.  21:12-19. 

Elijah  was  one  of  the  most  eminent 
and  honored  of  the  Hebrew  prophets. 
He  was  bold,  faithful,  stern,  self-deny 
ing,  and  zealous  for  the  honor  of  God. 
His  whole  character  and  life  are  marked 
by  peculiar  moral  grandeur.  He  bursts 
upon  our  view  without  previous  notice ; 
he  disappears  by  a  miracle.  He  bears 
the  appearance  of  a  supernatural  mes 
senger  of  heaven,  who  has  but  one  work 
to  do,  and  whose  mind  is  engrossed  in  its 
performance.  His  history  is  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  on  record,  and  is 
fraught  with  instruction.  It  was  a  high 
honor  granted  to  Moses  and  Elijah,  that 
they  alone  should  appear  on  the  mount 
of  Transfiguration,  many  centuries  after 
they  had  gone  into  heaven — to  bear  wit 
ness  of  its  existence,  and  commune  with 
the  Saviour  concerning  his  death,  Luke 
9:28-35. 

John  the  Baptist  was  foretold  under 
the  name  of  Elias,  or  Elijah,  from  his 
resemblance  in  character  and  life  to  the 
ancient  prophet  of  Israel,  Mai.  4:5,  6; 
Matt.  17:10-13. 

E'LIM,  a  station  of  the  Israelites,  on 
their  way  to  mount  Sinai,  Ex.  15  : 27 ; 
16  : 1 ;  Num.  33  :  9,  generally  taken  to 
be  the  present  Wady  Ghurundel,  a  broad 
valley  running  south-west  to  the  sea, 
about  forty  miles  south-east  of  Suez. 
Here  are  fountains  and  a  brook,  many 
bushes  and  shrubs,  and  a  few  tamarisks 
and  palms. 

ELIM'ELECH,  a  Bethlehemite,  hus 
band  of  Naomi,  Ruth  1:2. 

EL'IPIIAZ,  a  native  of  Teman,  and 
friend  of  Job,  Job  2:11.  Compare  Gen. 
36:10.  He  seems  to  have  been  older 
than  Bildad  and  Zophar,  and  was  the 
first  to  address  Job,  chs.  4,  5,  15,  22. 

ELIS'ABETH,  a  devout  woman,   "of 
the  daughters  of  Aaron,"   the  wife  of 
Zacharias,  and  mother  of  John  the  Bap 
tist,  Luke  1:5-25,  36,  39-80. 
135 


ELI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EMB 


ELI'SHA,  the  pupil  and  successor  of 
Elijah,  a  prophet  of  Israel  during  the 
reign  of  Jehoram,  Jehu,  Jehoahaz,  and 
Joash,  B.  c.  903-838.  He  was  a  native 
of  Abel-meholah,  where  he  was  at  work 
ploughing  when  Elijah  called  him  to  he- 
come  a  prophet,  1  Kin.  19:16.  Some 
years  afterwards  he  witnessed  the  mirac 
ulous  ascension  of  Elijah,  divided  the  Jor 
dan  with  his  mantle,  and  took  his  place 
at  the  head  of  the  schools  of  the  proph 
ets.  During  his  long  ministry  he  acted 
an  important  part  in  the  public  affairs  of 
Israel.  Many  miracles  also  were  wrought 
at  his  word ;  some  of  these  were,  heal 
ing  the  waters  of  Jericho  ;  supplying  the 
widow's  cruse  with  oil,  and  the  allied 
armies  of  Judah,  Israel,  and  Edom  with 
water ;  gaining  a  son  for  the  woman  of 
Shunem,  and  restoring  him  to  life  ;  heal 
ing  the  leprosy  of  Naaman  ;  detecting 
and  punishing  Gehazi.  His  history  is 
recorded  in  2  Kin.  2-9;  13:14-21.  He 
died  lamented  by  king  Joash  and  the 
people ;  and  a  year  afterwards,  a  corpse 
deposited  in  the  same  sepulchre  was  at 
once  restored  to  life. 

ELI'SHAH,  a  son  of  Javan,  Gen.  10:4. 
"The  isles  of  Elishah,"  which  sent  pur 
ple  and  scarlet  stuffs  to  Tyre,  Ezek. 
27:7,  are  supposed  to  mean  Greece  and 
the  adjacent  islands. 

ELISH'EBA,  the  wife  of  Aaron,  Ex. 
6:23.  Elisabeth  is  the  same  name  in 
Greek,  Luke  1:5. 

EL'LASAR,  Gen.  14:1,  9,  perhaps  the 
same  country  as  Thelassar,  2  Kin.  19: 12 ; 
Isa.  37:12.  The  Arabic  version  calls  it 
Armenia. 

ELM,  Hos.  4: 13.  The  original  Hebrew 
word  here,  else  where  translated  oak,  prob 
ably  denotes  the  terebinth.  See  OAK. 

E'LOI,  see  EL. 

E'LUL,  a  Hebrew  month,  the  twelfth 
of  the  civil  year,  and  sixth  of  the  ecclesi 
astical,  Neh.  6:15.  It  included  the  time 
from  the  new  moon  of  September  to  that 
of  October 

EL'YMAS,  a  Jewish  sorcerer  in  the 
retinue  of  Sergius  Paulus,  the  Roman 
proconsul  at  Paphos  in  Cyprus.  He  was 
sharply  reproved  by  Paul,  and  struck 
with  instant  blindness  for  opposing  the 
religious  inquiries  of  the  proconsul,  who 
was  abandoning  idolatry  and  supersti 
tion,  and  embracing  the  gospel,  Acts 
13:6-12.  His  blindness  was  to  continue 
"  for  a  season,"  and  may  have  led  to  his 
spiritual  illumination. 
136 


EMBALM'ING.  The  process  of  em- 
balming  dead  bodies  among  the  Egyp 
tians  was  as  follows :  The  embalmers, 
who  were  looked  upon  as  sacred  officers, 
drew  the  brains  through  the  nostrils 
with  a  hooked  piece  of  iron,  and  filled 
the  skull  with  astringent  drugs ;  they 
drew  all  the  entrails,  except  the  heart 
and  kidneys,  through  a  hole  cut  in  the 
left  side,  washed  them  in  palm-wine, 
and  replaced  them,  tilling  the  cavity 
with  astringent  and  preservative  drugs. 
The  body  was  anointed  repeatedly  with 
oil  of  cedar,  myrrh,  cinnamon,  etc.,  about 
thirty  days,  and  was  then  put  into  nitre 
for  about  forty  days  ;  by  which  process 
it  was  preserved  from  decay,  retaining 
at  the  same  time  a  lifelike  appearance. 
When  Moses  says  that  forty  days  were 
employed  in  embalming  Jacob,  he  prob 
ably  speaks  of  the  forty  days  of  his  con 
tinuing  in  the  salt  of  nitre,  not  includ 
ing  the  thirty  days  spent  in  the  previous 
ceremonies ;  so  that,  in  the  whole,  they 
mourned  seventy  days  for  him  in  Egypt, 
Gen.  50:2,  3. 

The  body  was  afterwards  taken  out  of 
the  salt,  washed,  wrapped  up  in  long  lin 
en  bandages,  dipped  in  myrrh,  and  closed 
with  gum.  It  was  then  restored  to  the 
relatives,  who  inclosed  it  in  a  coffin,  and 
kept  it  in  their  houses,  or  deposited  it 


in  a  tomb.  Thus  the  body  of  Joseph 
was  preserved,  to  be  conveyed  into  the 
land  of  promise  af  .er  nearly  twf>  centu- 


EME 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ENG 


ries,  Gen.  60  ;  26.  Great  numbers  of 
mummies  are  still  found  in  Egypt,  in 
the  subterraneous  vaults  where  tliey 
were  deposited  two  or  three  thousand 
years  ago. 

The  common  people  of  that  country 
were  embalmed  by  means  of  bitumen,  a 
cheap  material  and  easily  managed. 
With  this  the  corpse  and  its  envelopes 
were  smeared,  with  more  or  less  care 
and  diligence.  Sepulchres  have  been 
'opened  in  which  thousands  of  bodies 
had  been  deposited  in  rows,  one  on  an 
other,  without  coffins,  preserved  in  this 
manner. 

The  usual  embalming  of  the  Jews  was 
less  elaborate  and  effectual.  It  consisted 
mainly  in  wrapping  the  body  in  many 
folds  of  linen,  with  a  profusion  of  aro 
matic  spices — myrrh,  aloes,  etc.  Thus 
the  body  of  the  Saviour  was  embalmed 
entire  by  Joseph  and  Nicodemus,  while, 
ignorant  of  this,  the  two  Marys  and  their 
friends  were  prepared  to  render  him  a 
similar  honor  when  the  Jewish  Sabbath 
was  past,  John  19:38-40.  The  practice, 
even  in  this  form,  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  prevalent  among  the  Jews. 
See  BURIAL. 

EM'EKALD,  a  precious  stone  of  a  fine 
green  color,  found  anciently  in  Ethiopia, 
but  in  modern  times  only  in  South  Amer 
ica,  Ex.  28 : 18  ;  Ezek.  27 : 1 6  ;  28 : 13.  Jo- 
sephus,  however,  and  the  Seventy  make 
it  a  gem  like  a  burning  coal — the  Indian 
ruby. 

EM'ERODS,  that  is,  hemorrhoids,  the 
name  of  a  painful  disease  occasioned  by 
tumors,  probably  the  piles,  Deut.  28:27  ; 
ISam.  5:12. 

E'MIM,  a  gigantic  and  warlike  race, 
who  in  the  time  of  Abraham  occupied 
the  country  beyond  the  Jordan,  after 
wards  possessed  by  the  Moabites,  Gen. 
14:5;  Deut.  2:10. 

EMMAN'UEL,  a  compound  Hebrew 
word  or  name,  signifying  God  with  us. 
It  is  applied  to  the  Messiah,  our  Sav 
iour,  who,  as  having  united  the  divine 
with  the  human  nature,  and  having 
come  to  dwell  with  men,  is  God  with  us, 
Isa.  7:14;  8:8;  Matt.  1:23. 

EM'MAUS,  the  village  where  our  Lord 
revealed  himself  to  two  of  his  disciples, 
on  the  afternoon  of  his  resurrection-day. 
It  lay  about  seven  and  a  half  miles,  six 
ty  furlongs,  north-west  from  Jerusalem, 
Luke  24 : 13-33.  Some  manuscripts,  how 
ever,  read  one  hundred  and  sixty  fur 


longs,  instead  of  sixty  ;  andEusebiiis  and 
Jerome  locate  Emmaus  at  the  ancient 
Nicopolis,  twenty  miles  west-north-west 
of  Jerusalem,  where  a  village  called 
Amwas  still  exists.  Dr.  Robinson  in 
clines  to  this  location. 

EN,  a  fountain,  compounded  with  many 
names  of  towns  and  places ;  as  En-dor, 
En-gedi,  En-eglaim,  En-shemesh,  that 
is,  the  fountain  of  Dor,  etc. 

ENCHANTMENTS,  deceptive  arts  and 
charms  practised  by  designing  men,  and 
classed  in  the  Bible  with  sorcery,  magic, 
divination,  witchcraft,  and  necromancy, 
or  professed  communication  with  depart 
ed  spirits.  All  these  are  expressly  for 
bidden  and  denounced  in  Scripture,  Ex. 

22  :  18  ;  Lev.  19  :  26,  31 ;  20  :  27  ;  Deut. 
18:10,  11.     The  pretended  power  and 
skill  of  enchanters  was  ascribed  to  infer 
nal  agency,  and  the  art  was  essentially 
hostile  to  true  religion.     Their  seeming 
wonders  were  usually  wrought  by  jug 
gling  tricks  or  sleight  of  hand,  or  by  mys 
teries  of  science,  known  to  but  few.   The 
magicians  of  Egypt  are  said  to  have  done 
several    things    "with    their    enchant 
ments,"  Ex.  7-9;  Acts  19:19. 

EN'-DOR,  a  city  of  Manasseh,  Josh. 
17:11,  four  miles  south  of  mount  Tabor, 
near  Nain,  in  the  way  to  Scythopolis, 
Psa.  83  :  9,  10.  Here  the  witch  lived 
whom  Saul  consulted,  1  Sam.  28.  The 
pretence  of  this  sorceress  that  she  could 
call  up  the  spirits  of  the  dead  from  their 
repose,  was  evidently  false.  She  was 
amazed  and  appalled  when  the  form  of 
Samuel  really  appeared,  sent  by  God 
himself  to  put  her  to  shame,  and  bring 
to  king  Saul  his  last  warning. 

EN-EGLA'IM,  Ezek.  47  :  10,  a  town 
on  the  Dead  sea,  west  of  the  Jordan's 
mouth. 

EN-GAN'NIM,  I.,  a  town  of  Judah, 
probably  near  Bethel,  Josh.  15:34. 

II.  A  city  of  the  priests,  in  Issachar, 
now  Jenin,  fifteen  miles  south  of  mount 
Tabor,  Josh.  19:21;  21:29. 

EN-GED'I,  fountain  of  the  kid,  1  Sam. 
24:1,  2;  called  also  Hazezon-Tamar,  that 
is,  the  city  of  palm-trees,  there  being  great 
numbers  of  palm-trees  around  it,  Gen. 
14:7  ;  2  Chr.  20:1,  2.  It  stood  near  the 
middle  of  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead 
sea,  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  south 
east  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  edge  of  the 
loftiest  part  of  the  wilderness  of  Judea, 
a  region  full  of  rocks  and  caverns,  1  Sam. 

23  -.29  ;  Ezek.  47 : 10.   See  cut  in  SEA,  117 

137 


ENO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


The  heights  of  En-gedi  are  fifteen  hun 
dred  feet  above  the  Dead  sea.  At  four 
hundred  feet  from  the  sea  a  tine  and  co 
pious  fountain,  still  bearing  its  ancient 
name,  flows  down  to  the  sea,  watering 
in  its  course  a  fruitful  valley  and  a  plain 
half  a  mile  square,  in  both  of  which  ru 
ins  are  found.  The  mountain  side  was 
formerly  terraced,  and  the  whole  spot 
was  an  oasis  of  fertility,  Song  1 : 14. 

E'NOCH,  I.,  a  son  of  Cain,  in  honor 
of  whom  the  first  city  named  in  the 
Bible  was  called  Enoch,  Gen.  4:17. 

II.  "The  seventh  from  Adam,"  and 
the  father  of  Methuselah  ;  eminent  as  a 
patriarch  who  lived  near  to  God,  through 
faith  in  a  Redeemer  to  come,  Heb.  11:5, 
13.  It  was  a  testimony  to  his  rare  piety 
in  an  ungodly  age  that  he  was  translated 
without  seeing  death,  like  Elijah.  He 
had  lived  only  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  years,  A.  M.  622-987,  Gen.  5:18-24. 
Jude,  ver.  14,  15,  quotes  a  traditionary 
prophecy  of  Enoch,  showing  his  belief  in 
a  judgment  to  come.  There  is  an  apoc 
ryphal  book  bearing  the  name  of  Enoch, 
in  which  similar  language  occurs.  It 
Avas  probably  written  by  some  devout 
Christian  of  the  first  century,  and  is  only 
valuable  for  the  light  it  throws  on  the 
belief  of  the  early  church.  It  was  never 
received  as  canonical. 

E'NON,  the  place  where  John  bap 
tized,  was  near  Salim,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Jordan,  John  1:28;  3:26.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  eight  or  ten  miles 
south  of  Beth-shean,  and  near  the  Jor 
dan. 

E'NOS,  the  grandson  of  Adam.  He 
lived  nine  hundred  and  five  years,  A.  M. 
235-1140.  Adam,  Seth,  and  Enoch  died 
before  him ;  and  Noah  was  contempo 
rary  with  him  eighty-four  years,  Gen. 
4:26  ;  5:6-11 ;  Luke  3:38.  In  his  days 
' '  began  men  to  call  upon  the  name  of 
the  Lord"  in  organized  and  systematic 
public  worship ;  or  according  to  the  mar 
ginal  reading,  then  began  men  to  call 
themselves  by  the  name  of  the  Lord ; 
that  is,  for  the  purpose  of  marking  the 
distinction  between  men  of  God  and  the 
ungodly. 

EN-RO'GEL,  fuller's  fountain,  so  named 
because  here  the  fullers  were  wont  to 
cleanse  their  cloths  by  treading  them 
with  their  feet.  This  is  believed  to  be 
the  "well  of  Nehemiah,"  now  called 
Bir  Eyub,  Job's  welL  It  is  in  the  val 
ley  of  the  Kidron,  just  below  its  junc- 
138 


tion  with  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hin- 
nom,  on  the  south-east  corner  of  Jerusa 
lem,  Josh.  15:7  ;  18:16.  It  is  mentioned 
in  the  Bible  in  connection  with  the  con 
spiracy  of  Absalom,  2  Sam  17  :  17,  and 
afterwards  with  that  of  Adonijah,  1  Kin. 
1:9.  This  well  is  situated  in  what  is 
now  the  prettiest  and  most  fertile  spot 
around  Jerusalem.  It  is  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  feet  deep ;  is  walled  up 
with  large  squared  stones,  which  on  one 
side  rise  and  form  an  arch,  and  is  appar 
ently  of  great  antiquity.  • 

EPAPHRAS,  supposed  to  have  found 
ed  the  church  at  Colosse,  and  denomi 
nated  by  Paul  his  ' '  dear  fellow-servant, ' ' 
and  ' '  a  faithful  minister  of  Jesus  Christ, ' ' 
Col.  1:7;  4:12.  He  was  for  a  time  an 
inmate  of  Paul's  house  of  imprisonment 
at  Rome. 

EPAPHRODI'TUS,  a  member  of  the 
church  at  Philippi,  charged  with  the 
supplies  which  that  church  contributed 
for  the  relief  of  Paul  while  imprisoned 
at  Rome,  Phil.  2:25;  4:18.  This  labor 
of  love  brought  on  him  a  serious  illness 
at  Rome,  on  which  occasion  we  see  how 
much  he  was  esteemed  and  beloved  both 
by  Paul  and  the  Philippians,  Phil.  2:25- 
30.  On  his  return  he  was  the  bearer  of 
the  epistle  to  them. 

EPE'NETUS,  saluted  by  Paul  in  his 
epistle  to  Rome,  Rom.  16:5,  and  called 
"the  first-fruits  of  Achaia,"  that  is,  one 
of  his  first  converts  there.  Many  manu 
scripts  and  versions  read  Asia  instead  of 
Achaia. 

E'PHAH,  I.,  a  measure  of  capacity 


EPH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EPH 


used  among  the  Hebrews,  containing 
three  pecks  and  three  pints.  The  ephah 
was  a  dry  measure,  as  of  barley,  Ruth 
2  : 17  ;  and  meal,  Num.  5  j  15  ;  Judg. 
6: 19  ;  and  was  of  the  same  capacity  with 
the  bath  in  liquids.  See  BATH. 

II.  The  son  of  Midian,  and  grandson 
of  Abraham,  Gen.  25:4,  who  settled  and 
gave  his  name  to  a  region  in  Arabia  sup 
posed  to  have  been  near  Midian,  Isa. 
60:6. 

ETHER,  a  son  of  Midian,  Gen.  25:4, 
located  beyond  the  Jordan,  1  Kin.  4 : 10. 

EPHE'SIANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.  This 
epistle  was  written  by  Paul,  at  Rome, 
probably  A  D.  62.  The  ablest  modern 
critics  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  church 
to  whom  it  was  addressed,  whether  to 
that  in  Ephesus,  that  in  Laodicea,  or  to 
both  of  these  in  connection  with  the 
other  churches  in  that  region.  It  does 
not  appear,  however,  that  any  impor 
tant  point  of  doctrine  or  instruction  de 
pends  on  the  decision  of  this  question. 
The  epistle  is  now  addressed  to  and  is 
intelligible  by  every  one  who  studies  it 
The  first  part  of  it  is  a  grateful  discourse 
upon  the  vast  scheme  of  divine  grace, 
and  the  blessings  flowing  from  it.  The 
latter  part  inculcates  Christian  consist 
ency  and  steadfastness,  and  a  faithful 
discharge  of  all  relative  duties.  It  is 
one  of  the  richest  and  most  valuable  of 
the  epistles,  having  a  singular  fulness  of 
matter,  depth  of  doctrine,  sublimity  of 
style,  and  warmth  of  emotion,  which 
render  it  precious  to  the  Christian  of 
every  land. 

EPH'ESUS,  the  capital  of  Ionia,  a  cel 
ebrated  city  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Cayster,  about  forty 
miles  south-east  of  Smyrna.  It  was 
chiefly  celebrated  for  the  worship  and 
temple  of  Diana,  which  last  was  account 
ed  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 
See  DIANA.  Paul  first  visited  Ephesus 
about  A.  D.  54,  Acts  18 : 19,  21  This  first 
brief  visit  was  followed  by  a  longer  one 
towards  the  close  of  the  same  year,  and 
continuing  through  the  two  following 
years,  Acts  19  :  10  ;  20:31.  The  church 
thus  early  established,  enjoyed  the  la 
bors  of  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  of  Tychicus 
and  Timothy.  It  was  favored  with  one 
of  the  best  of  Paul's  epistles;  its  elders 
held  an  interview  with  him  at  Miletus, 
before  he  saw  Rome,  and  he  is  supposed 
to  have  visited  them  after  his  first  im 
prisonment.  Here  the  apostle  John  is 


said  to  have  spent  the  latter  part  of  his 
life,  and  written  his  gospel  and  epistles ; 
and  having  penned  Christ's  message  to 
them  in  the  isle  of  Patmos,  to  have  re 
turned  and  died  among  them.  Christ 
gives  the  church  at  Ephesus  a  high  de 
gree  of  praise,  coupled  with  a  solemn 
warning,  Rev.  2:1-5,  which  seems  not 
to  have  prevented  its  final  extinction, 
though  it  remained  in  existence  six  hun 
dred  years.  But  now  its  candlestick  is 
indeed  removed  out  of  its  place.  The 
site  of  that  great  and  opulent  city  is  des 
olate.  Its  harbor  has  become  a  pestilen 
tial  marsh  ;  the  lovely  and  fertile  level 
ground  south  of  the  Cayster  now  lan 
guishes  under  Turkish  misrule  ;  and  the 
heights  upon  its  border  bear  only  shape 
less  ruins.  The  outlines  of  the  immense 
theatre.  Acts  19:29,  yet  remain  in  the 
solid  rock  ;  but  no  vestige  of  the  temple 
of  Diana  can  be  traced. 

EPH'OD,  an  ornamental  part  of  the 
dress  worn  by  the  Hebrew  priests.  It 
j  was  worn  above  the  tunic  and  the  robe, 
(meil;)  was  without  sleeves,  and  open 
below  the  arms  on  each  side,  consisting 
of  two  pieces,  one  of  which  covered  the 
front  of  the  body  and  the  other  the  back, 
joined  together  on  the  shoulders  by  gold 
en  buckles  set  with  gems,  and  reaching 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh.  A  gir 
dle  was  inwoven  with  it,  by  which  it  was 
fastened  around  the  body,  Ex.  28:6-12. 
There  were  two  kinds  of  ephod :  one 
plain,  of  linen,  for  the  priests,  1  Sam. 
22  :  18 ;  another  embroidered,  for  the 
high-priest.  Young  Samuel  wore  an 
ophod,  though  only  a  Levite  and  a 
child,  1  Sam.  2:18.  David,  in  transfer 
ring  the  ark  to  Jerusalem,  was  "girt 
with  a  linen  ephod,"  2  Sam.  6:14.  The 
Jews  had  a  peculiar  superstitious  regard 
for  this  garment,  and  employed  it  in 
connection  with  idolatrous  worship.  Gid 
eon's  ephod  became  a  snare  to  Israel ; 
and  Micah  made  one,  that  his  idol  might 
be  duly  worshipped,  Judg.  8:27;  17:5; 
18:17. 

EPH'PHATHA,  be  opened,  a  Syro-chal- 
daic  word,  which  our  Saviour  pronounc 
ed  when  he  cured  one  deaf  and  dumb, 
Mark  7 -34. 

E'PHRAIM,  the  second  son  of  Joseph, 
bom  in  Egypt,  Gen.  41  :  52.  Although 
the  youngest,  he  yet  had  the  chief  bless 
ing  of  his  grandfather  Jacob,  and  the 
tribe  was  always  more  distinguished 
than  that  of  Manasseh,  Gen.  48:8-20; 
139 


EPH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EPI 


Num.  2 : 18-21.  The  portion  of  Ephraim 
was  large  and  central,  and  embraced 
some  of  the  most  fertile  land  in  all  Ca 
naan.  It  extended  from  the  Mediterra 
nean  across  to  the  Jordan,  north  of  the 
portions  of  Dan  and  Benjamin,  and  in 
cluded  Shiloh,  Shechem,  etc.  A  range 
of  mountainous  country,  which  runs 
through  it,  is  called  ' '  the  mountains  of 
Ephraim,"  or  "mount  Ephraim."  This 
extends  also  farther  south  into  the  por 
tion  of  Judah,  and  is  there  called  "  the 
mountains  of  Judah."  Samaria,  the  cap 
ital  of  the  ten  tribes,  being  in  Ephraim, 
this  latter  name  is  often  used  for  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  Isa.  11: 13  ;  Jer.  31 :6 ; 
50:19. 

The  FOREST  of  Ephraim,  where  Absa 
lom  lost  his  life,  was  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Jordan,  near  Mahanaim,  2  Sam. 
18:6-8. 

The  TOWN  called  Ephraim,  to  which 
the  Saviour  withdrew  from  his  enemies, 
John  11:54,  was  probably  the  same  place 
mentioned  in  2  Chr.  13  : 19,  and  called 
Ophrah  in  Josh.  18  :  23  ;  1  Sam.  13  : 17. 
See  also  2  Sam.  13:23.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  the  present  Taiyibeh,  on  a  hill 
overlooking  the  Jordan  valley,  five  miles 
north-east  of  Bethel. 

EPH'RATH,  or  EPH'RATAII,  I. ,  the  sec 
ond  wife  of  Caleb,  and  mother  of  Hur, 
1  Chr  2:19;  supposed  by  some  to  have 
given  her  name  to  the  city  of  Ephrath 
or  Beth-lehem,  1  Chr.  2  :  50,  51 ;  4:4. 
Compare  Gen.  35:16,  19.  Elimelech  was 
an  Ephrathite  of  Bethlehem,  Ruth  1:2  ; 
4:11 ;  BO  also  was  David,  1  Sam.  17:12. 

II.  A  name  of  Ephraim  and  Ephraim- 
ites,  1  Sam.  1 : 1 ;  1  Kin.  11  :  26  ;  Psa. 
132:6. 

EPH'RON,  a  Hittite,  dwelling  at  He 
bron  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  Gen.  23. 
The  charming  account  of  his  transaction 
with  Abraham,  and  the  frequent  subse 
quent  mention  of  his  name,  point  him 
out  as  a  prince  in  the  land. 

EPICURE'ANS,  a  celebrated  sect  of 
ancient  philosophers  They  were  mate 
rialists,  and  virtually  atheists— believing 
that  the  atoms  of  nature  existed  from 
eternity,  and  that  from  their  incidental 
union  all  things  are  formed,  both  visi 
ble  and  invisible-  They  denied  a  divine 
Providence  and  man's  immortality,  and 
believed  there  was  no  after-judgment, 
and  no  soul  but  what  was  material,  like 
the  body,  and  perishable  with  it  at  death. 
Their  rule  of  life  was  self-gratification — 
140 


the  pursuit  of  pleasure,  properly  regn- 
lated  and  governed.  Vicious  indulgences 
were  condemned  only  inasmuch  as  they 
on  the  whole  lessen  one's  happiness. 
The  philosopher  Epicurus,  their  founder, 
was  a  learned  and  moral  man,  who  lived 
in  exemplary  harmony  with  his  princi 
ples,  and  died  at  Athens,  B.  c.  271,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-three.  His  follow 
ers,  however,  easily  disregarded  the  lim 
itations  he  imposed,  and  pursued  pleas 
ure  without  restraint  At  Paul's  time 
they  had  become  exceedingly  corrupt, 
and  of  course  their  philosophy  and  their 
life  both  led  them  to  oppose  with  vio 
lence  his  great  truths  concerning  God, 
the  resurrection,  and  the  judgment  ever 
lasting,  Acts  17.16-34. 

EPIS'TLE,  a  letter  ;  but  the  term  is  ap 
plied  particularly  to  the  inspired  letters 
in  the  New  Testament,  written  by  the 
apostles  on  various  occasions,  to  approve, 
condemn,  or  direct  the  conduct  of  Chris 
tian  churches.  The  Holy  Spirit  has  thus 
provided  that  we  should  have  the  great 
doctrines  of  the  true  gospel  not  only  his 
torically  stated  by  the  evangelists,  but 
applied  familiarly  to  the  various  emer 
gencies  of  daily  life.  It  is  not  to  be  sup 
posed  that  every  note  or  memorandum 
written  by  the  hands  of  the  apostles,  or 
by  their  direction,  was  divinely  inspired, 
or  proper  for  preservation  to  distant  ages. 
Compare  1  Cor.  5:9;  Col.  4:16.  Those 
only  have  been  preserved  by  the  over 
ruling  hand  of  Providence  which  were 
so  inspired,  and  from  which  useful  di 
rections  had  been  drawn,  and  might  in 
after-ages  be  drawn,  as  from  a  perpetual 
directory,  for  faith  and  practice — always 
supposing  that  similar  circumstances  re 
quire  similar  directions.  In  reading  an 
Epistle,  we  ought  to  consider  the  occa 
sion  of  it,  the  circumstances  of  those  to 
whom  it  was  addressed,  the  time  when 
written,  the  general  scope  and  design 
of  it,  as  well  as  the  intention  of  par 
ticular  arguments  and  passages.  We 
ought  also  to  observe  the  style  and  man 
ner  of  the  writer,  his  mode  of  expres 
sion,  the  peculiar  effect  he  designed  to 
produce  on  those  to  whom  he  wrote,  to 
whose  temper,  manners,  general  princi 
ples,  and  actual  situation,  he  might  ad 
dress  his  arguments,  etc. 

Of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
twenty-one  are  epistles ;  fourteen  of  them 
by  Paul,  one  by  James,  two  by  Peter, 
three  by  John,  and  one  by  Jude.  Being 


ERA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


EST 


placed  in  our  canon  without  reference  to 
their  chronological  order,  they  are  pe 
rused  under  considerable  disadvantages ; 
and  it  would  be  well  to  read  them  occa 
sionally  in  connection  with  what  the  his 
tory  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  relates 
respecting  the  several  churches  to  which 
they  are  addressed.  This  would  also  give 
us  nearly  their  order  of  time,  which 
should  also  be  considered,  together  with 
the  situation  of  the  writer ;  as  it  may 
naturally  be  inferred  that  such  composi 
tions  would  partake  of  the  writer's  re 
cent  and  present  feelings.  The  epistles 
addressed  to  the  dispersed  Jews  by  John 
and  James,  by  Peter  and  Jude,  are  very 
diiferent  in  their  style  and  application 
from  those  of  Paul  written  to  the  Gen 
tiles  ;  and  those  of  Paul  no  doubt  con 
tain  expressions  and  allude  to  facts  much 
more  familiar  to  their  original  readers 
than  to  later  ages. 

ERAS'TUS,  a  Christian  friend  and  fel 
low-laborer  of  Paul,  a  Corinthian,  and 
chamberlain — that  is,  steward  or  treasur 
er — of  the  city.  He  followed  Paul  to  Eph- 
esus,  and  attended  Timothy  in  a  mission 
to  Macedonia,  Acts  19: 22.  He  was  again 
at  Corinth  when  Paul  wrote  to  the  Ro 
mans,  1 6  ;  23  ;  and  remained  there  when 
Paul  went  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  2  Tim. 
4:20. 

E'RECH,  one  of  Nimrod's  cities  in  the 
plain  of  Shinar,  Gen.  10:10.  A  recent 
explorer  finds  its  probable  site  in  the 
mounds  of  primeval  ruins  now  called 
Irka  or  Irak,  a  few  miles  east  of  the 
Euphrates,  midway  between  Babylon  and 
the  junction  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris. 

E'SAR-HAD'DON,  son  of  Sennacherib, 
and  his  successor  as  king  of  Assyria, 
2  Kin.  19:37;  Isa.  37:38,  B.  c.  890.  It 
is  only  said  of  him  in  Scripture  that  he 
sent  colonists  to  Samaria,  Ezra  4:2.  He 
is  supposed  to  be  the  Sardanapalus  of 
profane  historians,  the  last  king  of  As 
syria,  infamous  for  his  luxury  and  effem 
inacy.  The  city  being  besieged  and 
nearly  taken,  he  collected  his  favorites 
and  treasures  in  his  palace  and  set  it  on 
fire,  so  that  all  perished  together  in  the 
flames. 

E'SAU,  the  son  of  Isaac,  and  twin 
brother  of  Jacob,  Gen.  25.  He  was  the 
elder  of  the  two,  and  was  therefore  le 
gally  the  heir,  but  sold  his  birthright  to 
Jacob.  We  have  an  account  of  his  ill- 
advised  marriages,  Gen.  26:34;  of  his 
loss  of  his  father's  chief  blessing,  and 


his  consequent  anger  against  Jacob,  Gen., 
27  ;  of  their  subsequent  reconciliation, 
Gen.  32  ;  33 ;  and  of  his  posterity,  Gen, 
30.  He  is  also  called  Edom ;  and  settled 
in  the  mountains  south  of  the  Dead  sea, 
extending  to  the  gulf  of  Akaba,  where 
he  became  very  powerful.  This  country 
was  called  from  him  the  land  of  Edom, 
and  afterwards  Iduma^a,  which  see. 
ESDRAE'LON,  PLAIN  OF.  See  JEZREEL. 
ESH'BAAL,  1  Chr.  8:33,  the  fourth 
son  of  Saul,  generally  called  Ishbosheth. 
The  word  BAAL,  the  name  of  an  idol, 
was  not  pronounced  by  scrupulous  Jews ; 
they  substituted  BOSIIETII,  confusion.  For 
Meribbaal,  they  said  Mephibosheth,  etc. 
See  ISHBOSHETH. 

ESH'COL,  I.,  an  Amorite  prince  near 
Hebron,  who  joined  Abraham  in  pursu 
ing  the  eastern  host  who  had  ravaged 
Sodom  and  taken  Lot  captive,  Gen. 
14:13-14. 

II.  The  small  and  well-watered  valley 
from  which  the  Hebrew  spies  obtained 
the  specimen  of  grapes,  which  they  sus 
pended  from  a  staft'  borne  by  two  men 
for  safe  carriage  to  Moses,  Num.  13:22- 
27;  32.9;  Deut.  1:24.  This  valley  is 
believed  to  be  one  which  closely  adjoins 
Hebron  on  the  north,  and  still  furnishes 
the  finest  grapes  in  the  country,  as  well 
as  pomegranates,  figs,  olives,  etc. 

ESH'TAOL,  a  town  on  the  western 
border  of  Judah,  afterwards  given  to 
Dan,  Josh.  15:33;  19:41  It  is  named 
in  the  history  of  Samson,  Judg.  13 : 25 ; 
10:31. 

ESHTEM'OA,  a  city  of  the  priests  in 
Judah,  Josh.  15  :  50  ;  21  :  14  ;  1  Sam. 
30:28;  traced  by  Robinson  in  the  mod 
ern  village  Semua,  south  of  Hebron. 

ESPOU'SALS.  See  BETROTHING,  MAR 
RIAGE. 

ES'THER,  a  Persian  name  given  to 
Hadassah,  a  daughter  of  Abihail,  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin.  The  family  had  not 
returned  to  Judea  after  the  permission 
given  by  Cyrus,  and  she  was  born  prob 
ably  bey.ond  the  Tigris,  and  nearly  five 
hundred  years  before  Christ.  Her  par 
ents  being  dead,  Mordecai,  her  father's 
brother,  took  care  of  her  education. 
After  Ahasuerus  had  divorced  Vashti, 
search  was  made  throughout  Persia  for 
the  most  beautiful  women,  and  Esther 
was  one  selected.  She  found  favor  in 
the  eyes  of  the  king,  and  he  married  her 
with  royal  magnificence,  bestowing  lar- 
gssses  and  remissions  of  tribute  on  his 
141 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ETH 


us  in  a  position  which  j  ETH'ANIM,  constantly  flawing,  a  month 
a  signal  favor  to  her  ]  so  named  before  the  captivity,  because 
the  autumnal  rains  then  begin  to  fill  the 
dry  river  channels.  It  was  afterwards 
called  Tishri,  and  answers  nearly  to  our 
October.  On  this  month  Solomon's  tem 
ple  was  dedicated,  1  Kin.  8:2. 

ETHIO'PIA,  one  of  the  great  king* 
doms  in  Africa,  frequently  mentioned  in 
Scripture  under  the  name  of  Gush,  the 
various  significations  of  which  in  the 
Old  Testament  have  been  mentioned 
under  the  article  CUSH,  which  see.  Ethi 
opia  proper  lay  south  of  Egypt,  on  the 
Nile  ;  and  was  bounded  north  by  Egypt, 
at  the  cataracts  near  Syene  ;  east  by  the 
Red  sea,  and  perhaps  a  part  of  the  Ind 
ian  ocean ;  south  by  unknown  regions  of 
the  interior  of  Africa ;  and  west  by  Libya 
and  deserts.  It  comprehended  of  course 
the  modern  countries  of  Nubia  or  Sen- 
naar,  and  Abyssinia.  The  chief  city  in 
it  was  the  ancient  Meroe,  situated  on  the 
island  or  tract  of  the  same  name,  be 
tween  the  Nile  and  the  Astaboras,  now 
the  Tacazze,  not  far  from  the  modern 
Shendi,  Isa.  18;  Zeph.  3:10. 

The  name  of  Seba  was  given  to  the 
northern  part  of  Ethiopia,  afterwards 
Meroe,  by  the  eldest  son  of  Gush,  Gen. 
10:7.  This  country  was  in  some  parts 
mountainous,  and  in  others  sandy ;  but 
was  to  a  great  extent  well-watered  and 
fertile.  Ebony,  ivory,  spices,  gold,  and 
precious  stones  were  among  its  articles 
of  traffic.  Its  history  is  much  involved 
with  that  of  Egypt,  and  the  two  coun 
tries  are  often  mentioned  together  in  the 
Bible,  Isa.  20:3-6;  43:3;  45:14;  Ezek. 
30;  Dan.  11:43. 

Zerah  "the  Ethiopian"  who  invaded 
Judah  in  the  reign  of  Asa,  B.  c.  944, 
2  Chr.  14:9-15,  is  thought  by  some  to 
have  been  an  Egyptian  king  of  an  Ethi 
opian,  dynasty  ;  by  others,  to  have  been 
a  king  of  Ethiopia  on  both  sides  of  the 
Red  sea  ;  that  is,  of  the  Arabian  as  well 
as  African  Gush.  This  would  explain 
how  he  could  obtain  access  to  the  land  of 
Palestine  without  passing  through  Egypt. 
But  the  whole  question  is  involved  in  un 


people    She  was  thus  in  a 
enabled  her  to  do 

people,  then  very  numerous  in  Persia, 
Their  deliverance  is  still  celebrated  by 
the  Jews  in  the  yearly  festival  called  Pn- 
rim,  which  was  instituted  at  that  time. 
The  husband  of  Esther  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  Xerxes  of  secular  history . 

ESTHER,  THE  BOOK  OF,  has  always  been 
esteemed  canonical,  both  by  Jews  and 
Christians,  though  certain  additions  to 
it,  found  in  some  versions  and  manu 
scripts,  are  apocryphal.  Who  was  its 
writer  is  not  certainly  known.  It  has 
been  ascribed  to  Ezra,  to  a  high-priest 
named  Jehoiakim,  and  to  Mordecai.  This 
last  opinion  is  supported  by  the  internal 
evidence ;  the  book  having  every  ap 
pearance  of  having  been  written  in  Per 
sia,  by  an  eye-witness  of  the  scenes  it 
describes,  B.  c.  509.  It  presents  a  graph 
ic  picture  of  the  Persian  court  and  cus 
toms,  and  is  intensely  Jewish  in  its  spir 
it.  The  chief  value  of  the  book  is  to 
illustrate  the  wonder-working  providence 
of  God,  his  control  of  human  passions, 
his  righteous  judgment  of  sinners,  and 
his  care  for  his  covenant  people — whom, 
even  when  captives  in  a  strange  land, 
he  can  exalt  above  all  their  foes. 

E'TAM,  a  town  in  Judah  near  Bethle 
hem  and  Tekoa ;  a  favorite  resort  of  Sol 
omon,  and  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  1  Chr. 
4:3,  32;  2  Chr.  11:6.  Its  supposed  sive 
is  now  occupied  by  a  ruined  village  call 
ed  Urtas,  a  mile  and  a  half  south-west 
of  Bethlehem,  not  far  from  Solomon's 
Pools.  "The  rock  Etam"  to  which 
Samson  withdrew,  Judg.  15:8-19,  may 
have  been  in  this  vicinity,  perhaps  the 
Frank  mountain  two  miles  east. 

E'THAM,  a  station  of  the  Israelites 
soon  after  leaving  Egypt,  Ex.  13:20; 
Num.  33:6.  It  lay  near  the  head  of  the 
west  gulf  of  the  Red  sea,  and  the  wilder 
ness  east  of  it  was  often  called  by  the 
same  name. 

E'THAN,  I.,  one  of  four  men  renowned 
for  wisdom,  though  excelled  by  Solomon, 
IKin.  4:31;  IChr.  2:6.  He  appears  to 
have  been  a  son  of  Zerah  or  Ezra,  and 
grandson  of  the  patriarch  Judah. 

II.  A  Levite,  son  of  Kishi,  and  one  of 
the  three  masters  of  the  temple  music, 

1  Chr.  6 : 44  ;  15 : 17-19.     He  would  seem 
to  be  the  same  as  Jeduthun,  1  Chr.  25: 1 ; 

2  Chr.  35:15. 

III.  A  person  to  whom  Psa.  89  is  in 
scribed. 

142 


certainty.  The  Ethiopian  queen  Candace, 
whose  treasurer  is  mentioned  in  Acts 
8:27,  was  probably  queen  of  Meroe, 
where  a  succession  of  females  reigneo 
who  all  bore  this  name.  As  this  courtier 
is  said  to  have  gone  up  to  Jerusalem  ' '  to 
worship,"  he  was  probably  a  Jew  by  re 
ligion,  if  not  by  birth.  There  appear  to 


£UN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EUR 


have  been  many  Jews  in  that  country. 
The  gospel  gained  adherents  among 
them ;  and  early  in  the  fourth  century 
the  entire  Bible  was  translated  into  the 
ancient  Ethiopic  Janguage,  from  the 
Greek. 

EU'NICE,  the  mother  of  Timothy  and 
daughter  of  Lois ;  she  was  a  Jewess, 
though  her  husband  was  a  Greek,  Acts 
16:1  ;  2  Tim.  1:5.  She  transmitted  to 
her  son  the  lessons  of  truth  she  herself 
had  received  from  a  pious  mother ;  and 
Paul,  on  his  arrival  at  Lystra,  found 
them  rooted  and  grounded  in  the  truth 
as  it  is  in  Christ. 

EU'NUCH.  In  the  courts  of  oriental 
monarchs,  the  charge  of  the  female  and 
interior  apartments  is  committed  to  eu 
nuchs.  Hence  the  word  came  to  signify 
merely  a  court  officer.  Such  were  Poti- 
phar,  Joseph's  master,  Gen.  39:17,  and 
the  treasurer  of  queen  Candace,  Acts 
8:27.  Our  Saviour  speaks  of  some  who 
"have  made  themselves  eunuchs  for  the 
kingdom  of  heaven's  sake ;"  that  is,  who 
have  voluntarily  abstained  from  marriage, 
in  order  more  effectually  to  labor  for  the 
kingdom  of  God,  Matt.  19:12;  and  the 
apostle  Paul  commends  the  same  absti 
nence  in  certain  exceptional  cases  in 
times  of  persecution,  1  Cor.  7:26,  27. 
See  GAZA. 

EUO'DIAS.     Sec  SYNTYCHE. 

EUPHRA'TES,  a  famous  river  of  Asia, 
which  has  its  source  in  the  mountains 
of  Armenia,  runs  along  the  frontiers  of 
Cappadocia,  Syria,  Arabia  Deserta,  Chal- 
dea,  and  Mesopotamia,  and  falls  into  the 
Persian  gulf.  According  to  the  recent 
researches  of  Chesney,  it  receives  the 
Tigris  at  a  place  called  Kurnah,  the 
united  stream  being  called  Shat-el-Arab. 
Five  miles  below  the  junction  of  these 
two  mighty  rivers,  the  Shat-el-Arab  re 
ceives  from  the  north-east  the  Kerkhah, 
which  has  a  course  of  upwards  of  five 
hundred  miles.  Sixty-two  miles  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Kerkhah,  another  large 
river,  the  Kuran,  comes  in  from  the 
east.  At  present  it  enters  the  Shat-el- 
Arab  forty  miles  above  its  mouth ;  but 
formerly  it  flowed  into  the  Persian  gulf 
by  a  separate  channel,  east  of  the  main 
stream.  According  to  that  view  which 
places  the  garden  of  Eden  near  the  junc 
tion  of  the  Tigris  with  the  Euphrates, 
these  might  be  regarded  as  the  four  riv 
ers  of  Paradise.  We  might  well  sup 
pose  that  the  Kuran,  in  very  ancient 


times,  as  now,  entered  the  Shat-el-Arab ; 
and  perhaps  still  farther  from  its  mouth. 
Scripture  often  calls  the  Euphrates  sim 
ply  "the  river,"  Ex.  23:31;  Isa.  7:20; 
8:7;  Jer.  2:  18;  or  "the  great  river," 
and  assigns  it  for  the  eastern  boundary 
of  that  land  which  God  promised  to  the 
Hebrews,  Deut.  1:7;  Josh.  1:4.  It  over 
flows  in  summer  like  the  Nile,  when  the 
snow  on  the  mountains  of  Armenia  be 
gins  to  melt.  The  source  of  the  Euphra 
tes,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Tigris,  being 
in  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  the  near 
est  springs  of  both  are  but  a  few  miles 
apart. 

The  Euphrates  is  a  river  of  conse 
quence  in  Scripture  geography,  being 
the  utmost  limit,  east,  of  the  territory 
of  the  Israelites.  It  was  indeed  only 
occasionally  that  the  dominion  of  the 
Hebrews  extended  so  far ;  but  it  would 
appear  that  even  Egypt,  under  Pharaoh 
Necho,  made  conquests  to  the  western 
bank  of  the  Euphrates.  The  river  is 
about  eighteen  hundred  miles  long.  Its 
general  direction  is  south-east;  but  in 
a  part  of  its  course  it  runs  westerly, 
and  approaches  the  Mediterranean  near 
Cilicia.  It  is  accompanied  in  its  general 
course  by  the  Tigris.  There  are  many 
towns  on  its  banks,  which  are  in  general 
rather  level  than  mountainous.  The 
river  does  not  appear  to  be  of  very 
great  breadth,  varying,  however,  from 
sixty  to  six  hundred  yards.  Its  current, 
after  reaching  the  plains  of  Mesopota 
mia,  is  somewhat  sluggish,  and  in  this 
part  of  its  course  many  canals,  etc., 
were  dug,  to  prevent  injury  and  secure 
benefit  from  the  yearly  overflows.  At 
Seleucia,  and  Hilleh  the  ancient  Baby 
lon,  it  approaches  near  ihe  Tigris,  and 
some  of  its  waters  are  drawn  off  by  ca 
nals  to  the  latter  river.  Again,  how 
ever,  they  diverge,  and  only  unite  in 
the  same  channel  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  miles  from  the  Persian  gulf. 
It  is  not  well  adapted  far  navigation, 
yet  light  vessels  go  up  about  one  thou 
sand  miles,  and  the  modern  steam-boat 
which  now  ascends  from  the  ocean,  meets 
the  same  kind  of  goat-skin  floats  on 
which  produce  was  rafted  down  the  river 
thousands  of  years  ago. 

EUROC'LYDON,  the  wave-stirring  easier, 
a  tempestuous  wind  which  came  down 
on  Paul's  ship  on  the  south  shore  of 
Crete,  and  at  length  wrecked  her  upon 
Malta,  Acts  27.  The  small  island  Clau- 
143 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EXO 


da,  south  of  which  she  passed,  and  the 
"Syrtis"  on  the  African  coast,  into 
which  the  seamen  feared  she  would  be 
driven,  ver.  17,  lay  south-west  of  Crete. 
The  result  shows  that  the  general  course 
of  the  wind  was  east-north-east.  It 
would  now  be  called  there  a  Levanter. 

EU'TYCHUS,  a  young  man  who  was 
killed  at  Troas  by  falling  from  the  win 
dow  of  a  room  in  the  third  story,  where 
Paul  was  preaching.  His  life  was  mirac 
ulously  restored,  Acts  20:6-12. 

EVAN'GELIST,  one  who  proclaims 
good  news,  either  by  preaching  or  writ 
ing.  There  were  originally  evangelists 
or  preachers  who,  without  being  tixSd 
to  any  church,  preached  wherever  they 
were  led  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  like  some 
missionaries  in  our  own  day,  Eph.  4:11. 
(Such  was  Philip,  Acts  21:8.  Timothy 
also  is  exhorted  to  "do  the  work  of  an 
evangelist,"  2  Tim.  4:5.  We  commonly 
call  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John, 
"the  Evangelists,"  because  they  were 
the  writers  of  the  four  gospels,  which 
bring  to  all  men  the  glad  tidings  of  eter 
nal  salvation. 

EVE,  the  first  mother  of  our  race,  and 
the  cause  of  our  fall.  Her  history  is  so 
closely  connected  with  that  of  Adam, 
that  the  remarks  made  in  the  article 
ADAM  apply  also  to  her.  Her  name  Eve 
is  from  a  word  signifying  life,  Gen.  3:20. 
She  was  made,  we  are  told  in  Gen.  2:18- 
22,  both  for  man  and  of  him ;  subordi 
nate  and  weaker,  and  yet  to  be  loved  as 
his  own  body.  The  history  of  woman 
in  all  ages  has  been  a  striking  fulfil 
ment  of  the  distinct  penalties  pronounc 
ed  upon  her.  Gen.  3:18. 

EVE'NING.  The  Hebrews  reckoned 
two  evenings  in  each  day;  as  in  the 
phrase, ' '  between  the  two  evenings. ' '  Ex. 
12:6;  Num.  9:3;  28:4,  margin.  In  this 
interval  the  passover  was  to  be  killed, 
and  the  daily  evening  sacrifice  offered, 
Ex.  29:39-41,  Hebrew.  According  to 
the  Caraites,  this  time  between  the  even 
ings  is  the  interval  from  sunset  to  com 
plete  darkness,  that  is,  the  evening  twi 
light.  Compare  Deut.  16:6.  According 
to  the  Pharisees  and  the  rabbins,  the  first 
evening  began  when  the  sun  inclined  to 
descend  more  rapidly,  that  is,  at  the 
ninth  h®ur;  while  the  second  or  real 
evening  commenced  at  sunset.  See  DAY. 

E'VIL-MERO'DACH,  the  son  and  suc 
cessor  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Baby 
lon,  B.  c.  561.  His  friendly  treatment 
144 


of  Jehoiachin  the  captive  king  of  Judah, 
in  releasing  him  from  prison  and  vari 
ously  distinguishing  him  above  other 
captives,  is  mentioned  to  his  praise, 
2  Kin.  25:27  ;  Jer.  52:31-34.  His  reign 
and  life  were  cut  short  by  a  conspiracy, 
headed  by  Neriglissar  his  sister's  hus 
band,  who  succeeded  him. 

EXCOMMUNICATION,  an  ecclesiasti 
cal  penalty,  by  which  they  who  incur 
the  guilt  of  any  heinous  sin,  are  separat 
ed  from  the  church,  and  deprived  of  its 
spiritual  advantages.  Thus  the  Jews 
' '  put  out  of  the  synagogue ' '  those  they 
deemed  unworthy,  John  9:22;  12:42; 
16:2.  There  were  two  degrees  of  excom 
munication  among  them:  one  a  tem 
porary  and  partial  exclusion  from  eccle 
siastical  privileges,  and  from  society ;  the 
other  a  complete  excision  from  the  cov 
enant  people  of  God  and  their  numerous 
privileges,  and  abandonment  to  eternal 
perdition.  See  ANATHEMA. 

The  right  and  duty  of  excommunica 
tion  when  necessary  were  recognized  in 
the  Christian  church  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  Matt.  18:15-18;  1  Cor.  5:1-13; 
16:22;  Gal.  5:12;  1  Tim.  1:20;  Titus 
3:10.  The  offender,  found  guilty  and 
incorrigible,  was  to  be  excluded  from  the 
Lord's  supper  and  cut  off  from  the  body 
of  believers.  This  excision  from  Chris 
tian  .fellowship  does  not  release  one  from 
any  obligation  to  obey  the  law  of  God 
and  the  gospel  of  Christ ;  nor  exempt 
him  from  any  relative  duties,  as  a  man 
or  a  citizen.  The  censure  of  the  church, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  not  to  be  accom 
panied,  as  among  papists,  with  enmity, 
curses,  and  persecution.  Our  Saviour 
directs  that  such  an  offender  be  regarded 
"as  a  heathen  man  and  a  publican;" 
and  the  apostles  charge  the  church  to 
' '  withdraw  from ' '  those  who  trouble 
them,  and  "keep  no  company  with 
them,"  "no,  not  to  eat ;"  but  this  is  to 
be  understood  of  those  offices  -of  civility 
and  fraternity  which  a  man  is  at  liberty 
to  pay  or  to  withhold,  and  not  of  the 
indispensable  duties  of  humanity,  found 
ed  on  nature,  the  law  of  nations,  and 
the  spirit  of  Christianity,  2  Thess.  3:6, 
15 ;  2  John  10,  11. 

EX'ODUS,  going  out,  the  name  of  the 
second  book  of  Moses  and  of  the  Bible  ;  so 
called  because  it  narrates  the  departure 
of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  It  com 
prises  a  period  of  about  one  hundred  and 
forty-five  years,  from  the  death  of  Jo- 


EXO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EXO 


seph  to  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  in 
the  desert,  A.  M.  2369-2514.  The  vari 
ous  topics  of  the  book  may  be  thus 
presented:  (1.)  The  oppression  of  the 
Israelites,  under  the  change  of  dynasty 
which  sprung  up  after  the  death  of  Jo 
seph  :  ' '  There  arose  up  another  king, 
who  knew  not  Joseph,"  chap.  1  :  8. 
The  reference  many  believe  is  to  the 
invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  Hyksos,  who 
are  spoken  of  in  secular  history  as  hav 
ing  invaded  Egypt  probably  about  this 
period,  and  who  held  it  in  subjection 
for  many  years.  They  are  termed  shep 
herd-kings,  and  represented  as  coming 
from  the  east.  (2.)  The  youth,  edu 
cation,  patriotism,  and  flight  of  Moses, 
chap.  2-6.  (3.)  The  commission  of  Mo 
ses,  the  perversity  of  Pharaoh,  and  the 
infliction  of  the  ten  plagues  in  succession, 
chap.  7-11.  (4.)  The  institution  of  the 
Passover,  the  sudden  departure  of  the 
Israelites,  the  passage  of  the  Red  sea, 
and  the  thanksgiving  of  Moses  and  the 
people  on  the  opposite  shore,  after  the 
destruction  of  Pharaoh  and  his  host, 
chap.  12-15.  (5.)  The  narration  of  va 
rious  miracles  wrought  in  behalf  of  the 
people  during  their  journey  ings  towards 
Sinai,  chap.  15-17.  (6.)  The  promulga 
tion  of  the  law  on  mount  Sinai.  This 
includes  the  preparation  of  the  people 
by  Moses,  and  the  promulgation,  first  of 
the  moral  law,  then  of  the  judicial  law, 
and  subsequently  of  the  ceremonial  law, 
including  the  instructions  for  the  erec 
tion  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  comple 
tion  of  that  house  of  God,  chap.  19-40. 

The  scope  of  the  book  is  not  only  to 
preserve  the  memorial  of  the  departure 
of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  but  to  pre 
sent  to  view  the  church  of  God  in  her 
afflictions  and  triumphs;  to  point  out 
the  providential  care  of  God  over  her, 
and  the  judgments  inflicted  on  her  ene 
mies.  It  clearly  shows  the  accomplish 
ment  of  the  divine  promises  and  prophe 
cies  delivered  to  Abraham  :  that  his  pos 
terity  would  be  numerous,  Gen.  15:5; 
17:4-6;  46:27;  Num.  1:1-3,  46;  and 
that  they  should  be  afflicted  in  a  land 
not  their  own,  whence  they  should  depart 
in  the  fourth  generation  with  great  sub 
stance,  Gen.  15:13-16 ;  Exod.  12:40,  41. 
Their  exodus  in  many  particulars  well 
illustrates  the  state  of  Christ's  church  in 
the  wilderness  of  this  world,  until  her 
arrival  in  the  heavenly  Canaan.  See 
1  Cor.  10 ;  and  also  the  epistle  to  the 


Hebrews.  The  book  of  Exodus  brings 
before  us  many  and  singular  types  of 
Christ :  Moses,  Deut.  18 :  15 ;  Aaron, 
Heb.  4:14-16;  ver.  4,  6;  the  paschal 
lamb,  Ex.  12:46;  John  19:36;  1  Cor. 
5:7,  8;  the  manna,  Ex.  16:15;  1  Cor. 
10 :  3 ;  the  rock  in  Horeb,  Ex.  17  :  6 ; 
1  Cor.  10:4;  the  mercy-seat,  Ex.  37:6; 
Rom.  3:25;  Heb.  4:16;  the  tabernacle, 
Ex.  40,  "The  Word  tabernacled  among 
us,"  John  1:14. 

This  departure  from  Egypt,  and  the 
subsequent  wanderings  of  the  children 
of  Israel  in  the  desert,  form  one  of  the 
great  epochs  in  their  history.  They 
Were  constantly  led  by  Jehovah,  and  the 
whole  series  of  events  is  a  constant  suc 
cession  of  miracles.  From  their  break 
ing  up  at  Rameses,  to  their  arrival  on 
the  confines  of  the  promised  land,  there 
was  an  interval  of  forty  years,  during 
which  one  whole  generation  passed  away, 
and  the  whole  Mosaic  law  was  given,  and 
sanctioned  by  the  thunders  and  light 
nings  of  Sinai.  There  is  no  portion  of 
history  extant  which  so  displays  the  in 
terposition  of  an  overruling  Providence 
in  the  affairs  both  of  nations  and  of  in 
dividuals,  as  that  which  recounts  these 
wanderings  of  Israel. 

The  four  hundred  and  thirty  years  re 
ferred  to  in  Ex.  12:40,  date,  according 
to  the  received  chronology,  from  the 
time  when  the  promise  was  made  to 
Abraham,  Gen.  15 :  13.  From  the  ar 
rival  of  Jacob  in  Egypt  to  the  exodus  of 
his  posterity,  was  about  two  hundred  and 
thirty  years.  The  threescore  and  fifteen 
souls  had  now  become  600,000,  besides 
children.  They  took  with  them  great 
numbers  of  cattle,  and  much  Egyptian 
spoil.  It  was  only  by  the  mighty  hand 
of  God  that  their  deliverance  was  effect 
ed  ;  and  there  seems  to  have  been  a  spe 
cial  vindication  of  his  glory  in  the  fact 
that  the  Nile,  the  flies,  the  frogs,  fishes, 
cattle,  etc.,  which  were  made  the  means 
or  the  subjects  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt, 
were  there  regarded  with  idolatrous  ven 
eration. 

After  the  tenth  and  decisive  plague 
had  been  sent,  the  Israelites  were  dis 
missed  from  Egypt  in  haste.  They  are 
supposed  to  have  been  assembled  at  Ra 
meses,  or  Heroopolis,  in  the  land  of  Go- 
shen,  about  thirty-five  miles  north-west 
of  Suez,  on  the  ancient  canal  which  unit 
ed  the  Nile  with  the  Red  sea.  They  set 
off  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  first  month, 
145 


EXO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EXO 


the  day  after  the  Passover,  that  is,  about 
the  middle  of  April.  Their  course  was 
south-east  as  far  as  Etham  ;  but  then, 
instead  of  keeping  on  directly  to  Sinai, 
they  turned  to  the  south,  Ex.  14:2,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Red  sea,  which  they 
reached  three  days  after  starting,  prob 
ably  near  Suez.  Here,  by  means  of  a 
strong  east  wind,  God  miraculously  di 
vided  the  waters  of  the  sea  in  such  a 
way  that  the  Israelites  passed  over  the 
bed  of  it  on  dry  ground ;  while  the  Egyp 
tians,  who  attempted  to  follow  them,  were 
drowned  by  the  returning  waters,  The 
arm  of  the  sea  at  Suez  is  now  only  three 
or  four  miles  wide,  and  at  low  water  may 
be  forded.  It  is  known  to  have  been  for 
merly  wider  and  deeper;  but  the  drift 
ing  sands  of  ages  have  greatly  filled  and 
146 


altered  it.  The  miracle  here  wrought 
was  an  amazing  one,  and  revealed  the 
hand  of  God  more  signally  than  any  of 
the  ten  plagues  had  done.  According 
to  the  Bible,  God  caused  a  "strong  east 
wind ' '  to  blow ;  the  deep  waters  were 
sundered,  and  "gathered  together;" 
"the  floods  stood  upright  as  a  heap;" 
"  the  children  of  Israel  walked  upon  dry 
land  in  the  midst  of  the  sea,  and  the  wa 
ters  were  a  wall  unto  them  on  their  right 
hand  and  on  their  left."  These  effects 
continued  all  night  till  the  morning 
watch,  and  without  obstmcting  the 
progress  of  the  Hebrews ;  whereas  in 
the  morning  the  pursuing  Egyptians 
were  covered  by  the  sea,  and  ' '  sank  like 
lead  in  the  mighty  waters. ' '  These  were 
wonders  towards  the  effecting  of  which 


EXO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EXO 


any  wind  must  have  been  as  insufficient 
as  Naaman's  mere  washing  in  Jordan 
would  have  been  to  the  healing  of  his 
leprosy.  It  should  here  be  stated  also, 
that  some  geographers  think  this  mir^ 
acle  took  place  below  mount  Atakah, 
ten  or  twelve  miles  south  of  Suez,  where 
the  sea  is  about  twelve  miles  wide.  This 
opinion  is  liable  to  several  objections, 
.though  it  cannot  be  proved  to  be  false. 
At  this  late  day  the  precise  locality  may 
be  undiscoverable,  like  the  point  of  a 
soul's  transition  from  the  bondage  of 
Satan  into  the  kingdom  of  God  ;  but  in 
both  cases  the  work  is  of  God,  and  the 
glory  of  it  is  his  alone. 

Having  offered  thanksgiving  to  God 
for  their  wonderful  deliverance,  the  Is 
raelites  advanced  along  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  Red  sea  and  through  the  valleys 
and  desert  to  mount  Sinai.  This  part  of 
their  route  may  be  readily  traced,  and 
Marah,  Elim,  and  the  desert  of  Sin  have 
been  with  much  probability  identified. 
They  arrived  at  mount  Sinai  in  the  third 
month,  or  June,  probably  about  the  mid 
dle  of  it,  having  been  two  months  on 
their  journey.  Here  the  law  was  given, 
and  here  they  abode  during  all  the 
transactions  recorded  in  the  remainder 
of  Exodus,  in  Leviticus,  and  in  the  first 
nine  chapters  of  Numbers,  that  is,  until 
the  twentieth  day  of  the  second  month 
(May)  in  the  following  year,  a  period  of 
about  eleven  months. 

Breaking  up  at  this  time  from  Sinai, 
they  marched  northwards  through  the 
desert  of  Paran,  or  perhaps  along  the 
eastern  arm  of  the  Red  sea  and  north 
through  El-Arabah,  to  Kadesh-barnea, 
near  the  south-east  border  of  Canaan. 
Rephidim  near  mount  Sinai,  and  Tabe- 
rah,  Kibroth-hattaaveh,  and  Hazeroth, 
on  their  journey  north,  were  the  scenes 
of  incidents  which  may  be  found  de 
scribed  under  their  several  heads.  From 
Kadesh-barnea,  spies  were  sent  out  to 
view  the  promised  land,  and  brought 
back  an  evil  report,  probably  in  August 
of  the  same  year.  The  people  murmur 
ed,  and  were  directed  by  Jehovah  to  turn 
back  and  wander  in  the  desert,  until  the 
carcasses  of  that  generation  should  all  fall 
in  the  wilderness,  Num.  14:25.  This  they 
did,  wandering  from  one  station  to  an 
other  in  the  great  desert  of  Paran,  lying 
south  of  Palestine,  and  also  in  the  great 
sandy  valley  called  El-Ghor  and  chiefly 
El-Arabah,  which  extends  from  the  Dead 


sea  to  the  gulf  of  Akaba,  the  eastern  arnt 
of  the  Red  sea.  *See  JORDAN.  Where  and 
how  these  long  years  were  spent  we  ar& 
not  informed,  nor  by  what  routes  they 
traversed  the  desert,  nor  how  they  werej 
furnished  with  food  except  manna.  Mo« 
ses  says  they  "compassed  mount  Sei* 
many  days, ' '  always  under  the  guidance 
of  the  pillar  of  fire  and  cloud,  Num.  9:22; 
he  also  gives  a  list  of  seventeen  stations, 
mostly  unknown,  where  they  rested  or 
dwelt  before  reaching  Ezion-gaber,  Num. 
33:19-35;  and  then  mentions  their  re 
turn  to  Kadesh,  ver.  36,  37,  in  the  first 
month,  Num.  20:1,  after  an  interval  of 
almost  thirty -eight  years.  While  thus  a 
second  time  encamped  at  Kadesh,  Moses 
sent  to  the  king  of  Idumaea,  to  ask  lib 
erty  to  pass  through  his  dominions,  that 
is,  through  the  chain  of  mountains 
(mount  Seir)  lying  along  the  eastern 
side  of  the  great  valley  El-Arabah.  See 
IDUM^EA.  This  was  refused ;  and  Israel, 
feeling  too  weak  to  penetrate  into  Pal 
estine  from  the  south,  in  face  of  the 
powerful  tribes  of  Canaanites  dwelling 
there,  was  compelled  to  take  the  south 
ern  passage  around  Edom,  Num.  21:4. 
Soon  after  turning,  they  came  to  mount 
Hor,  where  Aaron  died  and  was  buried, 
Num.  20:20-28.  Proceeding  southward 
along  the  valley  El-Arabah  to  Ezion-ga 
ber,  at  the  head  of  the  eastern  gulf  of 
the  Red  sea,  they  here  passed  through 
the  eastern  mountains,  and  then  turned 
north  along  the  eastern  desert,  by  the 
route  which  the  great  Syrian  caravan  of 
Mohammedan  pilgrims  now  passes  in 
going  to  Mecca.  They  arrived  at  the 
brook  Zered,  on  the  southern  border  of 
Moab,  just  forty  years  after  their  depart 
ure  from  Egypt. 

See  a  tabular  view  of  the  various  en 
campments  of  the  Israelites,  under  WAN 
DERINGS. 

EXOR'CISTS,  from  a  Greek  word  sig 
nifying  to  conjure,  to  use  the  name  of 
God  or  certain  magical  ceremonies  with 
design  to  expel  devils  from  places  or  bod 
ies  which  they  possess.  The  apostles 
were  enabled  to  cast  out  evil  spirits  in 
Christ's  name,  Matt.  10:1 ;  Mark  16:17:, 
Luke  10  :  17  ;  and  designing  men,  both 
before  and  after  the  Saviour's  death,  pre 
tended  to  exercise  the  same  power,  Matt. 
12:27  ;  Mark  9:38  ;  Luke  9:49,  50  ;  Acts 
19  :  13-17.  Exorcists  were  thought  to 
have  gained  this  power  by  secret  studies 
respecting  the  nature  of  demons,  and 
147 


EXP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EYE 


the  powers  of  certain  herbs,  drugs,  and 
stones,  and  were  accustomed  to  use  va 
rious  forms  of  adjuration  and  incanta 
tion  in  their  unlawful  art ;  but  the  whole 
was  delusion  and  imposture,  and  strictly 
forbidden.  See  DIVINATION. 

EXPIATION,  an  act  by  which  satis 
faction  is  made  for  a  crime,  and  the  lia 
bility  to  punishment  for  it  is  cancelled. 
It  supposes  penitence  and  faith  on  the 
sinner's  part.  Among  the  Jews,  expia 
tion  was  effected  by  a  divinely  appointed 
and  typical  system  of  sacrifices,  all  point 
ing  to  Christ.  The  New  Testament  shows 
Him  to  be  the  true  sin-offering  for  man 
kind,  "the  Lamb  of  God,"  "our  Pass 
over,"  offering  "his  own  blood,"  and 
putting  away  "sin  by  the  sacrifice  of 
himself,"  John  1:29;  1  Cor.  5:7;  Eph. 
1:7;  Heb.  9:26. 

THE  DAY  OP  EXPIATION,  or  ATONEMENT, 
was  a  yearly  solemnity,  observed  with 
rest  and  fasting  on  the  tenth  day  of  Tis- 
ri,  five  days  before  the  feast  of  taberna 
cles,  Lev.  23 : 7  ;  25 : 9.  The  ceremonies 
of  this  all-important  day  are  minutely 
described  in  Lev.  16.  On  this  day  alone 
the  high-priest  entered  the  Most  Holy 
Place,  Heb.  9:7  ;  but  the  various  rites  of 
the  day  required  him  to  enter  several 
times.  First  with  the  golden  censer 
and  a  vessel  filled  with  incense.  Then 
with  the  blood  of  the  bullock,  which  he 
had  offered  for  his  own  sins  and  those  of 
all  the  priests,  in  which  he  dipped  his 
finger,  and  sprinkled  it  seven  times  be 
low  and  once  above  the  mercy-seat.  This 
done,  he  left  the  basin  of  blood  behind, 
and  withdrew  again.  The  third  time  he 
entered  with  the  blood  of  the  ram  which 
he  had  offered  for  the  sins  of  the  nation, 
with  which  he  sprinkled  towards  the  veil 
of  the  tabernacle  eight  times ;  and  hav 
ing  mixed  it  with  the  blood  of  the  bul 
lock,  he  sprinkled  again  towards  the 
horns  of  the  altar  of  incense  seven  times, 
and  once  above  it  towards  the  east ;  after 
which,  having  again  left  the  sanctuary 
and  taken  with  him  the  basins  of  blood, 
he  poured  out  the  whole  on  the  floor  of 
the  altar  of  burnt-offering.  The  fourth 
time  he  entered  to  bring  out  the  censer 
and  vessel  of  incense  ;  and  having  re 
turned,  he  washed  his  hands  and  per 
formed  the  other  services  of  the  day. 
The  ceremony  of  the  scape-goat  also  took 
place  on  this  day.  Two  goats  were  set 
apart,  one  of  which  was  sacrificed  to  the 
Lord,  while  the  other,  called  the  azazel 
148 


or  scape-goat,  which  was  determined  by 
lot  to  be  set  at  liberty,  was  sent  into  the 
desert  burdened  with  the  sins  of  the  peo 
ple.  All  these  solemn  rites  pointed  to 
Christ,  and  in  every  age  there  were  many 
believers  who  had  spiritual  discernment 
of  their  sacred  meaning,  Heb.  9-11. 
They  looked  unto  Him  whom  they  had 
pierced,  and  mourned.  As  this  day  of 
expiation  was  the  great  fast-day  of  the 
Jewish  church,  so  godly  sorrow  for  sin 
characterizes  the  Christian's  looking  uri- 
to  the  Lamb  of  God,  and  "the  rapture 
of  pardon"  is  mingled  with  "penitent 
tears." 

EYE.  The  same  Hebrew  word  means 
both  eye  and  fountain.  Besides  its  com 
mon  use,  to  denote  the  organ  of  sight, 
it  is  often  used  figuratively  in  the  Bible. 
Most  of  these  passages,  however,  require 
no  explanation.  The  custom  of  sealing 
up  the  eyes  of  criminals,  still  practised 
in  the  East,  is  thought  to  be  alluded  to 
in  Isa.  6  :  10  ;  44 :  18.  The  expression, 
"As  the  eyes  of  servants  look  unto  the 
hand  of  their  masters,"  Psa.  123  :  2,  is 
elucidated  by  a  knowledge  of  the  fact 
that  many  eastern  servants  are  taught 
to  stand  always  upon  the  watch,  and  are 
in  general  directed  by  a  nod,  a  wink,  or 
some  slight  motion  of  the  fingers  imper 
ceptible  to  strangers.  Many  Scripture 
phrases  intimate  the  soul-like  nature  of 
the  eye,  quickly  and  truly  expressing 
the  thoughts  of  the  heart :  such  as  "  the 
bountiful  eye"  and  the  "evil  eye," 
Prov.  22:9;  23:6;  "  haughty  eyes "  and 
"wanton  eyes,"  Prov.  6:17;  Isa.  3:16. 
' '  The  lust  of  the  eyes,"  1  John  2 : 16,  ex 
presses  a  craving  for  any  of  the  gay  vani 
ties  of  this  life.  The  threatening  against 
"the  eye  that  mocketh  at  his  father," 
Prov.  30:17,  is  explained  by  the  habit  of 
birds  of  prey,  which  attack  the  eyes  of 
a  living  enemy,  and  quickly  devour  those 
of  the  dead.  A  ' '  single ' '  eye,  Matt.  6 : 22, 
is  one  which  is  clear,  and  sees  every  object 
as  it  is. 

There  are  allusions  in  the  Bible,  and 
in  many  ancient  and  modern  writers,  to 
the  practice  of  painting  the  eyelids,  to 
make  the  eyes  appear  large,  lustrous, 
and  languishing.  Jezebel,  2  Kin.  9:30, 
is  said  to  have  "painted  her  face,"  lit 
erally,  "put  her  eyes  in  paint."  This 
was  sometimes  done  to  excess,  Jer.  4 : 30 ; 
and  was  practised  by  abandoned  wom 
en,  Prov.  6:25.  A  small  probe  of  wood, 
ivory,  or  silver,  is  wet  with  rose-water, 


EZE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


EZR 


and  dipped  in  an  impalpable  powder ; 
this  is  then  drawn  between  the  lids  of 
the  eye  nearly  closed,  and  leaves  a  nar 
row  black  border  which  is  thought  a 


great  ornament.  The  powder  for  this 
purpose,  called  kohol,  is  made  by  burn 
ing  a  kind  of  aromatic  resin,  and  some 
times  of  lead  ore  and  other  substances, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  eyes.  In  Persia 
this  custom  is  as  common  among  the 
men  as  among  the  women ;  so  also  in 
ancient  Egypt,  as  the  Theban  monu 
ments  show.  ' l  The  femal es  of  Arabia, ' ' 
Niebuhr  says,  "color  their  nails  blood- 
red,  and  their  hands  and  feet  yellow,  with 
the  herb  Al-hemia.  (See  CAMPHIRE.) 
They  also  tinge  the  inside  of  their  eye 
lids  coal-black  with  kochel,  a  coloring 
material  prepared  from  lead  ore.  They 
not  only  enlarge  their  eyebrows,  but 
also  paint  other  figures  of  black,  as  or 
naments,  upon  the  face  and  hands. 
Sometimes  they  even  prick  through  the 
skin,  in  various  figures,  and  then  lay 
certain  substances  upon  the  wounds, 
which  eat  in  so  deeply,  that  the  orna 
ments  thus  impressed  are  rendered  per 
manent  for  life.  All  this  the  Arabian 
women  esteem  as  beauty. ' ' 

EZE'KIEL,  son  of  Buzi,  a  prophet  of 
the  sacerdotal  race,  was  carried  captive 
to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  with  Je- 
hoiachin  king  of  Judah,  B.  c.  598,  and 
placed  by  the  river  Chebar.  See  NINE 
VEH.  He  began  his  ministry  in  the  thir 


tieth  year  of  his  age,  according  to  the 
general  account ;  but  perhaps  in  the  thir 
tieth  year  after  the  covenant  was  renew 
ed  with  God  in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  Ezek. 
1:1,  which  answers  to  the  fifth  year  of 
Ezekiel's  captivity.  The  elderg  of  Israel 
resorted  to  him  for  direction,  Ezra  8:1 ; 
14  :  1 ;  20  : 1 ;  33  :  31.  He  prophesied 
twenty  years,  B.  c.  595-575,  till  the  four 
teenth  year  after  the  final  captivity  of 
Jerusalem.  During  the  first  eight  years 
he  was  contemporary  with  Jeremiah. 
Daniel  also  lived  at  the  same  time, 
Ezek.  14:14,  16;  28:3,  though  most  of 
his  predictions  are  of  a  later  date. 

The  BOOK  OF  EZEKIEL  abounds  with 
sublime  visions  of  the  divine  glory,  and 
awful  denunciations  against  Israel  for 
their  rebellious  spirit  against  God,  and 
the  abominations  of  their  idolatry,  chap. 
1-24.  It  contains  also  similar  denuncia 
tions  against  Tyre  and  other  hostile  na 
tions,  chap.  25-32.  The  latter  part  of 
the  book  contains  oracles  respecting  the 
return  and  restoration  of  the  people  of 
God,  chap.  33-48. 

EZ'ION-GE'BER,  or  EZION-GABER,  a 
city  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Elanitic  or  eastern  gulf  of  the  Red  sea, 
and  close  by  Elath.  The  Israelites  rest 
ed  here  in  the  last  year  of  their  wander 
ings  from  Egypt  to  Canaan,  Num.  33:35 ; 
Deut.  2:8.  At  this  port  Solomon  equip 
ped  his  fleets  for  the  voyage  to  Ophir, 
1  Kin.  9:26.  A  similar  enterprise  of  Je- 
hoshaphat  failed,  1  Kin.  22:48;  2  Chr. 
20:36.  See  ELATH  and  EXODUS. 

EZ'RA,  a  celebrated  priest  and  leader 
of  the  Jewish  nation.  He  was  "  a  ready 
scribe  in  the  law,"  a  learned,  able,  and 
faithful  man,  and  appears  to  have  en 
joyed  great  consideration  in  the  Persian 
court.  During  the  eighty  years  em 
braced  in  his  narrative,  most  of  the  reign 
of  Cyrus  passed,  and  the  whole  reign  of 
Cambyses,  Smerdis,  Darius  Hystaspis, 
Xerxes,  and  eight  years  of  Artaxer- 
xes  Longimanus.  From  this  last  king 
he  received  letters,  money,  and  every 
desirable  help,  and  went  at  the  head  of 
a  large  party  of  returning  exiles  to  Je 
rusalem,  B.  c.  457.  Here  he  instituted 
many  reforms  in  the  conduct  of  the  peo« 
pie,  and  in  the  public  worship,  Ezra 
8-10 ;  Neh.  8.  After  this  he  is  gener 
ally  believed  to  have  collected  and  re 
vised  all  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
Scripture,  which  form  the  present  canon. 

The  BOOK  OF  EZRA  contains  a  history 
149 


-FAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FAN 


of  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  time 
of  Cyrus ;  with  an  account  of  his  own 
subsequent  proceedings,  B.  c.  450.  There 
are  two  apocryphal  books  ascribed  to 
him  under  the  name  of  Esdras,  which  is 
only  the  ftreek  form  of  the  name  Ezra. 

F. 

FA'BLE,  an  idle,  groundless,  and 
worthless  story,  like  the  mythological 
legends  of  the  heathen  and  the  vain 
traditions  of  the  Jews.  These  were  often 
not  only  false  and  weak,  but  pernicious,' 
ITim.  4:7;  Tit.  1:14;  2  Pet.  1:16. 

FACE,  and  presence,  expressed  by  the 
same  word  in  Hebrew,  are  often  put  for 
the  person  himself,  Gen.  48:11;  Exod. 
33 : 14  ;  Isa.  63 : 9.  No  man  has  seen  the 
face  of  God,  that  is,  had  a  full  revelation 
of  his  glory,  Exod.  33:20;  John  1:18; 
1  Tim.  6 : 16.  To  see  him  ' '  face  to  face, ' ' 
is  to  enjoy  his  presence,  Gen.  32  :  30 ; 
Num.  14  :  14 ;  Deut.  5  :  4,  and  have  a 
clear  manifestation  of  his  nature  and 
grace,  1  Cor.  13:12. 

FAIR-HA'VENS,  a  roadstead  or  small 
bay,  near  the  town  of  Lasea,  midway  on 
the  southern  coast  of  Crete,  where  Paul 
wished  to  winter  when  on  the  voyage  to 
Rome,  Acts  27:8.  The  sailors  preferred 
Phenice  as  safer,  and  were  wrecked  in 
consequence.  It  still  retains  nearly  its 
old  name. 

FAITH  is  the  assent  of  the  under 
standing  to  any  truth.  Religious  faith 
is  assent  to  the  truth  of  divine  revela 
tion  and  of  the  events  and  doctrines  con 
tained  in  it.  This  may  be  merely  his 
torical,  without  producing  any  effect  on 
our  lives  and  conversation ;  and  it  is  then 
a  dead  faith,  such  as  even  the  devils  have. 
But  a  living  or  saving  faith  not  only 
believes  the  great  doctrines  of  religion  as 
true,  but  embraces  them  with  the  heart 
and  affections ;  and  is  thus  the  source  of 
sincere  obedience  to  the  divine  will,  ex 
hibited  in  the  life  and  conversation.  Faith 
in  Christ  is  a  grace  wrought  in  the  heart 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,  whereby  we  receive 
Christ  as  our  Saviour,  our  Prophet, 
Priest,  and  King,  and  love  and  obey  him 
as  such.  This  living  faith  in  Christ  is 
the  means  of  salvation — not  meritorious 
ly,  but  instrumentally.  Without  it  there 
can  be  no  forgiveness  of  sins,  and  no  ho 
liness  of  life  ;  and  they  who  are  justified 
by  faith,  live  and  walk  by  faith,  Mark 
150 


16  : 16 ;  John  3  : 15,   16  ;   Acts  16  :  31 ; 
1  John  5: 10. 

True  faith  is  an  essential  grace,  and  a 
main-spring  of  Christian  life.  By  it  the 
Christian  overcomes  the  world,  the  flesh, 
and  the  devil,  and  receives  the  crown  of 
righteousness,  1  Tim.  4:7,  8.  In  virtue 
of  it,  worthy  men  of  old  wrought  great 
wonders,  Heb.  11;  Acts  14:9;  1  Cor. 
13:2,  being  sustained  by  Omnipotence 
in  doing  whatever  God  enjoined,  Matt. 
17:20;  Mark  9: 23;  11:23,24.  In  Rom. 
1:8,  faith  is  put  for  the  exhibition  of 
faith,  in  the  practice  of  all  the  duties 
implied  in  a  profession  of  faith. 

FAITH' FUL,  in  many  passages  in  the 
Bible,  means  ' '  believing. ' '  Thus  in  Gal. 
3 : 9,  believers  are  said  to  be  blessed  with 
Abraham,  because  of  his  preeminent  dis 
tinction  above  all  men  for  steadfast  faith 
in  God.  This  appellation  is  given  in 
Scripture  to  true  Christians,  to  indicate 
not  only  their  saving  faith  in  Christ,  but 
their  trustworthy  and  consistent  Chris 
tian  character,  Acts  16:15;  1  Cor.  4:17; 
Eph.  6:21 ;  Col.  4:9;  1  Pet.  5:12.  "A 
faithful  saying ' '  is  one  that  cannot  prove 
false,  ITim.  1:15;  2 Tim.  2:11. 

FAITH'FULNESS  is  an  infinite  attri 
bute  of  Jehovah  ;  adapted  to  make  per 
fect  both  the  confidence  of  those  who 
believe  his  word  and  rely  on  his  prom 
ises,  and  the  despair  of  those  who  doubt 
his  word  and  defy  his  threatenings,  Deut. 
28  :  26  ;  Num.  23  : 19 ;  Psa.  89  :  33,  34  ; 
Heb.  10:23. 

FAM'INE.  Scripture  records  several 
famines  in  Palestine,  and  the  neighbor 
ing  countries,  Gen.  12:10;  26:1;  Ruth 
1 : 1 ;  2  Kin.  6  :  25 ;  Acts  11 :  27.  The 
most  remarkable  one  was  that  of  seven 
years  in  Egypt,  while  Joseph  was  gov 
ernor,  Gen.  41.  It  was  distinguished 
for  its  duration,  extent,  and  severity; 
particularly  as  Egypt  is  one  of  the  coun 
tries  least  subject  to  such  a  calamity,  by 
reason  of  its  general  fertility.  Famine 
is  sometimes  a  natural  effect,  as  when 
the  Nile  does  not  overflow  in  Egypt,  or 
rains  do  not  fall  in  Judea,  at  the  custom 
ary  season ;  or  when  caterpillars,  locusts, 
or  other  insects,  destroy  the  fruits.  But 
all  natural  causes  are  under  the  control 
of  God ;  and  he  often  so  directs  them  as 
to  chastise  the  rebellious  with  want, 
2  Kin.  8:1,  2;  Ezek.  6:11;  Matt.  24:7. 
The  worst  famine  is  a  spiritual  one, 
Amos  8: 11. 

FAN,  an  instrument  used  for  winnow* 


FAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FEA 


ing  grain.  In  the  East,  fans  are  of  two 
kinds :  one  a  sort  of  fork,  having  three 
or  four  prongs,  and  a  handle  four  feet 
long  ;  with  this  they  throw  up  the  grain 
to  the  wind,  that  the  chaff  may  be  blown 
away :  the  other  sort  of  fan  is  formed  to 
produce  wind  when  the  air  is  calm,  Isa. 
30:24.  This  process  illustrates  the  com 
plete  separation  which  Christ  the  Judge 
will  effect  between  the  righteous  and  the 
wicked,  Jer.  15  :  7  ;  Matt.  3  :  12.  See 
THRESHING. 

FAR'THING.  Two  different  Eoman 
brass  coins  are  translated  by  this  word  : 
one  of  these,  the  assarion,  Matt.  10:29, 
Luke  12:6,  was  worth  less  than  a  cent ; 
the  other,  the  kodrantes,  Matt.  5  :  26,  was 
probably  nearly  four  mills. 

FASTTNG  has,  in  all  ages,  and  among 
all  nations,  been  practised  in  times  of 
sorrow,  and  affliction,  Jonah  3:5."  It 
may  be  regarded  as  a  dictate  of  nature, 
which  under  these  circumstances  refuses 
nourishment,  and  suspends  the  crav 
ings  of  hunger.  In  the  Bible  no  ex 
ample  is  mentioned  of  fasting,  proper 
ly  so  called,  before  Moses.  His  forty 
days'  fast,  like  that  of  Elijah  and  of  our 
Lord,  was  miraculous,  Deut.  9:9  ;  1  Kin. 
19:8;  Matt.  4:2.  The  Jews  often  had 
recourse  to  this  practice,  when  they  had 
occasion  to  humble  themselves  before 
God,  to  confess  their  sins  and  deprecate 
his  displeasure,  Judg.  20  :  20  ;  1  Sam. 
7  :  6  ;  2  Sam.  12  :  1C  ;  Nch.  9:1;  Jer. 
36 :  9.  Especially  in  times  of  public 
calamity,  they  appointed  extraordinary 
fasts,  and  made  even  the  children  at  the 
breast  fast,  Joel  2:16;  but  see  Dan. 
10:2,  3.  They  began  the  observance  of 
their  fasts  at  sunset,  and  remained  with 
out  eating  until  the  same  hour  the  next 
day.  The  great  day  of  expiation  was 
probably  the  only  annual  and  national 
fast-day  among  them. 

It  does  not  appear  by  his  own  practice 
or  by  his  commands,  that  our  Lord  insti 
tuted  any  particular  fast.     On  one  occa 
sion,    he   intimated   that   his    disciples 
would  fast  after  his  death,  Luke  5:34, 
35.     Accordingly,  the  life  of  the  apos 
tles  and  first  believers  was  a  life  of  self- 
denials,  sufferings,  and  fastings,  2  Cor.  I 
5:7  ;  11:27.    Our  Saviour  recognized  the 
custom,  and  the  apostles  practised  it  as  j 
occasion  required,  Matt.  6 : 16-18 ;  Acts  | 
13:3;  1  Cor.  7:5. 

FAT.     The   fat  portions   of  animals  j 
offered  in  sacrifice  were  always  to  be  j 


consumed,  as  being  the  choice  part  and 
especially  sacred  to  the  Lord.  The  blood 
was  also  sacred,  as  containing  the  life  of 
the  animal.  The  Jews  were  forbidden 
to  eat  either,  Lev.  3:16,  17;  7:23-27. 

FATHER,  is  often  synonymous  with 
ancestor,  founder,  or  originator,  as  Gen. 
4:20,  21;  John  8:56;  Rom.  4:16.  Jo 
seph  was  a  father  to  Pharaoh,  Gen. 
45 : 8,  as  his  counsellor  and  provider. 
God  is  the  FATHER  of  men,  as  their  Crea 
tor,  Deut.  32:6;  Isa.  63:16;  64:8;  Luke 
3:38.  But  as  we  have  forfeited  the 
rights  of  children  by  our  sins,  it  is  only 
through  Christ  that  we  can  call  God  by 
that  endearing  name,  "our  Father," 
John  20:17;  Rom.  8:15-17. 

In  patriarchal  times,  a  father  was  mas 
ter  and  judge  in  his  own  household,  and 
exercised  an  authority  almost  unlimited 
over  his  family.  Filial  disobedience  or 
disrespect  was  a  high  offence.  Under 
the  law,  certain  acts  of  children  were 
capital  crimes,  Ex.  21:15,  17  ;  Lev.  20:9  ; 
and  the  father  was  required  to  bring  his 
son  to  the  public  tribunal,  Deut.  21 : 18- 
21.  See  MOTHER. 

FEASTS.  God  appointed  several  fes 
tivals,  or  days  of  rest  and  worship, 
among  the  Jews,  to  perpetuate  the  mem 
ory  of  great  events  wrought  in  favor  of 
them:  the  Sabbath  commemorated  the 
creation  of  the  world ;  the  Passover,  the 
departure  out  of  Egypt;  the  Pentecost, 
the  law  given  at  Sinai,  etc.  At  the  three 
great  feasts  of  the  year,  the  Passover, 
Pentecost,  and  that  of  Tabernacles,  all 
the  males  of  the  nation  were  required  to 
visit  the  temple,  Ex.  23:14-17;  Deut. 
16:16,  17  ;  and  to  protect  their  borders 
from  invasion  during  their  absence,  the 
shield  of  a  special  providence  was  always 
interposed,  Ex.  34:23,  24.  The  other 
festivals  were  the  Feast  of  Trumpets,  or 
New  Moon,  Purim,  Dedication,  the  Sab 
bath  year,  and  the  year  of  Jubilee.  These 
are  described  elsewhere.  The  observance 
of  these  sacred  festivals  was  adapted  not 
merely  to  freshen  the  remembrance  of 
their  early  history  as  a  nation,  but  to 
keep  alive  the  influence  of  religion  and 
the  expectation  of  the  Messiah,  to  deep 
en  their  joy  in  God,  to  dispel  animosi 
ties  and  jealousies,  and  to  form  new  asso 
ciations  between  the  different  tribes  and 
families.  See  also  Day  of  EXPIATION. 

In  the  Christian  church,  we  have  no 
festival  that  clearly  appears  to  have 
been  instituted  by  our  Saviour,  or  his 
151 


FEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FEL 


apostles ;  but  as  we  commemorate  his 
death  as  often  as  we  celebrate  his  supper, 
he  has  hereby  seemed  to  institute  a  per 
petual  feast.  Christians  have  always 
celebrated  the  memory  of  his  resurrec 
tion  by  regarding  the  Sabbath,  which  we 
see,  from  Rev.  1:10,  was  in  John's  time 
commonly  called  "the  Lord's  day." 

Feasts  of  love,  Jude  12,  were  public 
banquets  of  a  frugal  kind,  instituted  by 
the  primitive  Christians,  and  connected 
by  them  with  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  supper.  The  provisions  were 
contributed  by  the  more  wealthy,  and 
were  common  to  all  Christians,  whether 
rich  or  poor,  who  chose  to  partake.  Por 
tions  were  also  sent  to  the  sick  and  ab 
sent  members.  These  love-feasts  were 
intended  as  an  exhibition  of  mutual 
Christian  affection;  but  they  became 
subject  to  abuses,  and  were  afterwards 
generally  discontinued,  1  Cor.  11:17-34. 

The  Hebrews  were  a  hospitable  people, 
and  were  wont  to  welcome  their  guests 
with  a  feast,  and  dismiss  them  with  an 
other,  Gen.  19:3;  31:27;  Judg.  6:19; 
2  Sam.  3:20;  2  Kin.  6:23.  The  return 
ing  prodigal  was  thus  welcomed,  Luke 
15:23.  Many  joyful  domestic  events 
were  observed  with  feasting:  birthdays, 
etc.,  Gen.  21:8;  40:20;  Job  1:4;  Matt. 
14 :  6  ;  marriages,  Gen.  29  :  22  ;  Judg. 
14  :  10  ;  John  2  :  1-10  ;  sheep-shearing 
and  harvesting,  Judg.  9  :  27  ;  1  Sam. 
25:2,  36;  2  Sam.  13:23.  A  feast  was 
also  provided  at  funerals,  2  Sam.  3:35; 
Jer.  16:7.  Those  who  brought  sacrifices 
and  offerings  to  the  temple  were  wont  to 
feast  upon  them  there,  with  joy  and 
praise  to  God,  Deut.  12:6,  7;  1  Sam. 
16:5;  2  Sam.  6:19.  They  were  taught 
to  invite  all  the  needy  to  partake  with 
them.  Deut.  16:11 ;  and  even  to  make 
special  feasts  for  the  poor,  Deut.  12:17- 
19  ;  14  :  28,  29 ;  20  :  12-15 ;  a  custom 
which  the  Saviour  specially  commended, 
Luke  14: 12-14. 

The  manner  of  holding  a  feast  was 
anciently  marked  with  great  simplicity. 
But  at  the  time  of  Christ  many  Roman 
customs  had  been  introduced.  The  feast 
or  "supper"  usually  took  place  at  five 
or  six  in  the  afternoon,  and  often  con 
tinued  to  a  late  hour.  The  guests  were 
invited  some  time  in  advance  ;  and  those 
who  accepted  the  invitation  were  again 
notified  by  servants  when  the  hour  ar 
rived,  Matt.  22:4-8;  Luke  14:16-24. 
The  door  was  guarded  against  uninvited 
152 


persons;  and  was  at  length  closed  for 
the  day  by  the  hand  of  the  master  of  the 
house,  Matt.  25 : 10 ;  Luke  13 : 24.  Some 
times  very  large  numbers  were  present, 
Esth.  1:3,  5;  Luke  14:16-24;  and  on 
such  occasions  a  ' '  governor  of  the  feast ' ' 
was  appointed,  whose  social  qualities, 
I  tact,  firmness,  and  temperance  fitted  him 
j  to  preside,  John  2:8.  The  guests  were 
arranged  with  a  careful  regard  to  their 
claims  to  honor,  Gen.  43 :  33 ;  1  Sam. 
9:22;  Prov.  25:6,  7;  Matt.  23:6;  Luke 
14:7 ;  in  which  matter  the  laws  of  eti 
quette  are  still  jealously  enforced  in  the 
East.  Sometimes  the  host  provided  light, 
rich,  loose  robes  for  the  company ;  and  if 
so,  the  refusing  to  wear  one  was  a  gross 
insult,  Ecc.  9:8;  Matt.  22:11;  Rev.  3:4, 
5.  The  guests  reclined  around  the  ta 
bles  ;  water  and  perfumes  were  served  to 
them,  Mark  7:2;  Luke  7:44-46;  and 
after  eating,  the  hands  were  again  wash 
ed,  a  servant  pouring  water  over  them. 
See  illustration  in  BED.  During  the  re 
past  and  after  it  various  entertainments 
were  provided  ;  enigmas  were  proposed, 
Judg.  14:12;  eastern  tales  were  told; 
music  and  hired  dancers,  and  often  ex 
cessive  drinking,  etc. ,  occupied  the  time, 
Isa.  5:12  ;  24:7-9  ;  Amos  6:5.  See  EAT 
ING,  FOOD. 

FE'LIX,  a  Roman  governor  of  Judea ; 
originally  a  slave,  but  manumitted  and 
promoted  by  Claudius  Caesar,  from  whom 
he  received  the  name  of  Claudius.  He 
is  described  by  the  historian  Tacitus  as 
cruel,  licentious,  and  base.  In  Judea  he 
married  Drnsilla,  sister  of  the  younger 
Agrippa,  having  enticed  her  from  her 
second  husband  Azizus.  Paul  having 
been  sent  by  Lysias  to  Caesarea,  then  the 
seat  of  government,  Felix  gave  him  an 
audience,  and  was  convinced  of  his  inno 
cence.'  Nevertheless  he  kept  him  a  pris 
oner,  though  with  many  alleviations,  in 
hopes  that  his  friends  would  purchase  his 
liberty  by  a  heavy  bribe.  Meanwhile 
his  wife  Drusilla,  who  was  a  Jewess,  de 
sired  to  hear  Paul  explain  the  new  relig 
ion  ;  and  the  apostle  being  summoned 
before  them,  discoursed  with  his  usual 
boldness  on  justice,  chastity,  and  the 
final  judgment.  Felix  trembled,  but 
hastily  remanded  Paul  to  confinement, 
and  stifled  his  convictions — a  melan 
choly  instance  of  the  power  of  lust  and 
the  danger  of  delay.  Two  years  after, 
A.  D.  60,  he  was  recalled  to  Rome ;  and 
left  Paul  in  prison,  in  order  to  appease 


FER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FIG 


the  Jews.  He  was  brought  to  trial, 
however,  for  maladministration,  found 
guilty,  and  barely  escaped  death  through 
the  intercession  of  his  brother  Pallas,  an 
other  royal  favorite,  Acts  23:26;  24. 

FER'RET,  a  sort  of  weasel,  Lev.  11:30. 
The  Hebrew  word  means  rather  a  spe 
cies  of  lizard,  the  gecko,  which  Moses  for 
bids  as  unclean. 

FES'TUS,  PORTIUS,  succeeded  Felix  in 
the  government  of  Judea,  A.  D.  60.  To 
oblige  the  Jews,  Felix,  when  he  resign 
ed  his  government,  left  Paul  in  bonds  at 
Crasarea  in  Palestine,  Acts  24:27;  and 
when  Festus  arrived,  he  was  entreated 
by  the  principal  Jews  to  condemn  the 
apostle,  or  to  order  him  up  to  Jerusa 
lem—they  having  conspired  to  assassi 
nate  him  in  the  way.  Festus,  however, 
answered  that  it  was  not  customary  with 
the  Romans  to  condemn  any  man  with 
out  hearing  him  ;  and  promised  to  hear 
their  accusations  at  Ciesarea.  Five  days 
after,  on  hearing  Paul  and  learning  the 
nature  of  the  charges  against  him,  he 
proposed  to  him  to  abide  the  issue  of  a 
trial  before  the  Jewish  Sanhedrim.  But 
Paul  appealed  to  Caesar;  and  so  secured 
himself  from  the  prosecution  of  the  Jews, 
and  the  intentions  of  Festus.  The  gov 
ernor  gave  him  another  hearing  during 
a  congratulatory  visit  of  king  Agrippa, 
in  order  to  make  out  a  statement  to  be 
forwarded  with  him  to  Rome.  Finding 
how  greatly  robberies  abounded  in  Ju 
dea,  Festus  very  diligently  pursued  the 
thieves ;  and  he  also  suppressed  a  magi 
cian,  who  drew  the  people  after  him  into 
the  desert.  Josephus  speaks  well  of  his 
brief  administration.  He  died  in  Judea, 
A.  D.  62,  and  was  succeeded  by  Albinus. 
FIG.  The  fig-tree  is  common  in  Pal 
estine  and  the  East,  and  nourishes  with 
the  greatest  luxuriance  in  those  barren 
and  stony  situations  where  little  else 
will  grow.  Its  large  size,  and  its  abun 
dance  of  five-lobed  leaves,  render  it  a 
pleasant  shade-tree ;  and  its  fruit  fur 
nished  a  wholesome  food,  very  much 
used  in  all  the  lands  of  the  Bible.  Thus 
it  was  a  symbol  of  peace  and  plenty, 
1  Kin.  4:25  ;  Mic.  4:4  ;  Zech.  3:10  ;  John 
1 : 49-51.  Figs  are  of  two  sorts,  the 
"boccore,"  and  the  "kermouse."  The 
black  and  white  boccore,  or  early  fig,  is 
produced  in  June ;  though  the  kermouse, 
the  fig  properly  so  called,  which  is  pre 
served,  and  made  up  into  cakes,  is  rarely 
ripe  before  August.  There  is  also  a  long 


dark-colored  kermouse,  that  sometimes 
hangs  upon  the  trees  all  winter. 

The  fruit  of  the  fig-tree  is  one  of  the 
delicacies  of  the  East,  and  is  very  often 
spoken  of  in  Scripture.  The  early  fig 
was  especially  prized,  Isa.  28  : 4 ;  Jer.  • 
24  :  2  ;  Nah.  3  : 12,  though  the  summer 
fig  is  most  abundant,  2  Kin.  20:7  ;  Isa. 
38 : 21.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  fig-tree 
that  its  fruit  begins  to  appear  before 
the  leaves,  and  without  any  show  of 
blossoms,  It  has,  indeed,  small  and  hid 
den  blossoms,  but  the  passage  in  Hab. 
3:17,  should  read,  according  to  the  orig 
inal  Hebrew,  ' '  Although  the  fig-tree 
should  not  bear,"  instead  of  "blossom." 
Its  leaves  come  so  late  in  the  spring  as 
to  justify  the  words  of  Christ,  "Ye  know 
that  summer  is  nigh,"  Matt.  24:32  ;  Song 
2:13.  The  fresh  fruit  is  shaped  like  a 
pear.  The  dried  figs  of  Palestine  were 
probably  like  those  which  are  brought 
to  our  own  country ;  sometimes,  how 
ever,  they  are  dried  on  a  string.  We 
likewise  read  of  "  cakes  of  figs,"  1  Sam. 
25:18;  2 Kin.  20:7;  IChr.  12:40.  These 
were  probably  formed  by  pressing  the 
fruit  forcibly  into  baskets  or  other  ves 
sels,  so  as  to  reduce  them  to  a  solid  cake 
or  lump.  In  this  way  dates  are  still  pre 
pared  in  Arabia. 

The  barren  fig-tree  which  was  withered 
at  our  Saviour's  word,  as  an  awful  warn 
ing  to  unfruitful  professors  of  religion, 
seems  to  have  spent  itself  in  leaves.  It 
stood  by  the  way-side,  free  to  all ;  and 
as  the  time  for  stripping  the  trees  of  their 
fruit  had  not  come,  Mark  11:14,  it  was 
reasonable  to  expect  to  find  it  covered 
with  figs  in  various  stages  of  growth. 
153 


FIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FIR 


Tet  there  was  "nothing  thereon,  but 
leaves  only,"  Matt.  21:19. 

FIR,  an  evergreen  tree,  of  beautiful 
appearance,  whose  lofty  height  and 
dense  foliage  afford  a  spacious  shelter 
and  shade.  The  Hebrew  word  often 
seems  to  mean  the  CYPRESS,  which  see. 
It  was  used  for  ship-building,  Ezek.  27 : 5 ; 
for  musical  instruments,  2  Sam.  6:5  ;  for 
beams  and  rafters  of  houses,  1  Kin.  5:8, 
10;  9:11;  Song  1:17. 

FIRE,  in  Scripture,  is  often  connected 
with  the  presence  of  Jehovah  ;  as  in  the 
burning  bush,  and  on  mount  Sinai,  Ex. 
3:2  ;  19:18  ;  in  Psalm  18,  and  the  ode  of 
Habakkuk.  The  second  coming  of  Christ 
will  be  "in  flaming  lire,"  2  Thess.  1:8. 
In  the  New  Testament  it  illustrates  the 
enlightening,  cheering,  and  purifying 
agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Matt.  3  :  11 ; 
Acts  2:3.  By  sending  fire  from  heaven 
to  consume  sacrifices,  God  often  signified 
his  acceptance  of  them  :  as  in  the  case  of 
Abel,  Gen.  4:4;  Abraham,  Gen.  15:17  ; 
Manoah,  Judg.  13:19,  20;  Elijah,  IKin. 
18 : 38  ;  and  at  the  dedication  of  the  tab 
ernacle  and  the  temple,  Lev.  9 : 24 ;  2  Chr. 
7:1.  This  sacred  fire  was  preserved  by 
the  priests  with  the  utmost  care,  Isa. 
31 : 9.  In  many  ancient  religions  fire  was 
worshipped  ;  and  children  were  made  to 
pass  through  the  fire  to  Moloch,  2  Kin. 
17:17;  Jer.  7:31;  Ezek.  16:21 ;  23:87. 
The  Jews  had  occasion  for  fires,  except 
for  cooking,  only  during  a  small  part  of 
the  year.  Besides  their  ordinary  hearths 
and  ovens,  they  warmed  their  apart 
ments  with  ' '  a  fire  of  coals  "  in  a  bra 
zier,  Jer.  36:22,  23;  Luke  22:30.  They 
were  forbidden  to  kindle  a  fire  on  the 
Sabbath,  Ex.  35  :  3  —  a  prohibition  per 
haps  only  of  cooking  on  that  day,  but  un 
derstood  by  many  Jews  even  now  in  the 
fullest  extent ;  it  is  avoided  by  employ 
ing  gentile  servants.  Another  provision 
of  the  Mosaic  law  was  designed  to  pro 
tect  the  standing  corn,  etc.,  in  the  dry 
summer  season,  Ex.  22:6.  The  earth  is 
to  be  destroyed  by  fire,  2  Pet.  3:7;  of 
which  the  destruction  of  Sodom,  and  the 
volcanoes  and  earthquakes  which  so  often 
indicate  the  internal  commotions  of  the 
globe,  may  serve  as  warnings. 

FIR'KIN,  John  2:6,  a  Greek  measure, 
equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  bath,  and  con 
taining  seven  and  a  half  gallons.  The 
quantity  of  wine  produced  by  the  mir 
acle  at  Cana  was  large  :  but  the  assem 
blage  was  also  large  ;  the  festivities  con- 
154 


tinued,  it  may  be,  a  whole  week,  Judg. 
14: 12  ;  and  many  would  be  drawn  to  the 
scene  by  hearing  of  the  miracle. 

FIR'MAMENT,  Gen.  1  :  17,  the  ex 
panse  of  the  heavens  immediately  above 
the  earth.  The  Hebrews  seem  to  have 
viewed  this  as  an  immense  crystalline 
dome,  studded  with  stars,  resting  on  the 
far  distant  horizon  all  around  the  spec 
tator,  and  separating  the  waters  above 
us  from  those  on  the  earth.  Through  its 
windows  the  rain  descended.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  suppose  they  thought  it  was 
solid,  Psa.  19:1 ;  Isa.  40:22.  It  is  not  the 
aim  of  Scripture  to  give  scientific  state 
ments  of  natural  phenomena.  Teach 
ing  religion,  not  astronomy  or  physics, 
it  does  not  anticipate  modern  discoveries, 
but  speaks  of  natural  objects  and  occur 
rences  in  the  common  language  of  men 
everywhere.  Hence,  in  part,  its  attrac 
tiveness  in  all  ages  as  a  book  for  the 
people. 

FIRST-BORN".  This  phrase  is  not  al 
ways  to  be  understood  literally ;  it  is 
sometimes  taken  for  the  prime,  most 
excellent,  most  distinguished  of  things, 
Psa.  89  :  27  ;  Rom.  8  :  29  ;  Heb.  1  :  4-6. 
Thus  Jesus  Christ  is  ' '  the  first-born  of 
every  creature,"  Col.  1:15,  inasmuch  as 
he  was  the  ' '  Only-begotten ' '  of  the  Fa 
ther  before  any  creature  was  produced. 
He  is  "the  first-born  from  the  dead," 
Col.  1:18,  because  he  is  the  beginning, 
and  the  author  of  the  resurrection  of  all 
who  die  in  faith. 

After  the  destroying  angel  had  slain 
the  first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  God  or 
dained  that  all  the  Jewish  first-born, 
both  of  men  and  of  beasts  for  service, 
should  be  consecrated  to  him ;  but  the 
male  children  only  were  subject  to  this 
law.  If  a  man  had  several  wives,  he  was 
obliged  to  offer  the  first-born  son  by  each 
one  of  them  to  the  Lord.  The  first-born 
were  offered  at  the  temple,  and  redeem 
ed  for  five  shekels.  The  firstling  of  a 
clean  beast  was  offered  at  the  temple, 
not  to  be  redeemed,  but  to  be  killed ;  an 
unclean  beast,  a  horse,  an  ass,  or  a  cam 
el,  was  either  redeemed  or  exchanged ; 
an  ass  was  redeemed  by  a  lamb  or  five 
shekels  ;  if  not  redeemed,  it  was  killed, 
Ex.  13  :  2,  11,  etc.  The  first-born  son 
among  the  Hebrews,  as  among  all  other 
nations,  enjoyed  particular  privileges. 
See  BIRTHRIGHT. 

FIRST-FRUITS  were  presents  made 
to  God  of  part  of  the  fruits  of  the  liar- 


FIS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FLA 


rest,  to  express  the  submission,  depend 
ence,  and  thankfulness  of  the  offerers. 
The  portion  given  was  instead  of  the 
whole,  in  acknowledgment  that  all  was 
due  to  God.  They  were  offered  in  the 
temple  before  the  crop  was  gathered, 
and  when  the  harvest  was  over,  before 
the  people  began  to  use  their  corn.  The 
first  of  these  first-fruits,  offered  in  the 
name  of  the  nation,  was  a  sheaf  of  bar 
ley,  gathered  on  the  fifteenth  of  Nisan, 
in  the  evening,  and  threshed  in  a  court 
of  the  temple.  After  it  was  well  clean 
ed,  about  three  pints  of  it  were  roasted, 
and  pounded  in  a  mortar.  Over  this 
was  thrown  a  measure  of  olive-oil  and  a 
handful  of  incense  ;  and  the  priest,  tak 
ing  the  offering,  waved  it  before  the 
Lord  towards  the  four  cardinal  points, 
throwing  a  handful  of  it  into  the  fire  on 
the  altar,  and  keeping  the  rest.  After 
this,  all  were  at  liberty  to  get  in  the 
harvest.  When  the  wheat  harvest  was 
over,  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  they  of 
fered  as  first-fruits  of  another  kind,  in 
the  name  of  the  nation,  two  loaves,  of 
about  three  pints  of  flour  each,  made  of 
leavened  dough,  Lev.  23 :  10,  17.  In 
addition  to  these  first-fruits,  every  pri 
vate  person  was  obliged  to  bring  his  first- 
fruits  to  the  temple,  but  Scripture  pre 
scribes  neither  the  time  nor  the  qantity. 

There  was,  besides  this,  another  sort 
of  first-fruits  paid  to  God,  Num.  15:19, 
21 ;  Neh.  10  :  37  :  when  the  bread  in 
the  family  was  kneaded,  a  portion  of  it 
was  set  apart,  and  given  to  the  priest  or 
Levite  of  the  place ;  if  there  were  no 
priest  or  Levite,  it  was  cast  into  the  oven 
and  there  consumed. 

Those  offerings  are  also  often  called 
first-fruits,  which  were  brought  by  the 
Israelites  from  devotion,  to  the  temple, 
for  the  feast  of  thanksgiving,  to  which 
they  invited  their  relations  and  friends, 
and  the  Levites  of  their  cities.  The 
first-fruits  and  tenths  were  the  most  con 
siderable  revenue  of  the  priests  and  Le 
vites. 

Christians  have  "the  first-fruits  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,"  Rom.  8:23  ;  that  is,  more 
abundant  and  more  excellent  gifts  than 
the  Jews  ;  these  were  also  a  foretaste  of 
the  full  harvest.  "Christ  is  risen  from 
the  dead,  and  become  the  first-fruits  of 
them  that  slept,"  1  Cor.  15:20,  the  fore 
runner  of  all  those  who,  because  he  lives, 
shall  live  also,  John  14:19. 

FISH,  FISHEE.     The  Hebrews  have 


very  few  names  of  particular  species  of 
fish.  Moses  says  in  general,  that  all 
sorts  of  river,  lake,  or  sea  fish,  which 
have  scales  and  fins,  may  be  eaten ;  all 
others  shall  be  to  the  Hebrews  an  abom 
ination,  Lev.  11  :  9-12;  Deut.  14:9,  10. 
The  Nile  had  an  early  celebrity,  which 
it  still  retains,  for  the  abundance  and 
excellence  of  its  fish,  Ex.  7  :  18-21 ; 
Num.  11:5.  The  sea  of  Tiberias  also 
still  abounds  in  fish,  Luke  5:5;  John 
21:6-11.  They  were  a  common  article 
of  food  among  the  Jews,  Matt.  7 : 10,  and 
were  obtained  from  the  Mediterranean, 
Neh.  13:16,  and  from  the  Jordan.  They 
were  caught  with  hooks,  Amos  4  :  2, 
spears,  Job  41:7,  and  nets,  Isa.  19:8-10. 
The  "great  fish,"  Jon.  1 : 17,  which  swal 
lowed  Jonah,  may  have  been  of  the  shark 
genus,  as  this  animal  is  common  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  original  word,  both 
in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  Matt.  12  : 40, 
means  a  fish,  and  not  specifically  a 
' '  whale. ' '  See  WHALE.  Fishermen  are 
often  spoken  of  in  the  Bible,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  the  twelve  apostles  of  our 
Lord  were  of  that  occupation.  Christ 
made  them  "fishers  of  men."  Matt. 
4:18-22. 

The  early  Christians,  in  times  of  per 
secution,  used  to  engrave  the  form  of  a 
j  fish  on  their  medals,  seals,  and  tombs, 
as  a  tacit  confession  of  their  faith ;  as 
the  five  letters  of  the  Greek  word  for 
fish,  /;ti9uf,  are  the  initial  letters  of  five 
words,  signifying  ' '  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son 
of  God,  the  Saviour."  This  symbol  has 
thus  become  the  subject  of  a  supersti 
tious  regard. 

FITCH'ES,  or  VETCH'ES,  a  species  of 
wild  pea.  Two  Hebrew  words  are  trans 
lated  "fitches,"  one  of  which  probably 
means  spelt,  Ezek.  4 :  9,  and  the  other 
giih,  a  plant  resembling  fennel,  and  very 
pungent,  Isa.  28:25.  The  seed  is  black, 
and  aromatic. 

FLAG'ON.  The  Hebrew  word  every 
where  rendered  in  the  English  version 
flagon,  2  Sam.  6:19  ;  1  Chr.  16:3 ;  Song 
2:5  ;  Hos.  3:1,  means  rather  a  cake,  espe 
cially  of  dried  grapes  or  raisins,  pressed 
into  a  particular  form.  These  are  men 
tioned  as  delicacies,  by  which  the  weary 
and  languid  are  refreshed ;  they  were 
also  offered  to  idols,  Hos.  3:1.  They 
differed  from  the  dried  clusters  of  grapes 
not  pressed  into  any  form,  1  Sam.  25:18, 
and  also  from  the  "  cakes  of  figs."  We 
may  refer,  in  illustration,  to  the  man- 
155 


FLA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FLY 


ner  in  which  with  us  cheeses  are  pressed 
in  various  forms,  as  of  pine-apples,  etc. , 
and  also  the  manner  in  which  dates  are 
prepared  at  the  present  day  by  the  Arabs. 
See  FIGS. 

FLAX,  a  well-known  plant,  upon 
which  the  industry  of 
mankind  has  been  ex 
ercised  with  the  great 
est  success  and  utili 
ty,  Josh.  2:6;  Prov. 
31:13.  Moses  speaks 
of  the  flax  in  Egypt, 
Ex.  9 : 31,  which  coun 
try  has  been  celebrat 
ed,  from  time  imme 
morial,  for  its  produc 
tion  and  manufacture. 
The  "fine  linen  of 
Egypt,"  which  was 
manufactured  from 
this  article,  is  spoken 
of  for  its  superior  ex 
cellence,  in  Scripture, 
Prov.  7  :  16  ;  Ezek. 
27 : 7.  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  fine  cot 
ton  is  sometimes  to  be 
understood  when  the  Byssus  is  spoken  of. 
Most  of  the  linen  found  wrapped  around 
Egyptian  mummies  will  hardly  compare 
with  our  common  sheetings.  But  some 
specimens  are  found  of  most  remarkable 
fineness ;  one  containing  1 52  threads  in 
the  warp,  and  71  in  the  woof,  to  each 
square  inch ;  and  another,  270  double 
threads  in  the  warp,  and  110  in  the  woof, 
per  inch.  See  COTTON  and  LINEN. 

The  prophet  Isaiah,  in  speaking  of  the 
gentleness  of  the  Messiah,  makes  use  of 
a  proverbial  expression,  which  is  also 
quoted  by  Matthew  and  applied  to  Je 
sus :  "The  bruised  reed  he  shall  not 
break,  and  the  smoking  flax  he  shall  not 
quench,"  Isa.  42:3;  Matt.  12:20.  Here 
"  flax  "  is  used  for  the  wick  of  a  lamp  or 
taper,  which  was  usually  made  of  flax. 
He  will  not  break  a  reed  already  bruised 
and  ready  to  be  broken,  nor  extinguish 
a  flickering,  dying  lamp,  just  ready  to 
expire ;  that  is,  he  will  not  oppress  his 
humble  and  penitent  followers,  but  cher 
ish  the  feeblest  beginnings  of  true  grace. 

FLESH,  the  substance  of  which  the 
bodies  of  men  and  animals  are  com 
posed.  In  the  Bible,  besides  the  ordi 
nary  sense,  Job  33:25,  it  denotes  man 
kind  as  a  race,  Gen.  6:12  ;  Psa.  145:21 ; 
Isa.  40:5,  6  ;  and  all  living  creatures  on 
156 


the  earth,  Gen.  6  : 17,  19.  It  is  often 
used  in  opposition  to  "spirit,"  as  we 
use  body  and  soul,  Job  14:22 ;  and  some 
times  means  the  body  as  animated  and 
sensitive,  Matt.  26:41,  and  the  seat  of 
bodily  appetites,  Prov.  5:11 ;  2  Cor.  7:1. 
In  the  New  Testament,  "flesh"  is  very 
often  used  to  designate  the  bodily  appe 
tites,  propensities,  and  passions,  which 
draw  men  away  from  yielding  them 
selves  to  the  Lord  and  to  the  things  of 
the  Spirit.  The  flesh,  or  carnal  princi 
ple,  is  opposed  to  the  spirit,  or  spiritual 
principle,  Horn.  8;  Gal.  5:17. 

FLOCKS.     See  SHEEP. 

FLOOD.     See  DELUGE. 

FLUTE,  a  soft,  sweet-toned  wind  in 
strument  of  music.  The  word  flute  is 
used  only  in  Dan.  3,  and  is  supposed  to 
mean  a  pipe  with  two  reeds,  such  as  are 
still  to  be  found  in  the  East.  It  is  blown 
at  the  end.  See  Music,  PIPE. 

FLY,  a  genus  of  insects,  of  which 
there  are  a  great  many  species.  Moses 
declares  them  and  most  other  insects  to 
be  unclean,  Lev.  11  :  42.  They  abound 
in  Egypt,  and  are  annoying  and  vexa 
tious  in  the  extreme,  attacking  the  eye 
lids,  etc.,  in  swarms  and  with  the  ut 
most  pertinacity.  How  intolerable  a 
plague  of  flies  may  be,  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that  whole  districts  in  the  Le 
vant  have  been  for  a  time  depopulated 
by  them,  the  inhabitants  being  unable 
to  stand  against  their  incessant  attacks, 
Ex.  8:24.  The  Philistines  and  Canaan- 
ites  adored  Beelzebub,  the  fly-god,  prob 
ably  as  a  patron  to  protect  them  against 
these  tormenting  insects. 

In  Isa.  7  :  18,  the  prophet  describing 
the  armies  of  Egypt  and  Assyria,  each 
under  the  symbol  of  one  of  the  prevalent 
insects  in  those  countries,  says,  ' '  And  it 
shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day  that  the 
Lord  shall  hiss  for  the  fly  that  is  in  the 
uttermost  part  of  the  rivers  of  Egypt ;" 
(or  rather,  as  the  same  Hebrew  word  is 
rendered  in  Ex.  16  : 35,  the  fly  that  is  in 
the  borders  of  the  streams  of  Egypt,) 
"  and  for  the  bee  that  is  in  the  land  of 
Assyria."  It  is  thought  by  some  that 
the  fly  here  spoken  of  is  the  zimb,  or 
Ethiopian  fly,  of  which  Mr.  Bruce  says, 
"  It  is,  in  size,  very  little  larger  than  a 
bee,  of  a  thicker  proportion,  and  has 
wings  which  are  broader  than  those  of 
a  bee,  placed  separate,  like  those  of  a 
fly ;  they  are  of  pure  gauze,  without 
color  or  spot  upon  them;  the  head  is 


FOO 


BllBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FOO 


large.  As  soon  as  this  plague  appears, 
and  their  buzzing  is  heard,  all  the  cat 
tle  forsake  their  Tood,  and  run  wildly 
about  the  plain  till  they  die,  worn  out 
with  fatigue,  fright,  and  hunger.  No 
remedy  remains  but  to  leave  the  black 
earth,  and  hasten  down  to  the  sands  of 
the  desert ;  and  there  they  remain  while 
the  rains  last,  this  cruel  enemy  never 
daring  to  pursue  them  farther."  The 
camel  also  is  obliged  to  fly  before  these 
insects ;  and  the  elephant  and  rhinoceros 
coat  themselves  with  a  thick  armor  of 
mud. 

FOOD.  In  ancient  times  the  food  of 
a  people  was  more  entirely  the  product 
of  their  own  country  than  in  our  day. 
Palestine  was  favored  with  an  abun 
dance  of  animal  food,  grain,  and  vegeta 
bles.  But  throughout  the  East,  vegetable 
food  is  more  used  than  animal.  Bread 
was  the  principal  food.  Grain  of  various 
kinds,  beans,  lentils,  onions,  grapes,  to 
gether  with  olive  oil,  honey,  and  the 
milk  of  goats  and  cows  were  the  ordi 
nary  fare.  The  wandering  Arabs  live 
much  upon  a  coarse  black  bread.  A 
very  common  dish  in  Syria  is  rice,  with 
shreds  of  meat,  vegetables,  olive  oil, 
etc.,  intermixed.  A  similar  dish,  made 
with  beans,  lentils,  and  various  kinds  of 
pulse,  was  in  frequent  use  at  an  earlier 
age,  Gen.  25  :  29-34  ;  2  Kin.  4  :  38-41. 
Fish  was  a  common  article  of  food,  when 
accessible,  and  was  very  much  used  in 
Egypt.  This  country  was  also  famous 
for  cucumbers,  melons,  leeks,  onions, 
and  garlics,  Num.  11:5.  Such  is  the  food 
of  the  Egyptians  still.  See  EATING. 

Animal  food  was  always  used  on  fes 
tive  occasions ;  and  the  hospitable  pa 
triarchs  lost  little  time  in  preparing  for 
their  guests  a  smoking  dish  from  their 


flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  their  herds 
of  cattle,  or  their  dove-cotes,  Gen. 
18 : 7  ;  Luke  15 : 23.  The  rich  had  ani 
mal  food  more  frequently,  and  their 
cattle  were  stalled  and  fattened  for  the 
table,  ISam.  16:20;  Isa.  1:11;  11:6; 
Mai.  4:2.  Among  the  poor,  locusts 
were  a  common  means  of  sustenance, 
being  dried  in  the  sun,  or  roasted  over 
the  fire  on  iron  plates. 

Water  was  the  earliest  and  common 
drink .  Wine  of  an  intoxicating  q  ual  ity 
was  early  known,  Gen.  9:20;  14:18; 
40:1.  Date- wine  and  similar  bever 
ages  were  common  ;  and  the  common 
people  used  a  kind  of  sour  wine,  called 
vinegar  in  Ruth  2:14  ;  Matt.  27:48. 

FOOL,  any  person  who  does  not  act 
wisely,  that  is,  does  not  follow  the  warn 
ings  and  requirements  of  God,  which  are 
founded  in  infinite  wisdom.  Hence  ' '  a 
fool "  is  put  for  a  wicked  man,  an  enemy 
or  neglecter  of  God,  Psa.  14:1;  Prov. 
19:1.  So  folly  is  put  for  wickedness, 
2  Sam.  13:12, 13  ;  Psa.  38:5,  foolish  lusts 
for  wicked  lusts,  etc.  Foolish  talking, 
foolish  questions,  are  vain,  empty,  un 
profitable  conversation,  2  Tim.  2:23. 

FOOT.  The  expressions  in  Deut.  32 : 35, 
"their  foot  shall  slide  in  due  time,"  and 
in  the  traveller's  song,  Psa.  121:3,  "he 
will  not  suffer  thy  foot  to  be  moved," 
Psa.  66:9,  Jer.  13:16,  have  reference  to 
the  dangerous  character  of  the  narrow 
roads  or  paths  of  the  East,  over  rocks 
and  beside  precipices  where  a  sliding 
foot  was  often  fatal.  See  also  Isa.  8: 14 ; 
Luke  2 :  34.  Nakedness  of  feet  was  a 
sign  of  mourning.  God  says  to  Ezekiel, 
"Make  no  mourning  for  the  dead,  and 
put  on  thy  shoes  upon  thy  feet,"  Ezek. 
24:17.  It  was  likewise  a  mark  of  re 
spect.  Moses  put  off  his  shoes  to  ap 
proach  the  burning  bush  ;  and  most 
commentators  are  of  opinion  that  the 
priests  served  in  the  tabernacle  with 
their  feet  naked,  as  they  did  afterwards 
in  the  temple.  The  Turks  never  enter 
their  mosques  till  after  they  have  washed 
their  feet  and  their  hands,  and  have  put 
off  the  outward  covering  of  their  legs. 
The  Christians  of  Ethiopia  enter  their 
churches  with  their  shoes  off,  and  the 
Indian  Brahmins  and  others  have  the 
same  respect  for  their  pagodas  and  tem 
ples.  Eastern  conquerors  used  to  set 
their  feet  on  the  necks  of  conquered 
princes,  Josh.  10 : 22,  an  action  often 
figured  in  ancient  sculptures,  Psa.  8:6; 
157 


FOO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FOX 


Isa.  49:23  ;  1  Cor.  15:25  ;  Heb.  2:8.   See 
NINEVEH. 

The  orientals  used  to  wash  the  feet  of 
strangers  who  came  off  a  journey,  be 
cause  they  commonly  walked  with  their 
legs  bare,  and  their  feet  defended  only 
by  sandals,  Gen.  24:32;  43:24.  So 
Abraham  washed  the  feet  of  the  three 
angels,  Gen.  18:4.  This  office  was  usu 
ally  performed  by  servants  and  slaves; 
and  hence  Abigail  answers  David,  who 
sought  her  in  marriage,  that  she  should 
think  it  an  honor  to  wash  the  feet  of  the 
king's  servants,  1  Sam.  25:41.  Paul 
would  have  a  widow  assisted  by  the 
church,  to  be  one  who  had  hospitably 
washed  the  feet  of  saints,  1  Tim.  5:10. 
The  practice  is  still  met  with  in  Pales 
tine.  Says  Dr.  Robinson,  at  Ramleh, 
"Our  youthful  host  now  proposed,  in 
the  genuine  style.of  ancient  oriental  hos 
pitality,  that  a  servant  should  wash  our 
feet.  This  took  me  by  surprise  ;  for  I 
was  not  aware  that  the  custom  still  ex 
isted  here.  Nor  does  it  indeed  towards 
foreigners,  though  it  is  quite  common 
among  the  natives.  We  gladly  accepted 
the  proposal,  both  for  the  sake  of  the 
refreshment  and  of  the  scriptural  illus 
tration.  A  female  Nubian  slave  accord 
ingly  brought  water,  which  she  poured 
upon  our  feet  over  a  large  shallow  basin 
of  tinned  copper,  kneeling  before  us  and 
rubbing  our  feet  with  her  hands,  and 
wiping  them  with  a  napkin.  It  was  one 
of  the  most  gratifying  minor  incidents 
of  our  whole  journey."  Our  Saviour, 
after  his  last  supper,  gave  a  striking  les 
son  of  humility,  by  washing  his  disci 
ples'  feet,  John  13  :  5,  6,  though  the 
eighth  verse  shows  that  he  had  also  a 
deeper  meaning.  See  SANDALS. 

FOOT'MEN,  or  runners,  were  attend 
ants  on  Eastern  princes,  trained  to  run 
before  their  chariots,  1  Sam.  8:11.  So 
Elijah  ran  before  Ahab,  1  Kin.  18:46. 
The  speed  and  endurance  of  some  of 
these  couriers  is  almost  beyond  belief, 
Jer.  42:5. 

FORE-HEAD,  Ezek.  9;  Rev.  7:3. 
The  devotees  of  different  idols  in  India 
receive  at  this  day  different  marks  on 
the  forehead,  distinguishing  them  one 
from  another.  By  a  similar  method  the 
slaves  claimed  by  different  owners  were 
sometimes  designated. 

FORNICATION.  This  word  is  used 
in  Scripture  not  only  for  the  sin  of  im 
purity  between  unmarried  persons,  but 
158 


for  idolatry,  and  for  all  kinds  of  infidel 
ity  to  God.  In  Ezek.  16,  the  Jewish 
church  is  symbolized  as  a  female  infant, 
growing  up  to  womanhood,  and  then 
wedded  to  Jehovah  by  covenant.  When 
she  breaks  her  covenant  by  going  after 
idols,  she  is  justly  reproached  as  an  adul 
teress  arid  a  harlot,  Jer.  2:20;  3:8,  9; 
Hos.  3:1.  Adultery  and  fornication  are 
frequently  confounded.  Both  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  condemn  all  impu 
rity  and  fornication,  corporeal  and  spirit 
ual — idolatry,  apostasy,  heresy,  and  in 
fidelity.  See  ADULTERY. 

FORTUNATUS,  1  Cor.  16:17,  came 
from  Corinth  to  Ephesus,  to  visit  Paul. 
Paul  speaks  of  Stephanus,  Fortunatus, 
and  Acha'icus  as  the  first-fruits  of  Achaia, 
and  as  set  for  the  service  of  the  church 
and  saints.  They  carried  Paul's  first 
epistle  to  Corinth. 

FOUN'TAINS,  or  perennial  springs  of 
good  water,  were  of  inestimable  value 
in  Palestine,  and  numerous  places  took 
their  name  from  some  fountain  in  their 
vicinity.  They  have  furnished  to  the 
sacred  writers  some  of  their  finest  illus 
trations  of  spiritual  things.  Thus,  God 
is  "the  Fountain  of  living  waters,"  Jer. 
2 : 13.  The  atonement  is  a  precious  foun 
tain  of  cleansing,  healing,  life-giving 
power,  Joel  3 : 18  ;  Zech.  13:1.  The  con 
solations  of  the  gospel  arid  the  felicity  of 
heaven  are  also  described  by  this  simili 
tude,  Psa.  36 : 7-9 ;  Rev.  7 : 17.  See  WELLS. 

FOWL.     See  BIRDS. 

FOX.  Two  words  in  Hebrew  are 
translated  "fox"  in  the  Bible  ;  and  it  is 
not  easy  in  every  case  to  determine 
what  animal  is  referred  to.  There  were 
several  varieties  of  fox  in  Palestine,  all 
like  the  common  fox  in  form  and  habits. 
The  fox  is  cunning,  voracious,  and  mis 
chievous,  Ezek.  13:4;  Luke  13:32.  He 
is  fond  of  grapes,  and  does  much  harm 
in  vineyards,  Song  2:15.  The  fable  of 
the  fox  and  the  sour  grapes  is  well 
known.  He  is  solitary  in  his  habits, 
and  burrows  a  home  for  himself  in  the 
ground,  Luke  9:58.  The/ac&a/,  at  the 
present  day,  is  much  more  numerous  in 
Palestine,  and  is  probably  referred  to  in 
many  texts  where  the  word  "foxes "  oc- 
curs.  It  is  like  a  medium-sized  dog,  with 
ahead  like  the  wolf's,  and  a  tail  like  the 
fox's  ;  of  a  bright  yellow  color.  To  the^ 
fierceness  of  the  wolf  it  joins  the  impudent 
familiarity  of  the  dog.  It  differs  from 
the  fox  in  its  habit  of  hunting  its  prey 


FRA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FRO 


in  large  packs,  and  in  its  cry — a  mourn 
ful  howl,  mixed  with  barking,  which 
they  keep  up  all  night,  to  the  annoy 
ance  of  all  within  hearing.  They  live 
in  holes ;  prowl  around  villages ;  rav 
age  poultry-yards ;  feed  upon  game,  liz 
ards,  insects,  grapes,  garbage  ;  and  when 
they  can  find  nothing  else,  old  leather 
and  any  thing  that  has  once  had  animal 
life.  They  follow  after  caravans  and 
armies,  and  devour  the  bodies  of  the 
dead,  and  even  dig  them  up  from  their 
graves,  Psa.  63:10;  Lam.  5:18.  The 
incident  in  the  life  of  Samson,  where 
foxes,  or  perhaps  jackals,  are  referred  to, 
Judg.  15:4,  5,  has  a  parallel  in  the  an 
cient  Roman  feast  of  Ceres,  goddess  of 
corn;  when  torches  were  bound  to  the 
tails  of  numbers  of  foxes,  and  they  ran 
round  the  circus  till  the  fire  stopped 
and  consumed  them.  This  was  in  re 
venge  for  their  once  burning  up  some 
fields  of  corn. 

FRANK'INCENSE.     See  INCENSE. 

FRIEND.  Abraham  is  signally  hon 
ored  in  being  called  "  the  friend  of  God," 
Isa.  41:8;  James  2:23.  Christ  granted 
a  similar  honor  and  blessing  to  his  disci 
ples,  John  15: 15.  It  is  a  different  word, 
however,  in  Greek,  by  which  he  address 
ed  Judas,  Matt.  26:50;  the  word  there 
translated  friend,  means  simply  compan 
ion,  and  appears  to  have  been  used  as  a 
conversational  term  not  implying  friend 
ship.  The  same  word  occurs  in  Matt. 
20:13;  22:12. 

FROG,  a  well-known  amphibious  ani 
mal,  famous  in  connection  with  the 
plagues  in  Egypt,  Ex.  8:1-14.  The  ma 
gicians  are  said  to  have  brought  up  frogs 
upon  the  land  by  their  enchantments ; 


but  as  they  could  not  remove  them,  it  is 
clear  that  they  did  not  actually  produce 
them.  They  penetrated  everywhere— 
to  the  beds  of  the  Egyptians,  which  were 
near  the  ground;  and  to  their  ovens, 
which  were  cavities  in  the  ground. 

FRONT'LETS  are  thus  described  by 
Leo  of  Modena :  the  Jews  take  four 
pieces  of  parchment,  and  write  with  an 
ink  made  on  purpose,  and  in  square  let 
ters,  these  four  passages,  one  on  each 
piece:  (1.)  "Sanctify  unto  me  all  the 
first-born,"  etc., Ex.  13:2-10.  (2.)  "And 
when  the  Lord  shall  bring  thee  into  the 
land  of  theCanaanites,"  etc.,ver.  11-16. 
(3.)  "  Hear,  0  Israel ;  the  Lord  our  God 
is  one  Lord,"  etc.,  Deut.  6:4-9.  (4.)  "  If 
you  shall  hearken  diligently  unto  my 
commandments,"  etc.,  ver.  13-21.  This 
they  do  in  obedience  to  the  words  of 
Moses:  "These  commandments  shall  be 
for  a  sign  unto  thee  upon  thy  hand,  and 
for  a  memorial  between  thine  eyes. ' ' 

These  four  pieces  are  fastened  togeth 
er,  and  a  square  formed  of  them,  on 
which  the  Hebrew  letter  EJ  Shin  is  writ 


ten  ;  then  a  little  square  of  hard  calf 
skin  is  put  at  the  top,  out  of  which  come 


two  leathern  strings.  This  square  is  put 
on  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  and  the 
159 


FUL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAB 


strings  being  girt  about  the  head,  are 
then  brought  before,  and  fall  on  the 
breast.  It  is  called  the  Tephila  of  the 
head.  The  most  devout  Jews  put  it  on 
both  at  morning  and  noon-day  prayer ; 
but  it  is  generally  worn  only  at  morning 
prayer.  See  PHYLACTERIES. 

FULFILLED'.  The  ordinary  mean 
ing  of  this  word  is  sufficiently  obvious. 
It  will  ultimately  be  recorded  over 
against  all  the  predictions  and  promises 
of  Jehovah,  every  one  having  been  fully 
accomplished  at  the  proper  time  and 
place,  Josh.  23:14;  Matt.  2:17;  8:17; 
12: 17.  There  are  in  the  New  Testament 
many  instances  of  such  an  accomplish 
ment,  where  the  purposes  of  men  were 
very  different,  and  those  who  figured  in 
the  transaction  did  not  dream  of  any 
thing  but  some  evil  project  of  their  own. 
Thus  in  John  19:24,  28,  36,  the  actual 
agents  in  Christ's  crucifixion  had  no 
thought  that  they  were  fulfilling  the 
purposes  of  God.  Sometimes  also  the 
phrase,  "that  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  sig 
nifies  that  the  occurrence  to  which  it  is 
applied  is  a  secondary  fulfilment,  a  veri 
fication,  or  simply  an  illustration  of  the 
original  prophetic  passage — yet  fore 
known  and  foreordained  of  God.  Thus 
the  words  of  Hosea  11:1,  "I  called  my 
son  out  of  Egypt,"  refer  directly  to 
the  exodus  of  Israel  from  that  land  of 
bondage ;  but,  as  we  learn  from  Matt. 
2:15,  they  were  not  suggested  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  the  prophet  without  a 
regard  to  their  foreseen  application  to 
the  case  of  Christ.  Compare  also  Matt. 
13 : 14,  with  Isa.  6:9;  Luke  4 : 18-21,  with 
Isa.  61 : 1-3  ;  Acts  1 : 16,  20,  with  Psa. 
109:8. 

FUL'LEE,  a  cleanser  of  cloth.  His 
process  is  unknown.  Christ's  robes  at 
the  transfiguration  were  white  "so  as 
no  fuller  on  earth  can  white  them," 
Mark  9:3.  We  read  also  of  fullers' 
soap,  Mai.  3:2,  and  of  the  fullers'  foun 
tain.  See  EN-ROGEL. 

FU'NERAL.  See  BURIAL  and  SEPUL 
CHRE. 

FUR'LONG  is  put,  in  the  New  Testa 
ment,  for  the  Greek,  or  rather,  Roman 
stadium,  which  contained  about  201 
45-100  yards.  The  English  furlong, 
one-eighth  of  a  mile,  contains  220  yards ; 
and  is  thus  one-twelfth  longer  than  the 
Roman  stadium,  Luke  24:13. 

FUR'NACES  were  often  portable,  Gen. 
15:17.  They  were  used  for  melting  the 
1GO 


precious  metals,  Prov.  17:3.  The  furnace 
into  which  Daniel's  three  friends  were 
cast  was  large,  and  remained  open  after 
they  were  cast  in,  Dan.  3.  The  fearful 
punishment  spoken  of  in  Jer.  29:22  is 
still  used  in  the  East.  The  word  furnace 
is  used  to  illustrate  a  state  of  oppression, 
Deut.  4:20,  and  of  affliction,  Isa.  48:10. 
FU'RY  is  attributed  to  God  metaphor 
ically,  or  speaking  after  the  manner  of 
men  ;  that  is,  God's  providential  actions 
are  such  as  would  be  performed  by  a 
man  in  a  state  of  anger  ;  so  that,  when 
he  is  said  to  pour  out  his  fury  on  a  per 
son,  or  on  a  people,  it  is  a  figurative  ex 
pression  for  dispensing  afflictive  provi 
dences.  But  we  must  be  cautious  not  to 
attribute  human  infirmities,  passions,  or 
malevolence  to  the  Deity. 


GAAL,  Judg.  9:26-41,  son  of  Ebed, 
perhaps  a  descendant  of  Hamor,  the  fa 
ther  of  Shechem,  Gen.  34:2-6.  He  joined 
the  Shechemites  when  revolting  against 
Abimelech,  son  of  Gideon,  inflamed  their 
passions,  and  led  them  to  battle,  but  was 
defeated,  and  excluded  from  the  city. 

GA'ASH,  a  hill  of  Ephraim,  north  of 
which  stood  Timnath-seres,  celebrated 
for  Joshua's,  tomb,  Josh.  24:30.  The 
brooks,  or  valleys  of  Gaash,  2  Sam. 
23:30;  1  Chr.  11:32,  were  probably  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill. 

GAB'BATHA,  an  elevated  place,  the 
name  of  a  place  in  front  of  Pilate's  pal 
ace,  whence  he  pronounced  sentence 
against  our  Saviour,  John  19  :  13.  In 
Greek  it  was  called  the  pavement.  It 
was  not  the  usual  judgment-hall,  which 
the  Jews  could  not  then  enter,  but  some 
place  in  the  vicinity  of  the  crowd  with 
out,  John  18:28;  19:4,  9,  13.  It  ap 
pears  to  have  been  a  checkered  marble 
pavement,  or  mosaic  floor,  on  which  his 
seat  of  judgment  was  erected.  Such 
ornamented  pavements  had  become  com 
mon  at  that  day  among  the  wealthy  Ro 
mans. 

GA'BRIEL,  a  principal  angel.  He  was 
sent  to  the  prophet  Daniel  to  explain  his 
visions ;  also  to  Zacharias,  to  announce 
to  him  the  future  birth  of  John  the  Bap 
tist,  Dan.  8:16;  9:21;  Luke  1:11,  19. 
Six  months  afterwards,  he  was  sent  to 
Nazareth,  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  Luke 
1:26-38. 


GAD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAL 


GAD,  prosperity,  fortune,  I.,  son  of  Ja 
cob  and  Zilpah,  Leah's  servant,  Gen. 
30:11.  Leah  called  him  Gad,  and  said, 
"A  troop  cometh."  Compare  Gen. 
49:19;  but  many  Hebrew  scholars  pre 
fer  the  rendering,  good  fortune  or  pros 
perity  cometh.  The  tribe  of  Gad  came 
out  of  Egypt  in  number  forty-live  thou 
sand  six  hundred  and  fifty,  Gen.  46:16  ; 
Num.  1  :  24.  After  the  defeat  of  the 
kings  Og  and  Sihon,  Gad  and  Reuben 
desired  to  have  their  allotment  east  of 
Jordan,  alleging  their  great  number  of 
cattle.  Moses  granted  their  request,  on 
condition  that  they  should  accompany 
their  brethren,  and  assist  in  conquer 
ing  the  land  west  of  Jordan,  Num.  82. 
The  inheritance  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  lay 
between  Manasseh  on  the  north,  Reuben 
on  the  south,  the  Jordan  on  the  west, 
and  the  Ammonites  on  the  east.  The 
north-west  point  stretched  to  the  sea  of 
Galilee.  It  was  a  fine  pastoral  region, 
though  its  exposure  to  the  incursions  of 
eastern  Arabians  compelled  the  Gadites 
to  be  well  armed  and  on  the  alert,  Gen. 
49:19;  Deut.  33:20;  1  Chr.  5:18-22,  25, 
26;  12:8.  The  principal  cities  of  Gad 
are  called  cities  of  Gilead,  Josh.  13:25. 

II.  David's  friend,  who  followed  him 
when  persecuted  by  Saul,  and  was  often 
sent  with  a  divine  message  to  David, 
1  Sam.  22:5;  2  Sam.  24:11-19;  1  Chr. 
21:9-19  ;  2  Chr.  29:25.    Scripture  styles 
him  a  prophet,  and  David's  seer.      He 
appears  to  have  written  a  history  of  Da 
vid's  life  ;  which  is  cited  in  1  Chr.  29:29. 

III.  Rendered  "troop"  in  Isa.  65:11, 
but  generally  supposed  to  be  the  name 
of  a  heathen  god  of  Fortune ;  and  per 
haps  of  the  planet  Jupiter,  the  star  of 
good  fortune.      Compare  Josh.    11:17; 
15:37.      MENI  in  the  same  verse,  trans 
lated  "number,"  is  supposed  by  some 
to  mean  destiny ;  by  others,  the  planet 
Venus,  the  goddess  of  good  fortune. 

GAD'ARA,  now  Um-keis,  a  fortified 
chief  city  of  Decapolis,  of  considerable 
importance  in  the  time  of  Christ,  and 
having  many  Greek  inhabitants.  It  lay 
south  of  the  river  Hieromax,  seven  miles 
south-east  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  upon  the 
level  summit  of  a  steep  limestone  hill. 
A  few  ruins  are  found  on  the  top  of  the 
hill ;  many  excavated  tombs  on  its  sides, 
still  partly  occupied  as  residences;  and 
warm-springs  at  its  base.  The  country 
of  the  Gadarenes  extended  to  the  Jordan 
Mid  the  sea  of  Galilee ;  and  in  the  part 


of  it  bordering  on  the  lake  occurred  ths 
miracle  recorded  in  Matt.  8:28;  9:1; 
Mark  5 : 1-20  ;  Luke  8 : 26-39.  A  legion 
of  demons  were  cast  out  of  two  men,  and 
entered  a  herd  of  swine,  causing  their 
destruction.  See  GEB.GESENES, 

GA'IUS,  or  CAIUS,  I.,  a  Macedonian, 
who  accompanied  Paul  in  his  travels, 
and  whose  life  was  in  danger  at  Ephesus, 
Acts  19:29. 

II.  A  Corinthian  convert  of  Paul,  who 
hospitably  entertained  the  apostle  while 
laboring  at  Corinth,  Rom.  10:23  ;  1  Cor. 
1:14. 

III.  Of  Derbe ;   an  attendant  of  Paul 
from  Corinth,  in  his  last  journey  to  Je 
rusalem,  Acts  20:4. 

The  third  epistle  of  John  is  addressed 
"to  the  well-beloved  Gaius ;"  whose 
character  for  hospitality  comports  well 
with  that  of  II.  above.  The  name  was 
a  common  one  wherever  the  Romans 
lived ;  and  yet  it  is  not  certain  that  more 
than  one  or  two  different  individuals  of 
this  name  are  spoken  of  in  Scripture. 

GALA'TIA,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
lying  south  and  south-east  of  Bithynia 
and  Paphlagonia,  west  of  Pontus,  north 
and  north-west  of  Cappadocia,  and  north 
and  north-east  of  Lycaonia  and  Phrygia. 
Its  name  was  derived  from  the  Gauls ; 
of  whom  two  tribes,  (Trocmi  and  Tolis- 
toboii,)  with  a  tribe  of  the  Celts,  (Tecto- 
sages,)  migrated  thither  after  the  sack 
ing  of  Rome  by  Brennus  ;  and  mingling 
with  the  former  inhabitants,  the  whole 
were  called  Gallogrscci,  B.  c.  280.  The 
Celtic  language  continued  to  be  spoken 
by  their  descendants  at  least  until  the 
time  of  Jerome,  six  hundred  years  after 
the  migration  ;  and  these  Gauls  of  Asia 
also  retained  much  of  the  mercurial 
and  impulsive  disposition  of  the  Gallic 
race.  Compare  Gal.  1:6;  4  : 15 ;  5:7. 
Under  Augustus,  about  B.  c.  26,  this 
country  was  reduced  to  the  form  of  a 
Roman  province,  and  was  governed  by  a 
propraetor.  Galatia  was  distinguished 
for  the  fertility  of  its  soil  and  the  flour 
ishing  state  of  its  trade.  It  was  also  the 
seat  of  colonies  from  various  nations, 
among  whom  were  many  Jews  ;  and  from 
all  of  these  Paul  appears  to  have  made 
many  converts  to  Christianity,  1  Cor. J 
16:1.  His  first  visit,  Acts  16:6,  proba 
bly  took  place  about  A.  D.  51-2  ;  and  the 
second,  Acts  18:23,  after  which  his  epis 
tle  to  the  Galatians  appears  to  have  been 
written,  was  several  years  later.  At  his 
161 


GAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAL 


first  visit  tie  was  sick ;  yet  they  received 
him  "as  an  angel  of  God,"  and  most 
heartily  embraced  the  gospel.  Four  or 
rive  years  afterwards  Jewish  teachers, 
professing  Christianity,  came  among 
them;  they  denied  Paul's  apostolic  au 
thority,  exalted  the  works  of  the  law, 
and  perverted  the  true  gospel  by  inter 
mixing  with  it  the  rites  of  Judaism. 
Paul,  learning  their  state,  probably  at 
Corinth,  A.  D.  57-8,  wrote  his  epistle  to 
the  Galatians.  He  indignantly  rebukes 
his  children  in  Christ  for  their  sudden 
alienation  from  him  and  from  the  truth ; 
vindicates  his  authority  and  his  teach 
ings  as  an  apostle,  by  showing  that  he 
received  them  from  Christ  himself ;  and 
forcibly  presents  the  great  doctrine  of 
Christianity — justification  by  faith — with 
its  relations  to  the  law  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  holy  living  on  the  other.  The 
general  subject  of  the  epistle  is  the  same 
as  of  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  it 
appears  to  have  been  written  at  about 
the  same  time  with  that.  The  churches 
of  Galatia  are  mentioned  in  ecclesiastical 
history  for  about  nine  hundred  years. 

GAL'BANUM,  an  ingredient  in  the 
incense  burned  at  the  golden  altar,  in 
the  Holy  Place,  Ex.  30:34.  It  is  the 
gum  of  a  plant  growing  in  Abyssinia, 
Arabia,  and  Syria,  called  by  Pliny  stago- 
nitis,  but  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
Bubon  Galbanum  of  Linnceus.  The  gum 
is  unctuous  and  adhesive,  of  a  strong 
and  somewhat  astringent  smell. 

GAL'ILEE,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  in 
cluded  all  the  northern  part  of  Palestine 
lying  west  of  the  Jordan  and  north  of  Sa 
maria.  Before  the  exile  the  name  seems 
to  have  been  applied  only  to  a  small  tract 
bordering  on  the  northern  limits,  1  Kin. 
9:11.  Galilee,  in  the  time  of  Christ, 
was  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower,  the 
former  lying  north  of  the  territory  of 
the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  and  abounding  in 
mountains ;  the  latter  being  more  level 
and  fertile,  and  very  populous ;  the 
whole  comprehending  the  four  tribes  of 
Issachar,  Zebulun,  Naphtali,  and  Asher. 
Lower  Galilee  is  said  to  have  contained 
four  hundred  and  four  towns  and  villa 
ges,  of  which  Josephus  mentions  Tibe 
rias,  Sepphoris,  and  Gabara,  as  the  prin 
cipal  ;  though  Capernaum  and  Nazareth 
are  the  most  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  Mark  1:9  ;  Luke  2:39  ; 
John  7:52,  etc.  "Galilee  of  the  Gen 
tiles  ' '  is  supposed  to  be  Upper  Galilee, 
162 


either  because  it  bordered  on  Tyre  and 
Zidon,  or  because  Phenicians,  Syrians, 
Arabs,  and  other  heathen  were  numer 
ous  among  its  inhabitants.  The  Galile 
ans  were  accounted  brave  and  industri 
ous  ;  though  other  Jews  affected  to  con 
sider  them  as  not  only  stupid  and  un 
polished,  but  also  seditious,  and  there 
fore  proper  objects  of  contempt,  Luke 
13:1;  23:6;  John  1:47;  7:52.  They 
appear  to  have  used  a  peculiar  dialect, 
by  which  they  were  easily  distinguished 
from  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem,  Mark  14:70. 
Many  of  the  apostles  and  first  converts 
to  Christianity  were  men  of  Galilee, 
Acts  1:11;  2:7,  as  well  as  Christ  him 
self  ;  and  the  name  Galilean  was  often 
given  as  an  insult,  both  to  him  and  his 
followers.  The  apostate  emperor  Julian 
constantly  used  it,  and  in  his  dying  ago 
ny  and  rage  cried  out,  "O  Galilean, 
thou  hast  conquered!"  Our  Saviour 
resided  here  from  infancy  till  he  was 
thirty  years  of  age,  and  during  much  of 
his  public  ministry ;  and  the  cities  of 
Nazareth,  Nain,  Cana,  Capernaum,  with 
the  whole  region  of  the  sea  of  Galilee, 
are  sacredly  endeared  to  all  his  people 
by  the  words  he  there  spoke,  and  the 
wonders  he  wrought.  For  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  see  SEA  III. 

GALL,  a  general  name  for  any  thing 
very  bitter.  In  Job  16:13  ;  20  :  14,  25, 
it  means  the  animal  secretion  usually 
called  the  bile.  In  many  other  places, 
where  a  different  word  is  used  in  the 
original,  it  refers  to  some  bitter  and  nox 
ious  plant,  according  to  some,  the  poppy. 
See  Deut.  29:18;  Jer.  9:15;  23:15.  In 
Hos.  10:4 ;  Amos  6: 12,  the  Hebrew  word 
is  translated  ' '  hemlock. ' '  In  Matt.  27 : 34, 
it  is  said  they  gave  Jesus  to  drink,  vin 
egar  mixed  with  gall,  which  in  Mark 
15:23,  is  called  wine  mingled  with  myrrh. 
It  was  probably  the  sour  wine  which  the 
Roman  soldiers  used  to  drink,  mingled 
with  myrrh  and  other  bitter  substances, 
very  much  like  the  "  bitters ' '  of  modern 
times,  Psa.  69 : 21.  The  word  gall  is  often 
used  figuratively  for  great  troubles,  wick 
edness,  depravity,  etc.,  Jer.  8:14;  Amos 
6:12;  Acts  8:23. 

GALLEY,  Isa.  33:21.     See  SHIP. 

GAL'LIO,  a  proconsul  of  Achaia,  un 
der  the  emperor  Claudius,  in  the  time  of 
Paul,  Acts  18:12-17.  He  was  the  elder 
brother  of  the  philosopher  Seneca,  who 
describes  him,  as  uncommonly  amiable 
and  upright.  His  residence  was  at  Cor- 


GAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAR 


i.nth ;  and  when  the  Jews  of  that  city 
made  an  insurrection  against  Paul,  and 
dragged  him  before  the  judgment-seat, 
Gallic  refused  to  entertain  their  clamor 
ous  and  unjust  demands.  The  Greeks 
who  were  present,  pleased  with  the  re 
buff  the  persecuting  Jews  had  received, 
fell  upon  Sosthenes  their  leader,  and  beat 
him  upon  the  spot,  a  mode  of  retribution 
which  Gallio  ought  not  to  have  allowed. 
Like  his  brother  Seneca,  he  suffered  death 
by  order  of  the  tyrant  Nero. 

GAMALIEL,  a  celebrated  Pharisee  in 
the  generation  after  Christ,  a  doctor  of 
the  law,  and  member  of  the  Sanhedrim. 
He  possessed  great  influence  among  the 
Jews,  and  is  said  by  some  to  have  pre 
sided  over  the  Sanhedrim  during  the 
reigns  of  Tiberius,  Caius,  and  Claudius. 
The  Talmudists  say  that  he  was  the  son 
of  rabbi  Simeon,  and  grandson  of  Hillel, 
the  celebrated  teacher  of  the  law,  and 
that  upon  his  death  the  glory  of  the  law 
departed.  His  noble  intervention  before 
the  Sanhedrim  saved  the  apostles  from 
an  ignominious  death,  and  shows  that 
he  was  gifted  with  great  wisdom  and  tol 
erance,  if  not  strongly  inclined  towards 
the  gospel,  Acts  5:33-40.  The  apostle 
Paul  thought  it  a  high  honor  to  have 
been  one  of  his  pupils,  Acts  22: 3,  and  no 
doubt  received  from  him  not  only  a  zeal 
ous  enthusiasm  for  the  Jewish  law,  but 
many  lessons  of  candor,  impartiality, 
and  liberality.  His  high  renown,  how 
ever,  among  the  Jewish  rabbins  of  later 
ages,  seems  inconsistent  with  the  tradi 
tion  that  he  embraced  Christianity. 

GAM'MADIM  is  used  in  the  English 
Bible,  Ezek.  27  :  11,  as  the  name  of  a 
people ;  but  it  rather  means  simply  the 
brave,  the  warlike. 

GAR/DENS  are  often  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  though  in  a  sense  somewhat 
peculiar ;  for  in  the  language  of  the  He 
brews,  everyplace  where  plants  and  trees 
were  cultivated  with  greater  care  than 
in  the  open  field,  was  called  a  garden. 
Fruit  and  shade  trees,  with  aromatic 
shrubs,  sometimes  constituted  the  gar 
den  ;  though  roses,  lilies,  and  various 
flowers  were  often  cultivated,  and  some 
gardens  were  used  only  for  table  vegeta 
bles,  Gen.  2:8-10,  15;  1  Kin.  21:2;  Est. 
1:5;  7  :  7,  8  ;  Eccl.  2  :  5,  6.  They  were 
located,  if  possible,  beside  a  river  or  foun 
tain,  Gen.  13:10;  Num.  24:6.  In  other 
places  reservoirs  were  provided,  from 
which  the  water  was  distributed  in  va 


rious  ways,  as  occasion  required,  Prov. 
21:1;  Song  4:12-16;  Isa.  58:11.  Gar 
dens  were  inclosed  by  walls,  or  by  hedges 
of  rose-bushes,  wild  pomegranate-trees, 
or  other  shrubs,  many  of  which  in  Pales 
tine  have  long  and  sharp  thorns,  2  Sam. 
23:6,  7  ;  Job  1  : 10 ;  Prov.  15  : 19  ;  Hos. 
2:6.  Often,  however,  they  were  left  un- 
inclosed,  and  were  watched  when  their 
fruits  began  to  ripen,  Isa.  1:8  ;  Jer.  4:16, 
17.  It  is  still  customary  in  Egypt,  Ara 
bia,  and  Hindostan,  to  plant  a  large  level 
tract  with  melons,  cucumbers,  etc.,  and 
place  a  small  hut  or  booth  on  a  mound 
in  the  centre.  In  this  a  solitary  keeper 
is  stationed,  who  remains  day  and  night 
until  the  fruits  are  gathered,  Job  27 : 18 ; 
Isa.  1 : 8.  Gardens  and  groves  were  often 
furnished  with  pavilions,  seats,  etc. ,  and 
were  resorted  to  for  banqueting  and 
mirth,  Isa.  51  :  3 ;  for  retirement  and 
meditation,  John  18  :  1 ;  for  devotional 
purposes,  Matt.  26:30  ;  John  1:48  ;  18:1, 
2  ;  and  for  idolatrous  abominations, 
IKin.  14:23;  Isa.  1:29;  65:3;  66:17; 
Jer.  2  :  20 ;  3  :  6.  A  family  tomb  was 
often  prepared  in  a  garden,  John  19:41. 
GAR/LIC,  a  bulbous  vegetable,  of  pun 
gent  smell  and  taste,  and  highly  prized 
in  the  East.  The  Jews  acquired  a  liking 
for  it  in  Egypt,  Num.  11:5.  One  varie 
ty,  called  the  eschalot,  or  shallot,  was 
introduced  into  Europe  from  Ascalon. 


GAR'MENTS.  The  chief  garments  of 
;he  Hebrews  were  the  tunic  or  inner 
garment,  and  the  mantle  or  outer  gar 
ment.  These  seem  to  have  constituted 
a  "change  of  raiment,"  Judg.  14:13; 
19  ;  Acts  9:39.  The  tunic  was  of  linen, 
and  was  worn  next  to  the  skin,  fitting 
163 


GAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GAR 


close  to  the  body  ;  it  had  armholes,  and 
sometimes  wide  and  open  sleeves,  and 
reached  below  the  knees  ;  that  worn  by 
females  reached  to  the  ankles.  The  tu 
nic  was  sometimes  woven  without  seam, 
like  that  of  Jesus,  John  19:23.  The  up 
per  garment  or  mantle  was  a  piece  of 
cloth  nearly  square,  and  two  or  three 
yards  in  length  and  breadth,  which  was 
wrapped  round  the  body,  or  tied  over 
the  shoulders.  A  man  without  this  robe 
on  was  sometimes  said  to  be  "naked," 
Isa,  20:2-4;  John  21:7.  This  could  be 
so  arranged  as  to  form  a  large  bosom  for 
carrying  things;  and  the  mantle  also 
served  the  poor  as  a  bed  by  night,  Ex. 
22  :  26,  27  ;  Job  22  :  6.  See  BOSOM  and 
BED. 


Between  these  two  garments,  the  He 
brews  sometimes  wore  a  third,  called 
tw-il,  a  long  and  wide  robe  or  tunic  of 
cotton  or  linen,  without  sleeves. 

The  head  was  usually  bare,  or  covered 
from  too  fierce  a  sunshine,  or  from  rain, 
by  a  fold  of  the  outer  mantle,  2  Sam. 
15:30;  1  Kin.  19:13;  Esth.  6:12.  The' 
priests,  however,  wore  a  mitre,  bonnet, 
or  sacred  turban ;  and  after  the  captivity, 
the  Jews  adopted  to  some  extent  the 
turban,  now  so  universal  in  the  East. 
Women  wore  a  variety  of  plain  and  or 
namented  headdresses.  Veils  were  also 
;an  article  of  female  dress,  Isa.  3  : 19. 
jThey  were  of  various  kinds,  and  were 
used  alike  by  married  and  unmarried 
women ;  generally  as  a  token  of  modesty, 
or  of  subjection  to  the  authority  of  the 
husband,  Gen.  24  :  65  ;  1  Cor.  11:3-10; 
but  sometimes  for  the  purpose  of  con 
cealment,  Gen.  38 : 14. 
164 


As  the  Hebrews  did  not  change  the 
fashion  of  their  clothes,  as  we  do,  it  was 
common  to  lay  up  stores  of  raiment  be 
forehand,  in  proportion  to  their  wealth, 
Isa.  3:6.  To  this  Christ  alludes  when 
he  speaks  of  treasures  which  the  moth 
devours,  Matt.  6  :  19 ;  James  5:1,  2. 
But  though  there  was  a  general  uniform 
ity  in  dress  from  age  to  age,  no  doubt 
various  changes  took  place  in  the  long 
course  of  Bible  history  ;  and  at  all  times 
numerous  and  increasing  varieties  exist 
ed  among  the  different  classes,  especially 
in  materials  and  ornaments.  In  early 
ages,  and  where  society  was  wild  and 
rude,  the  skins  of  animals  were  made 
into  clothing,  Gen.  3  :  21 ;  Heb.  11 :  37. 
Spinning,  weaving,  and  needlework  soon 
began  to  be  practised,  Ex.  85 : 25  ;  Judg. 
5 : 30.  A  coarse  cloth  was  made  of  goats' 
or  camels'  hair,  and  finer  cloths  of  wool 
en,  linen,  and  probably  cotton.  Their 
manufacture  was  a  branch  of  domestic 
industry,  Prov.  31:13-24. 

The  great  and  wealthy  delighted  in 
white  raiment ;  and  hence  this  is  also  a 
mark  of  opulence  and  prosperity,  Eccl. 
9 : 8.  Angels  are  described  as  clothed  in 
pure  and  cheerful  white ;  and  such  was 
the  appearance  of  our  Saviour's  raiment 
during  his  transfiguration,  Matt.  17:2. 
The  saints,  in  like  mariner,  are  described 
as  clothed  in  white  robes,  Rev.  7  :  9,  13, 
14 ;  the  righteousness  of  Christ  in  which 
they  are  clothed  is  more  glorious  than 
that  of  the  angels. 

The  garments  of  mourning  among  the 
Hebrews  were  sackcloth  and  haircloth, 
and  their  color  dark  brown  or  black, 
Isa.  50:3;  Rev.  6:12.  As  the  prophets 
were  penitents  by  profession,  their  com 
mon  clothing  was  mourning.  Widows 
also  dressed  themselves  much  the  same. 
The  Hebrews,  in  common  with  their 
neighbors,  sometimes  used  a  variety  of 
colors  for  their  gayer  and  more  costly 
dresses,  Judg.  5:30.  So  also  according 
to  our  version,  Gen.  37  :  3,  23  ;  2  Sam. 
13  : 18 ;  though  in  these  passages  some 
understand  a  tunic  with  long  sleeves. 
Blue,  scarlet,  and  purple  are  most  fre 
quently  referred  to,  the  first  being  a  sa 
cred  color.  Embroidery  and  fine  needle 
work  were  highly  valued  among  them, 
Judg.  5:30;  Psa.  45:14. 

The  dress  of  females  differed  from  that 
of  males  less  than  is  customary  among 
us.  Yet  there  was  a  distinction ;  and 
Moses  expressly  forbade  any  exchange 


GAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


GAZ 


of  apparel  between  the  sexes,  Deut.  22:5 
a  custom  associated  with  immodesty 
and  with  the  worship  of  certain  idols 
It  is  not  clear  for  what  reason  clothing 
in  which  linen  and  woolen  were  woven 
together  was  prohibited,  Deut.  22:11;  but 
probably  it  had  reference  to  some  super 
stitious  usage  of  heathenism.  In  Isa. 
3:16-23,  mention  is  made  of  the  decora 
tions  common  among  the  Hebrew  women 
of  that  day  ;  among  which  seem  to  be 
included  tunics,  embroidered  vests,  wide 
flowing  mantles,  girdles,  veils,  caps  oi 
network,  and  metallic  ornaments  for  the 
ears  and  nose,  for  the  neck,  arms,  fin 
gers,  and  ankles ;  also  smelling-bottles 
and  metallic  mirrors.  In  Acts  19:12, 
mention  is  made  of  handkerchiefs  and 
aprons.  Drawers  were  used,  Ex.  28:42, 
but  perhaps  not  generally.  See  GIRDLES, 
RINGS,  and  SANDALS. 

Presents  of  dresses  are  alluded  to  very 
frequently  in  the  historical  books  of 
Scripture,  and  in  the  earliest  times. 
Joseph  gave  to  each  of  his  brethren  a 
change  of  raiment,  and  to  Benjamin  five 
phanges,  G-en.  45:22.  Naaman  gave  to 
Gehazi  two  changes  of  raiment ;  and 
even  Solomon  received  raiment  as  pres 
ents,  2  Chr.  9:24.  This  custom  is  still 
maintained  in  the  E  ist,  and  is  mention 
ed  by  most  travellers.  In  Turkey,  the 
appointment  to  any  important  office  is 
accompanied  with  the  gift  of  a  suitable 
official  robe.  In  the  parable  of  the  wed 
ding  garment,  the  king  expected  to  have 
found  all  his  guests  clad  in  robes  of  hon 
or  of  his  own  providing,  Matt.  22:11. 

GATE.  The  gates  of  eiistern  Availed 
towns  were  usually  of  wood,  Judg.  16:3, 
often  covered  with  thick  plates  of  iron 
or  copper,  Psa.  107:16;  Isa.  45:2;  Acts 
12:10,  secured  by  bolts  and  bars,  Deut. 
3:5;  1  Kin.  4:13,  and  flanked  by  tow 
ers,  2  Sam.  18:24,  33.  A  city  was  usu 
ally  regarded  as  taken  when  its  gates 
were  won,  Deut.  28  :  52  ;  Judg.  5  :  8. 
Hence  "gate"  sometimes  signifies  pow 
er,  dominion ;  almost  in  the  same  sense 
as  the  Turkish  sultan's  palace  is  called 
the  Porte,  or  Gate.  God  promises  Abra 
ham  that  his  posterity  shall  possess  the 
"•ates  of  their  enemies  —  their  towns, 
their  fortresses,  Gen.  22  :  17.  So  too, 
"  the  gates  of  hell,"  that  is,  the  power 
of  hell,  or  hell  itself. 

In  oriental  cities  there  was  always  an 
open  space  or  place  adjacent  to  each 
gate,  and  these  were  at  the  same  time 


the  market-places  and  the  place  of  jus 
tice,  Gen.  23: 10-18  ;  Ruth  4: 1-12 ;  Deut. 
16  : 18 ;  21 : 19  ;  25  :  6,  7  ;  Prov.  22  :  22 ; 
Amos  5  :  10,  12,  150  There  too  people 
assembled  to  spend  their  leisure  hours, 
Gen.  19:1.  Hence  "  they  that  sit  in  the 
gate"  is  put  for  idlers,  loungers,  who 
are  coupled  with  drunkards,  Psa.  69:12. 
The  wt>es  of  a  city  were  disclosed  in  tha 
mourning  or  loneliness  of  these  places  of 
resort,  Isa.  14:31 ;  Jer.  14:2.  Here  too 
the  public  proclamations  were  made,  and 
the  messages  of  prophets  delivered,  Prov. 
1:21;  8:3;  Isa  29:21 ;  Jer.  17:19;  26:10. 
Near  the  gate  of  a  city,  but  without  it, 
executions  took  place,  1  Kin.  21  :  13 ; 
Acts  7:58;  Heb.  13:12.  To  exalt  the 
gate  of  a  house  through  pride,  increased 
one's  exposure  to  robbery,  Prov.  17:19. 
To  open  it  wide  and  high  was  significant 
of  joy  and  welcome,  as  when  the  Saviour 
ascended  to  heaven,  Psa.  24:7,  9;  and 
the  open  gates  of  the  new  Jerusalem,  in 
contrast  with  those  of  earth! y  cities  care 
fully  closed  and  guarded  at  nightfall, 
indicate  the  happy  security  of  that  world 
of  light,  Rev.  21:25. 

GATH,  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  and 
one  of  their  five  principalities,  1  Sam. 
5:8  ;  6:17.  It  was  a  notable  city,  in  the 
border  of  the  Philistines  nearest  to  Jeru 
salem  ;  but  its  site  has  long  been  lost. 
It  was  the  home  of  Goliath,  ISam.  17:4. 
Compare  Josh.  11:22;  2  Sam.  21:19-22. 
Here  David  sought  a  refuge  from  Saul, 
1  Sam.  21  : 10  ;  27  :  2-7.  It  came  under 
liis  power  in  the  beginning  of  his  reigri 
over  all  Israel,  1  Chr.  18:1,  and  contin- 
icd  subject  to  his  successors  till  the  de 
clension*  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  Re- 
loboam  rebuilt  or  fortified  it,  2  Chr. 
LI: 8.  It  was  afterwards  recovered  by 
;he  Philistines,  but  Uzziah  reconquered 
t,  2  Chr.  26  :  6.  Its  inhabitants  were 
called  Gittites,  Josh.  13  :  3 ;  and  David 
lad  two  of  them  in  his  service,  who 
aithfully  adhered  to  him  during  the  re 
bellion  of  Absalom,  2  Sam.  15:18-22. 

GATH-HE'PHER,  in  Zebultm,  was  the 
Birthplace  of  Jonah,  1  Kin.  4:10;  2  Kin. 
14:25.  It  lay  near  Sepphoris,  on  a  road 
"eading  to  Tiberias. 

GAU'LAN,  or  GO'LAN,  a  Levitical  town 
)f  Bashan,  in  Manasseh  beyond  Jordan, 
^rom  it  was  named  the  small  province 
>f  Gaulonitis,  Deut.  4:43;  Josh.  20:8; 
21:27;  1  Chr.  6:71. 

GAZA,  or  AZZAH,  now  Ghuzzeh,  an 
ancient  city  in  the  south-west  corner  of 
165 


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BIBLE  DICT10NABY. 


GEH 


Canaan,  Gen.  10 : 19,  belonging  to  the 
A  vim,  Deut,  2:23,  and  afterwards  to  the 
Philistines.  Joshua  assigned  it  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  but  did  not  conquer  it, 
Josh-  10  :  41 ;  11 :  21,  22 ;  13  :  3  ;  15  :  47. 
Judah  seems  to  have  held  possession  of 
it  for  a  while ;  but  in  the  time  of  the 
judges  it  was  independent,  and  one  of 
the  rive  chief  cities  of  the  Philistines, 
Judg.  1 : 18  ;  3:3;  13  : 1 ;  16.  Samson 
Carried  away  its  gates,  and  afterwards 
perished  under  the  ruins  of  its  vast  tem 
ple.  The  ark  of  God  was  there  in  the 
days  of  Eli,  1  Sam.. 6.  It  yielded  alle 
giance  to  David  and  Solomon,  recovered 
its  liberty  in  the  reigns  of  Jotham  and 
Ahaz,  but  was  reconquered  by  Hezekiah, 
2  Kin.  18  :  8.  At  subsequent  periods  it 
was  occupied  by  Chaldeans,  Persians,  and 
Egyptians,  Jer!  47:1.  About  96  B.  c.  the 
Jewish  king  Alexander  Jannoeus  captured 
and  destroyed  it.  The  Koman  general 
Gabinius  rebuilt  it ;  and  not  long  after 
the  ascension  of  the  Saviour,  a  Christian 
church  was  planted  there  to  struggle 
with  the  prevailing  idolatry.  In  A.  D. 
684  it  came  under  the  Mohammedan 
yoke  ;  and  in  the  era  of  the  Crusades  had 
fallen  into  ruins.  It  was  partially  rebuilt 
and  fortified,  and  is  now  a  city  of  some 
15,000  inhabitants.  The  few  remains  of 
the  old  city  cover  a  large  but  low  hill, 
two  or  three  miles  from  the  sea,  once  so 
strongly  fortified  as  to  withstand  Alexan 
der  the  Great  for  five  months.  The  mod 
ern  city  lies  more  in  the  plain,  which  is 
exceedingly  fertile,  and  abounds  in  gar 
dens,  date-trees,  and  olive-trees.  There 
was  a  landing-place  and  "port"  for  an 
cient  Gaza,  but  no  harbor  wortly  of  the 
name.  It  was  often  referred  to  by  the 
prophets,  Jer.  25 : 20 ;  47 : 5 ;  Amos  1:6,7; 
Zeph.  2:4;  Zech.  9 : 5.  The  southern  route 
from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza,  memorable  in  the 
history  of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  is  called 
'  'desert' '  in  Acts  8 : 26,  as  passing  through 
a  region  then  destitute  of  villages. 

GAZELLE'.     See  ROE. 

GE'BA,  a  Levitical  town  of  Benjamin, 
Josh.  18  :  24 ;  21 : 17  ;  1  Chr.  8  :  6,  near 
Ramah,  Neh.  7:30;  Isa.  10:29,  and  not 
far  from  the  northern  border  of  the  king 
dom  of  Judah,  2  Kin.  23:8  ;  Zech.  14:10. 
Near  Geba  David  defeated  the  Philis 
tines,  2  Sam.  5:25.  Asa  renewed  it  from 
the  ruins  of  Ramah,  1  Kin.  15  :  22.  It 
was  six  or  seven  miles  from  Jerusalem, 
and  was  separated  from  Michmash  on  the 
north  by  a  deep  valley.  See  GIBEAH. 
166 


GE'BAL,  I.,  the  Gebalene  of  the  Ro 
mans,  was  a  district  of  Idumaea,  called 
also  at  the  present  day  Djebal,  signify 
ing  mountains.  It  is  the  northern  part 
of  the  range  of  mountains  skirting  the 
eastern  side  of  the  great  valley  Ei-Ara- 
bah,  which  runs  from  the  Dead  sea  to 
the  Elanitic  gulf  of  the  Red  sea,  Psa. 
83:7. 

II.  A  seaport  and  district  of  Phrenicia. 
north  of  Beyroot,  called  Byblos  by  the 
Greeks,  now  Jebail ;  population,  2,000. 
The  inhabitants  were  called  Giblites, 
and  are  denoted  in  the  Hebrew  word 
rendered  "  stone-squarers "  in  1  Kings 
5: 18.  Their  land  and  all  Lebanon  were 
assigned  to  the  Israelites,  but  never  fully 
possessed,  Josh.  13:5.  It  was  an  impor 
tant  place,  Ezek.  27:9,  and  the  seat  of 
the  worship  of  Thammuz. 

GEDALl'AH,  son  of  Ahikam,  appoint 
ed  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  govern  Judasa 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  Like 
his  father,  he  honored  and  befriended 
Jeremiah,  Jer.  40:5.  He  began  the  ad 
ministration  of  his  government  at  Miz- 
peh  with  wisdom,  but  in  two  months, 
was  treacherously  murdered  by  one  Ish-' 
mael,  2  Kin.  25:22-26  ;  Jer.  39: 14;  40:5- 
41:18. 

GE'DER.  This  word  signifies  a  wall, 
indosure,  fortified  place  ;  as  do  also  the  two 
names  following,  which  are  derived  from 
it.  Geder  itself  was  an  ancient  Canaan- 
itish  place,  in  the  plain  of  Judah,  Josh. 
12:13,  and  was  probably  the  same  with 
the  following  Gederah. 

GEDE'RAII,  a  city  in  the  plain  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15:36,  probably  the  same  with  the 
preceding  Geder,  and  with  Beth-Gader, 

1  Chr.  2:51.     It  would  thence  seem  to 
have  pertained  to  the  family  of  Caleb. 

GE'DOR,  a  city  in  the  mountains  of  Ju 
dah,  surrounded  by  fat  pastures,  and  for 
merly  occupied  by  the  Amalekites,  1  Chr. 
4 : 39 ;  12:7;  Josh.  15 : 58.  It  is  now  call 
ed  Jedur,  and  lies  about  eight  miles 
south-west  of  Bethlehem.  Gedor  is  also 
the  name  of  a  man,  1  Chr.  8:31 ;  9:37. 

GEHA'ZI,  a  confidential  attendant  of 
Elisha.  He  appears  in  the  story  of  the 
Shunammite  woman,  2  Kin.  4  :  14-37, 
and  in  that  of  Naaman  the  Syrian,  from 
whom  he  fraudulently  obtained  a  por 
tion  of  the  present  his  master  had  re 
fused.  His  covetousness  and  falsehoods 
were  punished  by  a  perpetual  leprosy, 

2  Kin.  5  :  20-27,  B.  c.  894.     We  after- 
wards  find  him  recounting  to  king  Jo 


GEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GEN 


horam  the  wonderful  deeds  of  Elisha,  at 
the  moment  when  the  providence  of 
God  brought  the  woman  of  Shunein  be 
fore  the  king,  to  claim  the  restoration  of 
her  lands,  2  Kin.  8:1-6. 

GEHEN'NA.     See  HINNOM. 

GEMARI'AH,  I.,  the  son  of  Shaphan, 
a  scribe  of  the  temple  in  the  time  of  Je- 
hoiakim.  In  his  apartment  Baruch  read 
aloud  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah;  and 
he,  with  others,  secured  a  second  and 
more  public  reading,  and  brought  the 
roll  to  be  read  to  the  king,  who  caused 
it  to  be  burned,  Jer.  36. 

II.  The  son  of  Hilkiah,  sent  to  Baby 
lon  by  king  Hezekiah  with  tribute-mon 
ey  for  Nebuchadnezzar.  He  was  also 
the  bearer  of  a  letter  in  which  Jeremiah 
warned  the  captive  Jews  against  false 
prophets  who  promised  them  a  speedy 
return,  Jer.  29:3,  4. 

GENEAL'OGY,  a  record  of  one's  an 
cestors,  either  the  line  of  natural  descent 
from  father  to  son,  or  the  line  in  which, 
by  the  laws,  the  inheritance  descended, 
or  that  preserved  in  the  public  records. 
Never  was  a  nation  more  careful  to  pre 
serve  their  genealogies  than  the  He 
brews,  for  on  them  rested  the  distinc 
tion  of  tribes,  the  ownership  of  lands, 
and  the  right  to  the  highest  offices  and 
privileges,  1  Chr.  5:1,  17;  9:1;  2  Chr. 
12:15  ;  Ezra  2  :  62.  Hence  their  public 
tables  of  genealogies  were  kept  secure 
amid  all  vicissitudes.  We  rind  in  the 
Bible  a  record  carried  on  for  more  than 
3,500  years,  1  Chr.  1 ;  3 ;  6 ;  and  thus 
were  guarded  the  proofs  that  Christ  was 
born  according  to  prophecy  of  the  seed 
of  Abraham,  and  heir  to  the  throne  of 
his  father  David,  Luke  1  :  32  ;  2  Tim. 
2:8;  Heb.  7:14.  In  the  evangelists  we 
have  the  genealogy  of  Christ  for  4,000 
years.  The  two  accounts  in  Matthew  1 
and  Luke  3,  differ  from  each  other  ;  one 
giving  probably  the  genealogy  of  Christ's 
reputed  father  Joseph,  and  the  other 
that  of  his  mother  Mary.  The  two  lines 
descend  from  Solomon  and  Nathan,  Da 
vid's  sons;  they  unite  in  Salathiel.  and 
again  in  Christ.  Joseph  was  the  legal 
father  of  Christ,  and  of  the  same  family 
connections  with  Mary  ;  so  that  the  Mes 
siah  was  a  descendant  of  David  both  by 
law  and  "  according  to  the  flesh."  The 
discrepances  between  the  various  gene 
alogies  may  be  reconciled  in  accordance 
with  peculiar  Jewish  laws.  The  public 
records,  which  Josephus  says  were  scru 


pulously  kept  down  to  his  day,  perished 
with  the  ruin  of  the  Jews  as  a  nation. 
It  is  now,  therefore,  impossible  for  any 
pretended  Messiah  to  prove  his  descent 
from  David. 

Melchizedek  was  "without  descent," 
Heb.  7  :  3,  as  regards  the  Jewish  race. 
No  sacred  records  proved  his  right  to 
be  numbered  among  that  people  of  God. 
His  priesthood  was  of  a  different  kind 
from  that  of  Aaron  and  his  sons.  Coin- 
pare  Ezra  2 : 62. 

GENERATION.  Besides  the  common 
acceptation  of  this,  word,  as  signifying 
race,  descent,  lineage,  it  is  used  for  the 
history  and  genealogy  of  a  person,  as  in 
Gen.  5:1,  "The  book  of  the  generations 
of  Adam,"  that  is,  the  history  of  Ad 
am's  creation  and  of  his  posterity.  So 
in  Gen.  2  :  4,  "The  generations  of  the 
heavens  and  of  the  earth,"  that  is,  their 
genealogy,  so  to  speak,  the  history  of 
the  creation  of  heaven  and  earth ;  also 
in  Matt.  1:1,  "The  book  of  the  genera 
tion  of  Jesus  Christ,"  that  is,  the  gene 
alogy  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  history  of  his 
descent  and  life.  "The  present  genera 
tion"  comprises  all  those  who  are  now 
alive  ;  ' '  This  generation  shall  not  pass 
till  all  be  fulfilled,"  some  now  living 
shall  witness  the  event  foretold,  Matt. 
24:34.  "  Save  yourselves  from  this  un 
toward  generation,"  from  the  punish 
ment  which  awaits  these  perverse  men, 
Acts  2: 40. 

The  Hebrews,  like  other  ancient  na 
tions,  sometimes  computed  loosely  by 
generations.  Thus  in  Gen,  15:16,  "In 
the  fourth  generation  thy  descendants 
shall  come  hither  again."  The  duration 
of  a  generation  is  of  course  very  uncer 
tain  ;  indeed,  it  is  impossible  to  estab 
lish  any  precise  limits.  It  is,  however, 
generally  admitted  that  a  generation  in 
the  earliest  periods  is  to  be  reckoned 
longer  than  one  in  later  times.  The 
Greeks  regarded  a  generation  as  one- 
third  of  a  century.  It  is  now  currently 
reckoned  as  thirty  years. 

GEN'ESIS,  the  first  of  the  sacred  books 
in  the  Old  Testament,  so  called  from  the 
title  given  to  it  in  the  Septuagint,  sig 
nifying  "the  book  of  the  generation," 
or  production,  of  all  things.  Moses  is 
generally  admitted  to  have  been  the 
writer  of  this  book  ;  and  it  is  supposed 
that  he  penned  it  after  the  promulgation 
of  the  law.  Its  authenticity  is  attested 
by  the  most  indisputable  evidence,  and 
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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GER 


it  is  cited  as  an  inspired  record  thirty- 
three  times  in  the  course  of  the  Scrip 
tures.  The  history  related  in  it  com 
prises  a  period  of  about  2,369  years,  ac 
cording  to  the  lowest  computation,  but 
according  to  Dr.  Hales,  a  much  larger 
period.  It  contains  an  account  of  the 
creation;  the  primeval  state  and  fall  of 
man ;  the  history  of  Adam  and  his  de 
scendants,  with  the  progress  of  religion 
and  the  origin  of  the  arts ;  the  genealo 
gies,  age,  and  death  of  the  patriarchs 
until  Noah ;  the  general  defection  and 
corruption  of  mankind,  the  general  del 
uge,  and  the  preservation  of  Noah  and 
his  family  in  the  ark ;  the  history  of 
Noah  and  his  family  subsequent  to  the 
time  of  the  deluge ;  the  repeopling  and 
division  of  the  earth  among  the  sons  of 
Noah  ;  the  building  of  Babel,  the  confu 
sion  of  tongues,  and  the  dispersion  of 
mankind ;  the  lives  of  Abraham,  Isaac, 
Jacob,  and  Joseph.  The  book  of  Gene 
sis  was  written,  like  the  rest  of  Scrip 
ture,  "by  inspiration  of  God."  Yet 
many  of  the  facts  it  records  must  have 
been  well  known  among  the  Jews ;  the 
account  given  by  Adam  himself  may 
have  been  verbally  transmitted  through 
seven  of  the  patriarchs  to  Moses,  and  he 
may  also  have  had  ancient  historical 
writings  to  consult.  The  book  of  Gen 
esis  lays  the  foundation  for  all  the  sub 
sequent  books  of  the  Bible  ;  and  its  value 
in  the  history  of  the  earth,  of  man,  and 
of  religion,  is  inestimable. 

GENNES'ARET,  supposed  to  be  a  cor 
ruption  of  Chinnereth,  which  see.  "The 
land  ofGennesaret,"  Matt.  14:34,  Mark 
6:53,  was  a  tract  of  land  some  three  or 
four  miles  long  on  the  western  border 
of  the  sea  of  Galilee.  It  was  a  lovely 
and  exceedingly  fertile  region;  in  it 
probably  lay  Capernaum  and  Bethsaida 
of  Galilee,  places  often  visited  by  our 
Lord.  See  SEA  IV. 

GEN'TILES,  a  name  given  by  the  He 
brews  to  all  those  that  had  not  received 
the  law  of  Moses.  Foreigners  who  em 
braced  Judaism,  they  called  proselytes. 
Since  the  promulgation  of  the  gospel, 
the  true  religion  has  been  extended  to 
all  nations ;  God,  who  had  promised  by 
his  prophets  to  call  the  Gentiles  to  the 
faith,  with  a  superabundance  of  grace, 
having  fulfilled  his  promise ;  so  that  the 
Christian  church  is  composed  principally 
of  Gentile  converts,  the  Jews  being  too 
proud  of  their  privileges  to  acknowledge 
168 


Jesus  Christ  as  their  Messiah  and  Re 
deemer.  In  the  writings  of  Paul,  the 
Gentiles  are  generally  called  Greeks, 
Rom.  1  :  14,  16  ;  1  Cor.  1  :  22,  24  ;  Gal. 
3:28.  So  also  in  those  of  Luke,  in  the 
Acts  6:1;  11 :  20 ;  18  :  4.  Paul  is  com 
monly  called  the  apostle  of  the  Gen 
tiles,  Gal.  2:8;  1  Tim.  2:7,  because  he 
preached  Christ  principally  to  them  ; 
whereas  Peter,  etc.,  preached  generally 
to  the  Jews,  and  are  called  apostles  of 
the  circumcision,  Gal.  2:8. 

GENTILES,  COURT  or  THE.  Josephus 
says  there  was  in  the  court  of  the  tem 
ple  a  wall  or  balustrade,  breast  high, 
having  pillars  at  regular  distances,  with 
inscriptions  on  them  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
importing  that  strangers  were  forbidden 
to  approach  nearer  to  the  altar,  Eph. 
2:14.  See  TEMPLE. 

GENTILES,  ISLES  OF  THE,  Gen.  10:5,  Asia 
Minor  and  the  whole  of  Europe,  peopled 
by  the  descendants  of  Japheth. 

GE'RAH,  the  smallest  weight  or  coin 
among  the  Jews,  the  twentieth  part  of  a 
shekel,  and  worth  about  two  and  a  half 
cents,  Ex.  30:13. 

GE'RAR,  an  ancient  town  or  place  of 
the  Philistines  in  the  times  of  Abraham 
and  Isaac,  Gen.  10  : 19  ;  20  : 1 ;  26  : 1,  6, 
17.  It  lay  not  far  from  Gaza,  in  the 
south  of  Judah,  but  its  exact  site  is  now 
unknown.  See  2  Chr.  14:13,  14. 

GERGESENES',  Matt.  8:28 ;  in  the  par- 
allel  passages  in  Mark  and  Luke,  Gada- 
renes.  See  GADARA.  Some  manuscripts 
have  Gadarenes  in  Matt.  8 : 28,  and  others 
Gerasenes;  but  Gerasa  lay  forty  miles 
south-east  of  the  scene  of  the  miracle. 
Some  have  thought  that  the  remnant  of 
the  ancient  Girgashites  gave  their  name 
to  this  district.  A  recent  explorer  finds 
ruins  called  Chcrza  or  Gersa,  midway  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  sea  of  Galilee ; 
and  this  may  be  the  ancient  Gergesa. 

GER'IZIM,  a  mountain  in  Ephraim, 
between  which  and  Ebal  lay  the  city  of 
Shechem,  Judg.  9:7.  The  world  has 
beheld  few  scenes  more  awful  and  sug 
gestive  than  when,  having  conquered 
Canaan,  all  the  Israelites  were  summon 
ed  to  this  place,  and  six  tribes  were  sta- 
tioned  on  mount  Gerizim  to  pronounce 
blessings  on  those  who  should  obey  God's 
law,  and  the  other  six  on  mount  Ebal  to 
denounce  curses  on  those  who  should 
break  it ;  while  all  the  people  solemnly 
gaid,  AMEN,  Deut.  11:29;  27: 12-26;  28. 
See  view  in  SHECHEM. 


GER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GET 


After  the  captivity,  Manasseh,  a  seced 
ing  priest,  by  permission  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  built  a  temple  on  Gerizim,  and 
the  Samaritans  joined  the  worship  of  the 
true  God  to  that  of  their  idols:  "They 
feared  the  Lord,  and  served  their  own 
gods,  after  the  manner  of  the  nations 
whom  they  carried  away  from  thence," 
2  Kin.  17:33.  See  SAMARITANS  and  SAN- 
BALLAT. 

This  temple  was  destroyed  by  John 
Hyrcanus  ;  yet  its  site  has  always  retain 
ed  its  ancient  sacredncss.  In  our  Sav 
iour's  time  the  true  God  was  worshipped 
by  the  Samaritans,  though  ignorantly, 
John  4.  Herod  the  Great,  having  rebuilt 
Samaria,  and  called  it  Sebaste,  in  honor  of 
Augustus,  would  have  compelled  the  Sa 
maritans  to  worship  in  the  temple  which 
he  had  erected  ;^but  they  constantly  re 
fused,  and  have  "continued  to  this  day  to 
guard  their  sacred  Scriptures,  to  keep  the 
law,  to  pray  towards  their  holy  place  on 


the  summit  of  Gerizim,  and  to  worship 
God  there  four  times  in  the  year. 

GEll'SHOM,  a  stranger  there,  one  of  the 
two  sons  of  Moses  and  Zipporah,  in  the 
land  of  Midian,  Ex.  2:22;  18:3.  Moses 
appears  to  have  given  them  no  rank  or 
emoluments  but  those  of  simple  Levites, 
IChr  23:15. 

GER'SHON,  the  eldest  son  of  Levi, 
and  head  of  one  of  the  three  branches  of 
the  Levitical  tribe,  Gen.  40  : 11  ;  Ex. 
6:16.  The  Gershonites  encamped  west 
of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness,  and 
carried  its  curtains  and  other  parts  from 
station  to  station,  Num.  3:17,  25;  4:24- 
28,^38-41;  10:17.  Thirteen  cities  were 
assigned  to  them  in  northern  Canaan, 
Josh.  21:6;  1  Chr.  6:62,  71. 

GE'SIIEM,  or  GASII'MU,  an  Arabian, 
who  opposed  the  work  of  the  Lord  in  the 
time  of  Nehemiah,  by  ridicule  and  plots, 
Neh.  2:19;  6:1-9;  about  445  B.  c. 

GE'SHUR.     See  next  page. 


GARDEN    OF   QETHSEMANE,    AND    MOUNT  OF   OLIVES. 


GETHSEM'ANE,  oil-press,  a  garden  or 
grove  in  the  valley  at  the  foot  of  the 
mount  of  Olives,  over  against  Jerusalem, 
to  which  our  Saviour  sometimes  retired, 
and  in  which  he  endured  his  agony,  and 
was  betrayed  by  Judas,  Matt.  26:36-57. 
Early  tradition  locates  Gethsemane  near 
the  base  of  mount  Olivet,  beyond  the 
8 


brook  Kidron.  The  place  now  enclosed 
by  a  low  stone  wall  may  be  but  a  part  ol 
the  original  "garden."  H  is  about  fifty- 
two  yards  square,  and  contains  eight 
aged  olive-trees,  whose  roots  in  many 
places  project  above  the  ground,  and  are 
protected  by  heaps  of  stones.  Here,  or 
at  most  not  far  off,  the  Saviour  endured 
169 


GEZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GIB 


that  unspeakable  "agony  and  bloody 
sweat"  so  nearly  connected  with  his  ex 
piatory  death ;  and  here  in  deep  submis 
sion  he  mingled  and  closed  his  prayers 
fov  relief  with  the  cry,  "Nevertheless, 
not  my  will,  but  thine,  be  done."  From 
this  garden  he  could  readily  see  the 
crowd  of  men  ' '  with  lanterns  and  torch 
es"  emerging  from  the  city  gate,  and 
hastening,  under  the  guidance  of  Judas, 
to  seize  him.  It  is  the  spot  which  the 
Christian  visitor  at  Jerusalem  first  seeks 
out,  and  where  he  lingers  longest  and 
last  ere  he  turns  homeward.  A  recent 
traveller,  Professor  Hackett,  passing  by 
Gethsemane  one  day,  saw  a  shepherd  in 
the  act  of  shearing  a  sheep.  The  animal 
lay  on  the  ground,  with  its  feet  tied,  the 
man's  knee  pressed  rudely  against  its 
side,  while  it  seemed  as  if  every  move 
ment  of  the  shears  would  lacerate  its 
flesh  ;  yet  during  the  whole,  it  struggled 
not  and  opened  not  its  mouth — a  touch 
ing  memento,  upon  that  sacred  spot,  of 
the  Lamb  of  God,  Isa.  53:7. 

GE'SHUK,  GESH'URI,  GESHURITES,  the 
name  of  a  district  and  people  in  Syria. 
Geshur  lay  upon  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Jordan  between  Bashan,  Maachah,  and 
mount  Hermon,  and  within  the  limits 
of  the  Hebrew  territory  ;  but  the  Israel 
ites  did  not  expel  its  inhabitants,  Josh. 
12:5  ;  13:13.  They  appear  to  have  been 
brought  under  tribute,  1  Chr.  2:23,  but 
to  have  retained  their  own  kings.  One 
of  David's  wives,  Maachah  the  mother  of 
Absalom,  was  daughter  of  Talmai  king 
of  Geshur ;  and  it  was  here  that  Absa 
lom  found  refuge  after  the  murder  of 
Amnon,  and  remained  three  years  with 
his  grandfather,  2  Sam.  3:3;  13:37; 
15 : 8.  The  word  Geshur  signifies  bridge ; 
and  in  the  border  of  the  region,  where, 
according  to  the  above  data,  we  must 
place  Geshur,  between  mount  Hermon 
and  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  there  still  exists 
an  ancient  stone  bridge  of  four  arches 
over  the  Jordan,  called  Jisr-Beni-Jakub, 
that  is,  the  bridge  of  the  children  of  Ja 
cob.  There  seems  to  have  been  here  an 
important  pass  on  the  route  to  Damas 
cus  and  the  East. 

There  was  also  a  people  of  the  same 
name  in  the  south  of  Palestine,  near  the 
Philistines,  Josh.  13:2;  1  Sam.  27:8. 

GE'ZER,  a  royal  city  of  the  Cahaan- 

ites,  Josh.  10:33;  12:12;  between  Beth- 

horon    and    the    Mediterranean,    Josh. 

16:3 ;  afterwards  on  the  western  border 

170 


of  Ephraim,  and  assigned  to  the  Levites, 
Josh.  16:3;  21:21.  The  Canaanites long 
retained  a  foothold  in  it,  Josh.  16:10; 
Judg.  1 : 29  ;  but  were  dispossessed  by  a 
king  of  Egypt,  and  the  place  given  to 
his  daughter,  the  wife  of  Solomon,  1  Kin. 
9:16,  who  fortified  it. 

GHOST,  the  spirit,  or  principle  of  life 
in  man.  To  "  give  up  the  ghost,"  is  to 
die,  to  yield  the  soul  to  God  who  gave 
it,  Gen.  25:8  ;  Luke  23:46.  See  SriiiiT. 

GI'ANTS,  earth-born.  It  is  supposed 
by  many  that  the  first  men  were  of  a 
size  and  strength  superior  to  these  of 
mankind  at  present,  since  a  long  life  is 
usually  associated  with  a  well-developed 
and  vigorous  frame.  We  know  also  that 
there  were  giants  and  families  of  giants, 
even  after  the  average  length  of  human 
life  was  greatly  abridged.  These,  how 
ever,  appear  to  have  rjeen  exceptions; 
and  if  we  judge  from  the  mummies  of 
Egypt,  and  from  the  armor  and  imple 
ments  of  the  earliest  antiquity,  found  in 
ancient  tombs,  in  bogs,  and  in  buried 
cities,  we  should  conclude  that  mankind 
never  exceeded,  in  the  average,  their 
present  stature.  There  were,  however, 
giants  before  the  flood,  Gen.  6:4;  fruits 
of  the  union  of  different  families,  and 
extraordinary  in  stature,  power,  and 
crime.  After  the  flood,  mention  is  made 
of  a  race  called  Rephaim,  Gen.  14:5; 
Josh.  17:15;  kindred  with  whom  were 
the  Emim,  early  occupants  of  the  land 
of  Moab,  and  the  Zamzummim  in  Am- 
mon,  Deut.  2:10,  20.  Og  was  one  of  the 
last  of  this  race,  Deut.  3:11,  13.  West 
of  the  Dead  sea,  around  Hebron  and 
Philistia,  lived  the  Anakim,  whose  as 
pect  so  terrified  the  Hebrew  spies,  Num. 
13:33;  Josh.  11:21,  22.  Of  this  race 
were  Goliath  and  his  kindred,  1  Sam. 
17:4;  1  Chr.  20:4-8.  See  ANAKIM,  GO 
LIATH,  and  REPHAIM. 

GIANTS,  VALLEY  OF  THE.    See  REF-HAIM. 

GIB'BETHON,  a  city  of  the  Philistines, 
within  the  bounds  of  the  tribe  of  Dan, 
and  assigned  to  the  Levites,  Josh.  19:44  ; 
21:23.  "The  Philistines,  however,  were 
not  excluded ;  and  in  the  time  of  Nadab 
they  were  its  masters,  and  he  was  slain 
by  Baasha  while  besieging  it,  1  Kin. 
15:27  ;  16:15.  Its  after-history,  and  its 
site  are  unknown.  * 

GIB'EAH,  a  hill,  I.,  a  city  of  Benja 
min,  1  Sam.  13:15,  and  the  birthplace 
and  residence  of  Saul  king  of  Israel; 
whence  it  is  frequently  called  "Gibeah 


GIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GIH 


of  Saul,"  1  Sam.  11:4;  15:34;  23:19 
26:1 ;  2  Sam.  21:6  ;  Isa.  10:29.  Gibeah 
was  also  famous  for  its  sins;  particu 
larly  for  that  committed  by  forcing  the 
young  Levite's  wife,  who  went  to  lodge 
there ;  and  for  the  war  which  succeeded 
it,  to  the  almost  entire  extermination 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  Judg.  19. 
Scripture  remarks,  that  this  occurred  at 
l  time  when  there  was  no  king  in  Israel, 
and  when  every  one  did  what  was  right 
in  his  own  eyes.  Dr.  Robinson  found 
traces  of  Gibeah  in  the  small  and  ruin 
ous  village  of  Jeba,  near  Ramah,  separat 
ed  from  Michrnash  on  the  north  by  a 
deep  valley,  and  about  six  miles  north 
by  east  from  Jerusalem. 

II.  A  town  of  Judah,  Josh.   15:57, 
which  lay  about  ten  miles  south-west  of 
Jerusalem.      The  prophet  Habakkuk  is 
said  to  have  been  buried  here. 

III.  In  mount  Ephraim,  called  Gibeah 
of  Phinehas,  where  Eleazar  the  son  of 
Aaron  was  buried,  Josh.   24:33.     It  is 
found  in  the  narrow  valley  El-Jib,  mid 
way  between  Jerusalem  and  Shechem. 

GIB'EOX,  a  considerable  city  of  the 
Unites,  afterwards  a  Levitical  city  in 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  Josh.  18  :  25 ; 
21:17.  It  lay  near  Geba  and  Gibeah, 
and  is  sometimes  wrongly  taken  for  Ge 
ba.  Its  C.maanite  inhabitants  secured  a 
treaty  with  Joshua  and  the  elders  of 
Israel  by  stratagem,  and  were  made 
hewers  of  wood  for  the  sanctuary.  Five 
neighboring  kings  unitedly  fell  upon 
them  ;  but  were  defeated  by  the  Jews  in 
a  great  battle,  during  which  "the  sun 
iBtood  still  upon  Gibeon,"  Josh.  9;  10. 
Here  the  tabernacle  was  set  up  for  many 
years,  1  Chr.  16:39;  21:29;  2  Chr.  1:3, 
4 ;  and  here  God  communed  by  night 
with  young  king  Solomon,  1  Kin  3:4- 
15.  It,is  also  memorable  for  two  scenes 
in  the  life  of  Joab,  2  Sam.  2  :  12-32 ; 
20:8-12;  Jer.  41:12.  It  stood  on  an 
eminence,  six  miles  north  of  Jerusalem. 

GIBLITES.  Josh.  13:5.     See  GEBAL. 

GID'EOX,  or  JERUB'BAAL,  of  the  tribe 
of  Manasseh,  a  valiant  and  prudent  judge 
of  Israel,  particularly  the  eastern  and 
northern  tribes,  u.  c.  1249  to  1209.  He 
resided  in  Ophrah,  east  of  the  Jordan,  a 
region  often  ravaged  in  harvest-time  by 
the  wandering  tribes  on  its  eastern  bor 
der.  Being  called  of  God  to  deliver  his 
people,  and  encouraged  by  signs  from 
heaven,  he  defeated  the  Midianites,  and 
caused  Israel  to  dwell  in  safety  for  many 


years.  In  punishing  the  refractory  cities 
buccoth  and  Penuel,  and  the  fratricides 
Zeba  and  Zalmunna — in  soothing  the 
jealousy  of  the  Ephraimites,  and  in  de 
clining  the  crown  offered  him  by  the 
Jews,  he  evinced  those  qualities  which 
made  him  a  successful  judge.  In  the 
matter  of  the  golden  ephod,  however,  he 
fell  into  a  sin  and  a  snare ;  for  this  me 
morial  of  the  wonders  God  had  wrought 
became  erelong  an  object  of  idolatrous 
veneration,  Judg.  6-8;  1  Sam.  12:11; 
Heb.  11:32. 

GI'ER-EAGLE,  probably  an  Egyptian 
vulture,  horrid  and  filthy,  but  very  use 
ful  as  a  carrion- bird,  Lev.  11:18.  See 
VULTURE. 

GIFTS  have  been  common  from  the 
earliest  times  as  tokens  of  affection, 
honor,  or  respect.  The  dues  to  a  king 
were  often  rendered  in  this  form,  1  Sam. 
10  :  27  ;  Isa.  36  : 16  ;  and  men  of  high 
position  were  approached  with  presents, 
Gen.  43  :  11 ;  Judg.  6  :  18  ;  1  Sam.  9:7; 

1  Kin.  14:3.     Kings  made  gifts  of  gar 
ments  to  those  they  wished  to  honor, 
Gen.  45  :  22,  23  ;   1  Sam.  18  :  4 ;  and  of 
treasures  to  other  princes,  out  of  esteem 
or  of  fear,  2  Kin.  16:8;  18:14;  2  Chr. 
9:9,  12.    Conquerors  scattered  gifts  from 
their  triumphal  cars,  arid  special  privi 
leges  in  token   of  generous  joy,    Psa. 
68:18;  Acts  1:2,  4.     Prophets  received 
gifts,  or  declined  them,  as  duty  required, 

2  Kin.  5:15;  8:9;  Dan.  2  :  48 ;  5  :  17. 
The  word  gifts  often  denotes  bribes,  Ex. 
23:8;  Psa.  15:5;  Isa.  5:23.     The  same 
word  is  also  applied  to  the  offerings  re 
quired  by  the  law,  Deut.  16:17;  Matt. 
5:23,  24 ;  to  the  blessings  of  the  gospel 
and  eternal  life,  which  are  preeminently 
yifts,  Acts  8:20  ;  to  the  Christian  graces, 
for  the  same  reason,  Eph.  4:8,  11 ;  and 
to  the  miraculous  endowments  of  the 
apostles,  1  Cor.  12-14.     See  TONGUES. 

GI'HON,  I.,  one  of  the  four  rivers  of 
Paradisa  ;  as  some  suppose,  the  Araxes, 
Gen.  2:13.  See  EDEN,  and  EUPHRATES. 

II.  A  fountain  near  Jerusalem  on  the 
west,  beside  which  Solomon  was  anoint 
ed  king,  1  Kin.  1 :  33,  38.  Hezekiah 
covered  it  over,  and  brought  its  waters 
jy  a  subterranean  channel  into  the  city, 
2  Chr.  32  :  3,  30  ;  33  : 14.  A  pool  still 
exists  in  the  spot  referred  to,  three  him- 
Ired  feet  long,  two  hundred  wide,  and 
twenty  deep,  with  steps  at  two  corners ; 
ind  recently,  in  digging  to  lay  the  foun 
dations  of  the  Anglican  church,  an  im- 
171 


GIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GIR 


mense  conduit  was  discovered  running 
east  and  west,  thirty  feet  under  ground, 
"built  of  stone  and  coated  with  cement, 
and  partly  cut  out  of  solid  rock.  Proba 
bly  this  was  connected  with  the  fountain 
of  Gihon. 

GILBO'A,  a  mountainous  ridge  south 
east  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  having  on 
each  side  a  valley  connecting  the  great 
plain  with  the  Jordan  valley.  The  val 
ley  north-east  of  Gilboa  is  the  proper 
Jezreel ;  that  on  the  south-west  side  sep 
arates  Gilboa  from  the  hills  of  Samaria. 
On  the  eastern  part  of  Gilboa  was  the 
town  from  which  it  was  named,  now 
Jelbon.  In  this  vicinity  Saul  and  Jon 
athan  were  defeated  by  the  Philistines, 
and  died,  1  Sam.  28:4  ;  31.  It  is  now  a 
dry  and  barren  mountain,  2  Sam.  1:6, 
21.  Endor  lay  north  from  Gilboa,  and 
Beth-shean  north-east. 

GIL'EAD,  or  GALEED',  Gen.  31:45-48, 
the  mound  of  witness,  lay  east  of  the  Jor 
dan,  in  the  mountainous  tract  which 
runs  from  mount  Hermon  southward, 
between  the  Jordan  and  Arabia  Deserta. 
The  scenery  among  these  mountains  is 
described  as  very  fine.  The  plains  are 
covered  with  a  fertile  soil,  the  hills  are 
clothed  with  forests,  and  at  every  new 
turn  beautiful  landscapes  are  presented. 
The  Scripture  references  to  the  stately 
oaks  and  herds  of  cattle  in  this  region 
are  well  known,  Gen.  37  : 25 ;  Num. 
32:1. 

The  name  Gilead  is  sometimes  put  for 
the  whole  country  east  of  the  Jordan. 
Thus,  in  Dent.  34:1,  God  is  said  to  have 
showed  Moses,  from  mount  Nebo,  "all 
the  land  of  Gilead  unto  Dan . ' '  Compare 
Num.  32 : 26,  29 ;  Deut.  3 : 12.  The  prop 
er  region  of  Gilead,  however,  lay  south 
of  Bashan,  but  probably  without  any 
very  definite  line  of  separation.  Bashan 
and  Gilead  are  often  mentioned  togeth 
er,  Josh.  12:5;  13:11;  17:1,  5;  2  Kin. 
10 : 33.  A  part  of  Gilead  was  the  district 
now  called  Belka,  one  of  the  most  fertile 
in  Palestine.  Sec  BALM  and  BASHAN. 

Mount  Gilead,  in  the  strictest  sense, 
was  doubtless  the  mountain  now  called 
Jebel  Jelad  or  Jelud,  mentioned  by 
Burckhardt,  the  foot  of  Avhich  lies  about 
two  hours'  distance,  or  six  miles,  south 
of  the  Wady  Zerka,  or  Jabbok.  The 
mountain  itself  runs  from  east  to  west, 
and  is  about  two  hours  and  a  half  (eight 
or  ten  miles)  in  length.  Upon  it  are  the 
ruined  towns  of  Jelad  and  Jelud  ;  proba- 
172 


bly  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  Gilead  of 
Hos.  6:8,  elsewhere  called  Kamoth  Gil 
ead.  Southward  of  this  mountain  stands 
the  modern  city  of  Szalt.  It  was  prob 
ably  in  this  mountain  that  Jacob  and 
Laban  set  up  their  monument,  Gen. 
31 : 45-48.  See  also  Judg.  7:3. 

GIL'GAL,  a  rolling,  L,  a  celebrated 
place  between  the  Jordan  and  Jericho, 
where  the  Israelites  first  encamped,  after 
the  passage  of  that  river;  where  also 
they  were  circumcised,  and  kept  their 
first  Passover  in  Canaan,  Josh.  4:19; 
5  :  9,  10.  It  continued  to  be  the  head 
quarters  of  the  Israelites  for  several  years, 
while  Joshua  was  occupied  in  subduing 
the  land,  Josh.  9:6 ;  10:6, 15,  43.  A  con 
siderable  city  was  after  wards  built  there, 
Josh.  15  :  7,  which  became  famous  for 
many  events.  Here  the  tabernacle  rest 
ed,  until  its  removal  to  Shiloh;  here 
also,  according  to  the  prevalent  opinion, 
Samuel  offered  sacrifices,  and  held  his 
court  as  a  judge  of  Israel ;  and  here  Saul 
was  crowned,  1  Sam.  7 : 16  ;  10 : 8 ;  11:15; 
13:7-9;  15:33.  A  school  of  the  proph 
ets  was  here  established,  2  Kin.  4:38; 
and  yet  it  afterwards  appears  to  hate 
becom.e  a  seat  of  idolatry,  Hos.  4:15; 
9:15;. 12:11;  Amos  4:4;  5:5.  At  this 
day,  no  traces  of  it  are  found.  Accord 
ing  to  Josephus,  it  lay  within  two  miles 
of  Jericho. 

II.  Another  Gilgal  lay  near  Antipa- 
tris,  Josh.  12:23;  Neh.  12:29.  And  per 
haps  a  third  in  the  mountains  of  Ephra- 
im,  north  of  Bethel,  Deut.  11:30;  2  Kin. 
2:1-6.  There  are  not  wanting  those 
who  would  make  the  Gilgal  near  Anti- 
patris  the  seat  of  Samuel's  judgeship,  and 
of  one  of  the  schools  of  the  prophets. 

GI'LOH,  a  city  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:50; 
where  Ahithophel,  David's  counsellor, 
dwelt ;  and  where,  after  his  treason 
against  David,  and  the  rejection  of  his 
counsel  by  Absalom,  he  hung  himself, 
2  Sam.  15:12;  17:23. 

GIRD,  GIR'DLE.  The  orientals  com 
monly  dress  in  loose  robes,  flowing  down 
around  the  feet ;  so  that  when  they  wish 
to  run,  or  fight,  or  apply  themselves  to 
any  business,  they  are  obliged  to  bind 
their  garments  close  around  them  with  a 
sash  or  girdle.  Hence,  "to  have  the 
loins  girded,"  is  to  be  prepared  for  action 
or  service,  2  Kin.  4:29;  Acts  12:8;  to 
be  waiting  for  the  call  or  coming  of  one's 
master  or  Lord.  Luke  12  :  35.  A  tight 
ened  girdle  was  also  thought  to  increase 


GIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GOA 


the  power  of  endurance,  and  the  simile 
is  used  in  exhortations  to  Christian  cour 
age  and  fortitude,  Job  38:3  ;  Jer.  1:17  ; 
Eph.  6:14;  1  Pet.  1:13.  To  have  the 
girdle  loosed,  is  to  be  unnerved  and  un 
prepared  for  action,  Isa.  5:27.  Girdles 
of  leather  were  worn  by  the  common 
people  ;  and  also  by  prophets,  2  Kin. 
1:8;  Matt.  3 : 4.  They  were  likewise 
made  of  cotton  or  linen,  Jer.  13:1 ;  also 
of  silk,  sometimes  embroidered.  They 
were  often  wide  and  long ;  and  were 
folded  lengthwise,  and  passed  several 
times  around  the  body.  The  girdle, 
moreover,  answered  the  purpose  of  a 
purse  or  pouch,  to  carry  money  and 
other  things ;  see  Matt.  10:9;  Mark  6: 8, 
where  the  word  purse  in  the  English  is 
put  for  girdle  according  to  the  original 
Greek.  The  Arabs  and  other  orientals 
wear  girdles  in  the  same  manner  at  the 
present  day ;  they  also  carry  a  knife  or 
dagger  stuck  in  them;  as  was  also  the 
custom  of  the  Hebrews,  1  Sam.  25:13; 
2  Sam.  20:8.  Clerks  carried  their  ink- 
horns,  carpenters  their  rules,  etc.,  in  the 
same  way,  Ezek.  9:2.  See  cuts  in  GAR 
MENTS. 

GIR'GASHITES.     See  CANAANITES. 

GIT'TITES.     See  GATH. 

GIT'TITH.  The  word  Gittith  signi 
fies  belonging  to  Gath.  It  probably  denotes 
either  a  musical  instrument  or  a  kind  of 
music  derived  from  Gath,  where  David 
sojourned  for  a  time  during  the  persecu 
tion  of  Saul,  1  Sam.  27:1-7.  The  word 
Gath  also  signifies  in  Hebrew  a  wine-press. 
Hence  riot  a  few  have  supposed  that  it 
denotes  either  an  instrument  or  a  melo 
dy  used  in  the  vintage.  It  is  prefixed 
to  Psalms  8,  81,  84,  all  of  which  require 
an  animated  strain  of  music. 

GLASS  was  well  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  no  doubt  to  the  Jews  ;  its  invention 
is  traced  to  an  incident  on  the  coast  of 
Phoenicia,  and  the  arts  of  blowing,  col 
oring,  and  cutting  it  were  familiar  to 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  "looking- 
glasses  ' '  of  the  Jews,  however,  were  of 
highly  polished  metal,  usually  small  and 
round,  Ex.  38:8;  Job  37:18;  Jas.  1:23. 
Glass  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used 
at  that  time  for  mirrors,  nor  for  win 
dows;  but  for  cups,  bottles,  vases,  or 
naments,  sacred  emblems,  etc.  It  is  al 
luded  to  in  1  Cor.  13:12;  Kev.  4:6; 
15:2;  21.18,  21;  probably  also  in  Job 
28:17,  where  our  English  version  has 
the  word  crystal. 


GLEDE,  a  kind  of  hawk  or  kite,  Deut. 
14:13.  The  same  Hflbrew  word  is  trans 
lated  vulture  in  Lev.  11:14. 

GLO'RY,  GLO'RIFY,  words  of  great 
and  manifold  significance  in  the  Bible, 
used  with  reference  to  God  and  his 
works,  the  Saviour  and  his  gospel,  the 
heavenly  state,  etc.  "The  glory  of 
God"  was  often  visibly  revealed  in  the 
old  dispensation — some  dazzling  appear 
ance  indicative  of  his  special  presence, 
Ex.  16:7-10  ;  24  :  9,  10,  16,  17  ;  33:18- 
23;  1  Kin.  8:11;  Psa.  80:1;  Zech.  2:5. 
God's  glory  is  shown  in  his  works, 
Psa.  19  :  1 ;  Eom.  1  : 19,  20.  But  it  is 
most  fully  and  illustriously  displayed  in 
the  work  of  redemption,  "in  the  face  of 
Jesus  Christ."  "Here  the  whole  Deity 
is  known,"  John  1:14;  2  Cor.  4:6  ;  Heb. 
1:3.  The  chief  end  of  the  Christian  is 
to  live  "to  the  glory  of  God,"  so  that 
God  may  be  seen  to  be  most  glorious, 
1  Cor.  6  :  20  ;  1  Pet.  2  :  9.  The  adjura 
tion,  "give  God  the  glory,"  means,  con 
fess  the  truth  in  view  of  his  omniscience, 
Josh.  7:19;  John  9: 24.  The  expression, 
"my  glory,"  Psa.  16:9;  80:12;  57:8; 
108:1,  is  equivalent  to  my  soul,  or  my 
self,  as  the  parallelism  shows. 

GNAT,  a  small  winged  stinging  in 
sect, 'a  mosquito,  spoken  of  in  the  pro 
verbial  expression.  Matt.  23:24,  "Ye 
strain  at  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a  camel," 
which  should  read,  as  it  did  in  the  first 
English  translations,  "  Ye  strain  out  a 
gnat,"  etc.  The  expression  alludes  to 
the  Jewish  custom  of  filtering  wine,  for 
fear  of  swallowing  any  insect  forbidden 
by  the  law  as  unclean,  Lev.  11:23  ;  and 
is  applied  to  those  who  are  superstitious- 
ly  anxious  in  avoiding  small  faults,  yet 
do  not  scruple  to  commit  great  sins. 

GOAT,  a  well-known  animal,  resem 
bling  the  sheep,  but  covered  with  hair 
instead  of  wool.  Large  flocks  of  them 
were  kept  by  the  Jews,  Gen.  27  :  9 ; 
1  Sam.  25:2  ;  2  Chr.  17:11.  They  were 
regarded  as  clean  for  sacrifice,  Ex.  12:5  ; 
Lev.  3:12  ;  Num.  15:27  ;  and  their  milk 
and  the  young  kids  were  much  used  for 
food,  Deut.  14  :  4  ;  Judg.  6  :  19  ;  Prov. 
27 : 27  ;  Luke  15 : 29.  The  common  leath 
er  bottles  were  made  of  their  skins.  Sev 
eral  kinds  of  goats  were  kept  in  Pales 
tine  :  one  kind  having  long  hair,  like 
the  Angora,  and  another,  long  and 
broad  ears.  This  kind  is  probably  re 
ferred  to  in  Amos  3:12,  and  is  still  the 
common  goat  of  Palestine. 
173 


GOA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GOD 


HEAD  OF   THE   SYRIAN  GOAT. 

Herodotus  says,  that  at  Mendes,  in 
Lower  Egypt,  both  the  male  and  female 
goat  were  worshipped.  The  heathen  god 
Pan  was  represented  with  the  face  and 
thighs  of  a  goat.  The  heathen  paid  di 
vine  honors  also  to  real  goats,  as  appears 
in  the  table  of  Isis.  The  abominations 
committed  during  the  feasts  of  these  in 
famous  deities  cannot  be  told. 

WILD  GOATS  are  mentioned  in  1  Sam. 
24:2  ;  Job  39  : 1 ;  Psa.  104 : 18.  This  is 


doubtless  the  Ibex,  or  mountain-goat,  a 
large  and  vigorous  animal  still  found  in 
174 


the  mountains  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai, 
and  east  and  south  of  the  Dead  sea. 

These  goats  are  very  similar  to  the 
bouquetin  or  chamois  of  the  Alps.  They 
feed  in  flocks  of  a  score  or  two,  with  one 
of  their  number  acting  as  a  sentinel.  At 
the  slightest  alarm,  they  are  gone  in  an 
instant,  darting  fearlessly  over  the  rocks, 
and  falling  on  their  horns  from  a  great 
height  without  injury.  Their  horns  are 
two  or  three  feet  long,  and  are  sold  by 
the  Arabs  for  knife-handles,  etc.  For 
SCAPE-GOAT,  see  EXPIATION. 

GOATS'  HAIK  was  used  by  Moses  in 
making  the  curtains  of  the  tabernacle, 
Ex.  25:4  ;  26:7  ;  35:6.  The  hair  of  the 
goats  of  Asia,  Phrygia,  and  Cilicia,  is 
very  bright  and  fine,  and  hangs  to  the 
ground  ;  in  beauty  it  almost  equals  silk, 
and  is  never  sheared,  but  combed  off. 
The  shepherds  carefully  and  frequently 
wash  these  goats  in  rivers.  The  women 
of  the  country  spin  the  hair,  which  is 
carried  to  Angora,  where  it  is  worked 
and  dyed,  and  a  considerable  trade  in 
the  article  carried  on.  The  natives  at 
tribute  the  quality  of  the  hair  to  the  soil 
of  the  country.  The  ordinary  goats- 
hair  cloth  of  the  Arabs,  used  for  the  cov 
erings  of  tents,  etc. ,  is  coarse  and  black ; 
and  this  is  the  kind  of  which  the  gar 
ments  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  and  of  the 
poor  were  made. 

GOD.  This  name,  the  derivation  of 
which  is  uncertain,  we  give  to  that  eter 
nal,  infinite,  perfect,  and  incomprehen 
sible  Being,  the  Creator  of  all  things, 
who  preserves  and  governs  all  by  his 
almighty  power  and  wisdom,  and  is  the 
only  proper  object  of  worship.  The  prop 
er  Hebrew  name  for  God  is  JEHOVAH, 
which  signifies  lie  is.  But  the  Jews,  from 
a  feeling  of  reverence,  avoid  pronouncing 
this  name,  substituting  for  it,  wherever 
it  occurs  in  the  sacred  text,  the  word 
ADONAI,  Lord  ;  except  in  the  expression, 
ADONAI  JEHOVAH,  Lord  Jehovah,  for  which 
they  put,  ADONAI  ELOHIM,  Lard  God.  This 
usage,  which  is  not  without  an  element 
of  superstition,  is  very  ancient,  dating 
its  origin  some  centuries  before  Christ ; 
but  there  is  no  good  ground  for  assum 
ing  its  existence  in  the  days  of  the  in 
spired  Old  Testament  writers.  The  prop 
er  word  for  God  is  ELOHIM,  which  is 
plural  in  its  form,  being  thus  used  to 
signify  the  manifold  perfections  of  God, 
or,  as  some  think,  the  Trinity  in  the 
godhead.  In  Ex.  3:14,  God  replies  to 


GOD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GOL 


Moses,  when  he  asks  Him  His  name,  I  AM 
THAT  I  AM  ;  which  means  either,  I  am  he 
who  I  am,  or,  I  am  what  I  am.  In 
either  case  the  expression  implies  the 
eternal  self-existence  of  Jehovah,  and  his 
incomprehensible  nature.  The  name  I 
AM  means  the  same  as  JEHOVAH,  the  first 
person  being  used  instead  of  the  third. 

The  Bible  assumes  and  asserts  the  ex 
istence  of  God,  "In  the  beginning  God 
created  the  heavens  and  the  earth ;"  and 
is  itself  the  most  illustrious  proof  of  his 
existence,  as  well  as  our  chief  instructor 
as  to  his  nature  and  will.  It  puts  a 
voice  into  the  mute  lips  of  creation  ;  and 
not  only  reveals  God  in  his  works,  but 
illustrates  his  ways  in  providence,  dis 
plays  the  glories  of  his  character,  his 
law,  and  his  grace,  and  brings  man  into 
true  and  saving  communion  with  him. 
It  reveals  him  to  us  as  a  Spirit,  the  only 
being  from  everlasting  and  to  everlast 
ing  by  nature,  underived,  infinite,  per 
fect,  and  unchangeable  in  power,  wis 
dom,  omniscience,  omnipresence,  justice, 
holiness,  truth,  goodness,  and  mercy. 
He  is  but  one  God,  and  yet  exists  in 
three  persons,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and 
the  Holy  Spirit ;  and  this  distinction  of 
the  Three  in  One  is,  like  his  other  attri 
butes,  from  everlasting.  He  is  the 
source,  owner,  and  ruler  of  all  beings, 
foreknows  and  predetermines  all  events, 
and  is  the  eternal  judge  and  arbiter  of 
the  destiny  of  all.  True  religion  has  its 
foundation  in  the  right  knowledge  of 
God,  and  consists  in  supremely  loving 
and  faithfully  obeying  him.  See  JESUS 
CHRIST,  and  HOLY  SPIRIT. 

GODS.  The  words  god  and  gods,  He 
brew  ELOIIIM,  are  several  times  used  in 
Scripture  to  express  the  power,  office,  or 
excellence  of  some  created  beings,  as  an 
gels,  magistrates,  Ex.  22:20,  28;  Psa. 
86:8  ;  97:7  ;  often  also  for  the  false  gods 
of  the  heathen.  These  were  exceedingly 
numerous,  and  are  denoted  by  various 
terms,  signifying  vanity,  falsehood,  etc. 
Among  the  first  objects  to  be  deified 
were  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  chief 
powers  of  nature.  Innumerable  animals, 
deceased  men,  all  ages,  passions,  and  con 
ditions  of  man,  and  every  thing  which 
fear,  lust,  malice,  pride,  or  caprice  could 
suggest,  were  made  objects  of  worship. 
The  gods  of  modern  India  are  numbered 
by  millions. 

GOD'LY,  that  which  proceeds  from 
God,  and  is  pleasing  to  him.  It  also 


signifies  conformity  to  his  will,  and  an 
assimilation  to  his  character,  Psa.  12:1; 
Mai.  2:15;  2  Cor.  1:2;  Tit.  2:12.  God 
liness  is  the  substance  of  revealed  relig 
ion,  ITim.  8:16;  4:8;  2  Pet.  1:6. 

GOG  and  MA'GOG  are  usually  spoken 
of  together  in  Scripture.  In  Gen.  10:2, 
Magog,  which  seems  to  denote  a  country 
with  its  people,  is  reckoned  among  the 
descendants  of  Japheth.  In  Ezek.  38, 
39,  Magog  apparently  signifies  a  coun 
try  with  its  people,  and  Gog  the  king 
of  that  people ;  but  critics  are  much 
divided  as  to  the  people  and  country 
intended  under  these  names.  The  Scyth 
ians,  the  Goths,  the  Persians,  and  sever 
al  other  nations,  have  been  specified  by 
interpreters  as  the  Magog  of  the  Scrip 
tures  ;  but  most  probably  it  is  a  name 
given  generally  to  the  northern  nations 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  or  the  districts  north 
of  the  Caucasus.  The  names  reappear  in 
the  later  predictions  of  John  as  enemies 
of  the  people  of  God,  who  are  to  be  sig 
nally  overthrown  in  Armageddon,  Eev. 
16:14-16;  20:7-9. 

GO'LAN,  a  Levitical  city  of  refuge,  in 
the  north-west  portion  of  Bashan.  It 
lay  east  or  north-east  of  the  sea  of  Gali 
lee,  but  its  site  is  now  lost.  See  GAU- 
LAN. 

GOLD,  a  well-known  valuable  metal, 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and 
obtained  anciently  in  Ophir,  Job  28 : 16  ; 
Parvaim,  2  Chr.  3:6;  Sheba,  and  Eaa- 
mah,  Ezek.  27:22.  Job  alludes  to  gold 
in  various  forms,  Job  22:24;  28:15-19. 
Abraham  was  rich  in  it,  and  female  or 
naments  were  early  made  of  it,  Gen. 
13:2 ;  24:22,  35.  It  is  spoken  of  through 
out  Scripture ;  and  the  use  of  it  among 
the  ancient  Hebrews,  in  its  native  and 
mixed  state,  and  for  the  same  purposes 
as  at  present,  was  very  common.  The 
ark  of  the  covenant  was  overlaid  with 
pure  gold  ;  the  mercy-seat,  the  vessels 
and  utensils  belonging  to  the  tabernacle, 
and  those  also  of  the  house  of  the  Lord, 
as  well  as  the  drinking-vessels  of  Solo 
mon,  were  of  gold. 

GOLGOTHA,  the  Hebrew  name  for 
CALVARY,  which  see. 

GOLIATH,  a  celebrated  giant  of  Gath 
who  challenged  the  armies  of  Israel,  and 
was  encountered  and  slain  by  David. 
The  history  is  contained  in  1  Sam.  17. 
His  height  was  nine  feet  and  a  half;  or, 
if  we  reckon  the  cubit  at  twenty-one 
inches,  over  eleven  feet.  See  GIAXTS. 
175 


GOM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GOS 


GO'MER,  I.,  Gen.  10:2,  3;  IChr.  1:5; 
Ezek.  38:6,  a  son  of  Japheth,  and  father 
of  Ashkenaz,  Kiphath,  and  Togarmah. 
He  is  believed  to  have  settled  the  north 
ern  shores  of  the  Black  sea,  and  given 
name  to  the  ancient  Cimmerians  and  to 
the  Crimea.  About  700  B.  c.  a  part  of 
his  posterity  diffused  themselves  in  Asia 
Minor.  Traces  of  his  name  and  parent 
age  are  also  found  in  the  Cymbri,  Um- 
bri,  and  Cambri  of  historians,  in  Ku- 
mero  and  Kumeraeg,  the  names  of  the 
Welsh  people  and  language,  and  among 
various  nations  of  Europe. 

II.  A  harlot  whom  the  prophet  Hosea 
appears  to  have  married  in  prophetic 
vision,  as  directed  by  God,  that  the  Jews 
might  be  led  to  reflect  on  the  guilt  of 
their  spiritual  uncleanness  or  idolatry, 
Hos.  1. 

GOMOR'RAH,  one  of  the  cities  in  the 
fruitful  vale  of  Sidclim,  near  the  south 
ern  part  of  the  ancient  Dead  sea,  mirac 
ulously  blasted  by  God.  See  SODOM. 

GOPHER,  the  name  of  the  wood  of 
which  the  ark  was  built.  Many  sup 
pose  it  to  be  the  cypress;  others,  the 
pine.  Gopher  may  probably  be  a  gen 
eral  name  for  such  trees  as  abound  with 
resinous  inflammable  juices,  as  the  ce 
dar,  cypress,  lir-trec,  pine,  etc.,  Gen. 
0:14. 

GO'SHEN,  I.,  the  name  of  that  tract 
of  country  in  Egypt  which  was  inhabited 
by  the  Isi'aelites  from  the  time  of  Jacob 
to  that  of  Moses.  It  was  probably  the 
tract  lying  east  of  the  Pelusian  arm  of 
the  Nile,  towards  Arabia.  See  EGYPT. 
It  appears  to  have  reached  to  the  Nile, 
Ex.  1:22  ;  2:3,  since  the  Jews  ate  fish  in 
abundance,  Num.  11  :  5,  and  practised 
artificial  irrigation,  Deut.  11:10.  It  was 
near  Heliopolis  and  Rameses,  and  not  far 
from  the  capital  of  Egypt,  Gen.  45:10; 
47 : 1 1 ;  Ex.  8-12.  It  was  a  part  of  ' '  the 
best  of  the  land."  at  least  for  the  pasto 
ral  Hebrews,  Gen.  46:34,  and  was  evi 
dently  better  watered  and  more  fertile 
than  at  present.  Here  they  greatly  mul 
tiplied  and  prospered,  Gen.  47:27,  and 
here  they  were  sorely  afflicted,  and  yet 
not  forgotten  of  God',  Ex.  8  :  22 ;  9  :  26. 
Many  Egyptians  dwelt  among  and  around 
them. 

II.  A  city  and  the  adjacent  territory 
in  the  mountains  of  Judah,  Josh.  10:41 ; 
11:10;  15:51. 

GOS'PEL  signifies  good  neivs,   and   is 
that  revelation  and  dispensation  which 
176 


God  has  made  known  to  guilty  man 
through  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour  and 
Redeemer.  Scripture  speaks  of  "the 
gospel  of  the  kingdom,"  Matt.  24:14, 
the  gospel  "of  the  grace  of  God,"  Acts 
20:24,  "of  Christ,"  and  "of  peace," 
Rom.  1:16;  10:15.  It  is  the  "glorious" 
and  the  "everlasting"  gospel,  1  Tim. 
1  : 11,  Rev.  14  :  6,  and  well  merits  the 
noblest  epithets  that  can  be  given  it. 
The  declaration  of  this  gospel  was  mad© 
through  the  life  and  teaching,  the  death, 
resurrection,  and  ascension  of  our  Lord. 

The  writings  which  contain  the  recital 
of  our  Saviour's  life,  miracles,  death,  res 
urrection,  and  doctrine,  are  called  GOS 
PELS,  because  they  include  the  best  news 
that  could  be  published  to  mankind. 
We  have  four  canonical  gospels — those 
of  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John. 
These  have  not  only  been  generally  re 
ceived,  but  they  were  received  very  early 
as  the  standards  of  evangelical  history, 
as  the  depositories  of  the  doctrines  and 
actions  of  Jesus.  They  are  appealed  to 
under  that  character  both  by  friends  and 
enemies ;  and  no  writer  impugning  or 
defending  Christianity  acknowledges  any 
other  gospel  as  of  equal  or  concurrent 
authority,  although  there  were  many 
others  which  purported  to  be  authentic 
memoirs  of  the  life  and  actions  of  Christ. 
Some  of  these  apocryphal  gospels  are 
still  extant.  They  contain  many  errors 
a,nd  legends,  but  have  some  indirect 
value. 

There  appears  to  be  valid  objection  to 
the  idea  entertained  by  many,  that  the 
evangelists  copied  from  each  other  or 
from  an  earlier  and  fuller  gospel.  Wheth 
er  Mark  wrote  with  the  gospel  by  Mat 
thew  before  him,  and  Luke  with  Mat 
thew  and  Mark  both,  or  not,  we  know 
that  they  "spake  as  they  were  moved 
by  the  Holy  Ghost"  while  recounting 
the  works  and  sayings  of  Christ  which 
they  nad  seen  or  knew  to  be  true,  using 
no  doubt  the  most  authentic  written 
and  oral  accounts  of  the  same,  current 
among  the  disciples.  They  have  not  at 
all  confined  themselves  to  the  strict 
order  of  time  and  place. 

GOSPEL  OF  MATTHEW.  The  time  when 
this  gospel  was  written  is  very  uncer 
tain.  All  ancient  testimony,  however, 
goes  to  show  that  it  was  published  be 
fore  the  others.  It  is  believed  by  many 
to  have  been  written  about  A.  D.  38.  It 
has  been  much  disputed  whether  this 


GOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GOU 


gospel  was  originally  written  in  Hebrew 
or  Greek.  The  unanimous  testimony  of 
ancient  writers  is  in  favor  of  a  Hebrew 
original,  that  is,  that  it  was  written  in 
the  language  of  Palestine  and  for  the 
use  of  the  Hebrew  Christians.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  definiteness  and  ac 
curacy  of  this  testimony  is  drawn  into 
question ;  there  is  no  historical  notice  of 
a  translation  into  Greek  ;  and  the  present 
Greek  gospel  bears  many  marks  of  being 
an  original ;  the  circumstances  of  the 
age,  too,  and  the  prevalence  of  the  Greek 
language  in  Palestine,  seem  to  give 
weight  to  the  opposite  hypothesis.  Crit 
ics  of  the  greatest  name  are  arranged  on 
both  sides  of  the  question ;  and  some 
who  believe  it  to  have  been  first  written 
in  Hebrew,  think  that  the  author  him 
self  afterwards  made  a  Greek  version. 
Matthew  writes  as  "an  Israelite  in 
deed,"  a  guileless  converted  Jew  in 
structing  his  brethren.  He  often  quotes 
from  the  Old  Testament.  He  represents 
the  Saviour  as  the  f ulnlment  of  the  hopes 
of  Israel,  the  promised  Messiah,  King  of 
the  kingdom  of  God. 

GOSPEL  or  MARK.  Ancient  writers  agree 
in  the  statement  that  Mark,  not  himself 
an  apostle,  wrote  his  gospel  under  the 
influence  and  direction  of  the  apostle 
Peter.  The  same  traditionary  authori 
ty,  though  with  less  unanimity  and  evi 
dence,  makes  it  to  have  been  written  at 
Kome,  and  published  after  the  death  of 
Peter  and  Paul.  Mark  wrote  primarily 
for  the  Gentiles,  as  appears  from  his  fre 
quent  explanations  of  Jewish  customs, 
etc.  He  exhibits  Christ  as  the  divine 
Prophet,  mighty  in  deed  and  word.  He 
is  a  true  evangelical  historian,  relating 
facts  more  than  discourses,  in  a  concise, 
simple,  rapid  style,  with  occasional  mi 
nute  and  graphic  details. 

GOSPEL  OF  LUKE.  Luke  is  said  to  have 
written  his  gospel  under  the  direction  of 
Paul,  whose  companion  he  was  on  many 
journeys.  His  expanded  views  and  cath 
olic  spirit  resemble  those  of  the  great 
apostle  to  the  Gentiles ;  and  his  gospel 
represents  Christ  as  the  compassionate 
Friend  of  sinners,  the  Saviour  of  the 
world.  It  appears  to  have  been  written 
primarily  for  Theophilus,  some  noble 
Greek  or  Koman,  and  its  date  is  gener 
ally  supposed  to  be  about  A.  D.  63. 

GOSPEL  OF  JOHN.  The  ancient  writers 
all  make  this  gospel  the  latest.  Some 
place  its  publication  in  the  first  year  of 


the  emperor  Nerva,  A.  D.  96,  sixty-seven 
years  after  our  Saviour's  death,  and 
when  John  was  now  more  than  eighty 
years  of  age.  The  gospel  of  John  re 
veals  Christ  as  the  divine  and  divinely 
appointed  Redeemer,  the  Son  of  God 
manifested  in  flesh.  It  is  a  spiritual,  rath 
er  than  historical  gospel,  omitting  many 
things  chronicled  by  the  other  evange 
lists,  and  containing  much  more  than 
they  do  as  to  the  new  life  in  the  soul 
through  Christ,  union  with  him,  regen 
eration,  the  resurrection,  and  the  work 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  spirit  of  the 
' '  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved ' '  pervades 
this  precious  gospel.  It  had  a  special 
adaptation  to  refute  the  Gnostic  heresies 
of  that  time,  but  is  equally  fitted  to 
build  up  the  church  of  Christ  in  all  gen 
erations. 

GOURD.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
Jonah's  gourd  was  the  Ricinus  Commu- 
nis,  or  castor-oil  plant.  It  grows  in  the 
East  to  the  height  of  eight  to  twelve  feet, 
and  one  species  much  higher.  Its  leaves 
are  large,  and  have  six  or  seven  divis- 


THE  CASTOR-OIL  PLANT. 

ions,  whence  its  name  of  Palma  Christi. 
Since,  however,  it  is  now  known  thai 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  ancient  Nine 
veh,  a  plant  of  the  gourd  kind  is  com- 
177 


GOZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GRA 


monly  trained  to  run  over  structures  of 
mud  and  brush,  to  form  booths  in  which 
the  gardeners  may  protect  themselves 
from  the  terrible  beams  of  the  Asiatic 
Bun,  this  goes  far  to  show  that  this  vine, 
called  in  the  Arabic  ker'a,  is  the  true 
gourd  of  Jonah.  If  the  expression, 
"which  came  up  in  a  night,"  Jonah 
4:10,  is  to  be  understood  literally,  it  in 
dicates  that  God  ' '  prepared ' '  the  gourd, 
ver.  6,  by  miraculously  quickening  its 
natural  growth. 

The  WILD  GOURD  is  a  poisonous  plant, 
conjectured  to  mean  the  colocynth,  which 
has  a  cucumber-like  vine,  with  several 
branches,  and  bears  a  fruit  of  the  size 
and  color  of  an  orange,  with  a  hard, 
woody  shell,  within  which  is  the  white 
meat  or  pulp,  exceedingly  bitter,  and 
a  drastic  purgative,  2  Kin.  4  :  89.  It 
was  very  inviting  to  the  eye,  and  fur 
nished  a  model  for  the  carved  ' '  knops ' ' 
of  cedar  in  Solomon's  temple,  1  Kin. 
6:18;  7:24. 

GO'ZAN,  now  the  Ozan,  a  river  of 
Media  and  the  adjacent  district,  Isa. 
37  :  12,  to  which  Tiglath-pileser  and 
afterwards  Shalmanezer  sent  the  captive 
Israelites,  2  Kin.  17  :  6  ;  1  Chr.  5  :  26. 
The  Kizzil-ozan,  or  Golden  river,  is  in 
the  north-west  part  of  Persia,  and  flows 
north-east,  with  large  curves,  into  the 
Caspian  sea. 

GRACE,  favor,  mercy.  Divine  grace  is 
the  free  and  undeserved  love  and  favor 
of  God  towards  man  as  a  sinner,  especial 
ly  as  exhibited  in  the  plan  of  redemption 
through  Jesus  Christ,  John  1:17  ;  3:16  ; 
Rom.  3  :  24-26.  It  is  only  by  the  free 
grace  of  God  that  we  embrace  the  offers 
of  mercy,  and  appropriate  to  ourselves 
the  blessings  graciously  purchased  by 
redeeming  blood. 

The  "GRACE  OF  GOD,"  spontaneous, 
unmerited,  self-directed,  and  almighty, 
is  the  source  of  the  whole  scheme  of  re 
demption,  Rom.  11:6;  2 Tim.  1:9.  With 
it  are  united  "the  grace  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,"  who  gave  himself  for  sin 
ners  ;  and  that  of  "the  Spirit  of  grace," 
by  whom  alone  the  grace  offered  by  the 
Father  and  purchased  by  the  Son  is  effec 
tually  applied.  Thus  GRACE  in  man,  or 
all  true  holiness,  2  Pet.  3  :  18,  is  traced 
up  to  the  grace  of  God  aa  its  only  source  ; 
and  the  gospel  of  Christ  and  the  work  of 
the  Spirit — both  pure  grace — are  its  only 
channels  of  communication.  Hence  also 
all  the  fruits  and  blessings  of  the  gospel 
178 


are  termed  graces,  2  Cor.  8:7  ;  Phil  1:7 ; 
not  only  regeneration,  pardon,  enlight 
enment,  sanctilication,  etc.,  but  miracu 
lous,  official,  and  prophetic  gifts,  the 
peculiar  traits  of  Christian  character, 
and  everlasting  salvation,  1  Pet.  1:13. 
In  Gal.  5:4,  "grace"  means,  God's  plan 
of  salvation  by  his  mercy,  not  by  our 
works. 

GRAIN.     See  CORN. 

GRAPES,  the  fruit  of  the  vine.  The 
grapes  of  Palestine  were  very  fine,  of 
great  size  and  high  flavor,  Num.  13:24. 
At  present,  and  probably  the  same  has 
always  been  true,  the  wine  that  is  made 
requires  but  a  small  part  of  the  annual 
yield  of  the  vines.  Dr.  Robinson  says, 
' '  No  wine  is  made  from  the  very  exten 
sive  vineyards  of  Hebron,  except  a  little 
by  the  Jews."  While  yet  green,  grapes 
are  used  for  food  in  various  ways,  and 
are  dried  in  the  sun,  or  their  juice  pre 
served  in  bottles,  to  secure  a  pleasant 
vegetable  tart  all  the  year  round,  Num. 
6:4.  Ripe  grapes  may  be  had  in  Syria 
four  or  five  months,  Lev.  26  : 5 ;  and 
when  the  season  closes  many  are  hung 
up  in  clusters,  suitably  protected,  and 
remain  without  drying  up  all  through 
the  winter.  Grapes  are  exceedingly 
cheap,  and  form  no  small  part  of  the 
ordinary  food.  Ripe  grapes  are  also 
dried  into  raisins ;  and  after  the  hang 
ing  grapes  are  gone,  the  raisins  are  used 
until  the  return  of  new  grapes. 

Besides  the  law  which  protected  the 
first  three  years'  growth  of  the  vine,  (see 
FRUITS,)  there  was  another  law  requiring 
the  Jews  to  leave  the  gleanings  of  their 
vineyards  for  the  poor,  Lev.  19  :  10,  23. 
The  law  also  allowed  one  who  was  pass 
ing  a  vineyard  to  pick  a  few  grapes  to  eat 
on  the  spot,  but  not  to  carry  any  away, 
Deut.  23:24.  Everywhere  we  encounter 
proofs  of  the  admirable  humanity  that 
characterized  the  Mosaic  legislation.  A 
vineyard  nearly  stripped  of  its  clustered 
treasures  was  a  frequent  image  of  deso 
lation,  Isa.  17:6;  24:13;  Obad.  5.  See 
VINE. 

' '  Wild  grapes ' '  were  the  fruit  of  a 
wild  vine,  probably  the  Vitis  Labrusca 
of  Linnaeus,  the  wild  claret-grape.  The 
fruit  of  the  wild  vine  is  called  oeiianthes, 
or  the  flower  of  wine.  They  never  ripen, 
and  are  good  only  for  verjuice.  In  Isa. 
5:2,  4,  God  complains  of  his  people 
whom  he  had  planted  as  a  choice  vine, 
an  excellent  plant,  that  he  had  a  right  to 


GRA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


GRE 


require  of  them  good  fruit,  but  they  had  I 
Drought  forth  only  wild  grapes — fruit  of 
a  bad  smell,  and  a  bad  taste. 

GRASS  sometimes  means  any  green 
herbage,  Isa.  15:6,  and  sometimes  the 
usual  food  of  cattle,  Psa.  104:14.  The 
quick  growth  of  grass,  its  tenderness, 
and  its  rapid  combustion  when  dry,  have 
furnished  the  sacred  writers  with  some 
of  their  most  appropriate  illustrations, 
Psa.  90  :  5,  6  ;  92 : 7  ;  103  : 15,  16 ;  Isa. 
40:6-8;  51:12;  James  1:10;  1  Pet.  1:24. 
AH  sorts  of  grass  and  small  shrubs  are 
still  used  in  Syria  for  fuel,  on  account  of 
the  scarcity  of  wood,  Matt.  6 :  28-30. 
Travellers  in  that  country  often  see  grass 
growing  on  the  housetops,  the  roofs 
being  flat  and  coated  with  earth  trodden 
hard.  Such  grass  quickly  withers  when 
the  rainy  season  is  over,  Psa.  129  :  6,  7  ; 
Isa.  37:27. 

GRASS'HOPPER,  a  kind  of  locust,  and 
so  called  in  2  Chr.  7:13.  It  was  some 
times  used  for  food,  Lev.  11  :  22.  Indi 
vidually  they  are  insignificant  and  timid 
creatures,  Num.  13:33,  and  their  worth- 
lessness  furnishes  a  striking  comparison 
h  Isa.  40:22  ;  while  the  feebleness  of  age 
is  expressed  by  inability  to  endure  them, 
Eccl.  12  :  5.  Yet  coming  in  great  num 
bers,  they  are  destructive  to  all  herb 
age,  Amos  7:1.  See  LOCUST. 

GREECE,  in  the  Old  Testament,  is  put 
for  the  Hebrew  word  Javan,  which  is 
equivalent  to  Ionia,  and  seems  to  include 
not  only  Greece  but  western  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  intervening  isles,  all  settled  by 
the  Ionian  race,  Gen.  10 : 2.  Greece  prop 
er,  however,  is  chiefly  intended.  It  is 
not  often  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa 
ment,  Dan.  8:21;  10:20;  11:2;  Joel 
3:6;  Zech.  9:13.  See  JAVAN. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Greece  is  call 
ed  Hellas,  a  name  supposed  to  have  be 
longed  first  to  a  single  city,  but  at  length 
applied  to  the  whole  country  south  of 
Macedonia.  About  B  c.  146,  the  Ro 
mans  conquered  Greece,  and  afterwards 
organized  two  great  provinces,  namely, 
Macedonia,  including  Macedonia  proper, 
Thessaly,  Epirus,  and  Illyricum ;  and 
Achaia,  including  all  the  country  which 
lies  south  of  the  former  province.  (See 
ACHAIA.)  In  Acts  20:2,  Greece  is  prob 
ably  to  be  taken  in  its  widest  accepta 
tion,  as  including  the  whole  of  Greece 
proper  and  the  Peloponnesus.  This 
coxmtry  was  bounded  north  by  Macedo 
nia  and  Illyricum,  from  which  it  was 


separated  by  mountains,  south  by  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  east  by  the  ^Egean 
sea,  and  west  by  the  Ionian  sea.  It  wag 
generally  known  under  the  three  great 
divisions  of  Peloponnesus,  Hellas,  arid 
Northern  Greece. 

Peloponnesus,  more  anciently  called 
Pelasgia,  and  Argos,  and  now  the  Morea, 
was  the  southern  peninsula ;  it  included 
the  famous  cities,  Sparta,  Messene,  Elis, 
Corinth,  Argos,  etc.  The  division  of 
Hellas,  which  now  constitutes  a  great 
part  of  Livadia,  included  the  following 
cities:  Athens,  Mcgara,  Platyea,  Delphos, 
and  Actium.  Northern  Greece  included 
Thessaly  and  Epirus,  with  the  cities  La- 
rissa,  Nicopolis,  etc.  The  large  islands 
of  Crete  and  Euboea  belonged  to  Greece, 
as  well  as  most  of  those  in  the  Archipel 
ago  and  on  the  west. 

The  Jews  and  the  Greeks  appear  to 
have  had  little  intercourse  with  each 
other,  until  after  Alexander  the  Great 
overran  Egypt.  Syria,  and  the  East. 
They  then  began  to  come  in  contact 
everywhere,  for  both  races  were  widely 
dispersed.  The  Jews  extended  the  name 
of  Greeks  to  include  the  people  conquer 
ed  and  ruled  by  Greeks ;  and  the  word 
is  thus  nearly  synonymous  in  the  New 
Testament  with  Gentiles,  Mark  7:26; 
Acts  20 :  21 ;  Rom.  1  :  16,  The  term 
"Grecian"  or  Hellenist,  on  the  con 
trary,  denotes  a  Jew  by  birth  or  religion, 
who  spoke  Greek.  It  is  used  chiefly  of 
foreign  Jews  and  proselytes,  in  contrast 
with  the  Hebrews,  that  is,  those  speak 
ing  the  vernacular  Hcurew,  or  Aramaean, 
Acts  6:1 ;  9:29.  The  Greeks  were  a  viva 
cious,  acute,  and  polished,  but  superficial 
people,  compared  with  the  Jews.  They 
excelled  in  all  the  arts  of  war  and  peace  ; 
but  were  worshippers  of  beauty,  not  of 
duty.  Their  pride  of  intellect,  and  their 
corruption  of  morals,  were  almost  insur 
mountable  obstacles  to  their  reception 
of  Christianity.  Yet  it  was  among  the 
Greek  cities  and  people  that  Paul  chiefly 
labored,  and  with  great  success.  Many 
flourishing  churches  were,  in  early  times, 
established  among  them ;  and  theie 
can  be  no  doubt  that  they,  for  a  long 
time,  preserved  the  apostolic  customs 
with  much  care.  At  length,  however, 
opinions  fluctuated  considerably  on 
points  of  doctrine  ;  schisms  and  heresies 
divided  the  church ;  and  rancor,  vio 
lerice,  and  even  persecution  followed  in 
their  train.  To  check  these  evils,  coun- 
179 


GRI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAB 


cils  were  called  and  various  creeds  com 
posed.  The  removal  of  the  seat  of  gov 
ernment  from  Rome  to  Constantinople, 
gave  a  preponderance  to  the  Grecian  dis 
tricts  of  the  empire,  and  the  ecclesiasti 
cal  determinations  of  the  Greek  church 
were  extensively  received.  In  the  mid 
dle  of  the  eighth  century  disputes  arose, 
which  terminated  in  a  permanent  schism 
between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches. 
The  Greek  church  has  a  general  resem 
blance  to  the  Koman-catholic,  and  em 
braces  a  population  of  not  far  from  fifty 
millions  of  souls,  in  Russia,  Greece,  Tur 
key,  Syria,  etc. 

THE  GREEK  LANGUAGE  is  the  original 
language  of  all  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  except  perhaps  the  gospel  by 
Matthew  ;  but  the  sacred  authors  have 
followed  that  style  of  writing  which  was 
used  by  the  Hellenists,  or  Grecizing 
Hebrews,  adopting  many  idioms  and 
turns  of  speech  from  the  Syriac  and  He 
brew  languages,  very  different  from  the 
classical  style  of  the  Greek  writers. 
They  were  also  obliged  to  make  use  of 
some  new  words,  and  new  applications 
of  old  words,  to  express  religious  ideas 
before  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  and  for 
which  they  had  no  proper  expression. 
After  Alexander  the  Great,  Greek  be 
came  the  language  best  known  through 
out  the  East,  and  was  generally  used  in 
commerce.  As  the  sacred  authors  had 
in  view  the  conversion  not  only  of  the 
Jews,  then  scattered  throughout  the 
East,  but  of  the  Gentiles  also,  it  was  nat 
ural  for  them  to  write  to  them  in  Greek, 
that  being  a  language  to  which  all  were 
of  necessity  accustomed. 

GRIND.     See  CORN. 

GROVES  were  very  early  used  for  re 
ligious  worship,  Gen.  21:33.  "The 
groves  were  God's  first  temples,"  and 
seem  naturally  fitted  for  such  purposes. 
Groves  were  also  resorted  to  by  hea 
then  idolaters.  Some  elevated  spot 
was  generally  chosen  for  this  purpose. 
' '  They  sacrifice  upon  the  tops  of  moun 
tains,  and  burn  incense  upon  the  hills  ; 
under  oaks  and  poplars  and  elms,  be 
cause  the  shadow  thereof  is  good,"  Hos. 
4: 13.  It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that 
the  Hebrew  word  Asherah,  which  occurs 
in  many  passages,  and  is  rendered  grove 
in  the  English  version,  rather  signifies  an 
image  of  Astarte,  1  Kin.  18:19;  2  Kin. 
13:6  ;  etc.  See  ASHTORETH.  The  "  high 
places ' '  spoken  of  in  Scripture  were  used 
180 


first,  for  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  1  Kin. 
3:3,  4 ;  etc.  This  was,  strictly  speaking, 
an  irregularity,  since,  according  to  the 
law  of  Moses,  every  sacrifice  was  required 
to  be  brought  to  the  altar  of  the  sanc 
tuary,  Lev.  17:8,  9;  Deut.  11:13,  16. 
'ihe  "high  places"  were  also  used, 
secondly,  for  the  worship  of  idols,  2  Kin, 
23:15,  etc. 

H. 

HABAK'KUK,  one  of  the  minor  proph 
ets.  Of  his  life  we  know  nothing,  except 
that  he  appears  to  have  been  contempo 
rary  with  Jeremiah,  and  to  have  proph> 
esied  about  610  B.  c.,  shortly  before  Neb 
uchadnezzar's  first  invasion  of  Judea, 
2  Kin.  24:1. 

The  BOOK  OF  HABAKKTJK  consists  of 
three  chapters,  which  all  constitute  one 
oracle.  In  the  first  chapter,  he  foretells 
the  woes  which  the  rapacious  and  terri 
ble  Chaldeans  would  soon  inflict  upon 
his  guilty  nation.  In  the  second,  he 
predicts  the  future  humiliation  of  the 
conquerors.  The  third  is  a  sublime  and 
beautiful  ode,  in  which  the  prophet  im 
plores  the  succor  of  Jehovah  in  view  of 
his  mighty  works  of  ancient  days,  and 
expresses  the  most  assured  trust  in  him. 
Nothing,  even  in  Hebrew  poetry,  is 
more  lofty  and  grand  than  this  trium 
phal  ode. 


HABER'GEON,  Neh.  4:16.  Job  41: 26, 
a  coat  of  mail ;  an  ancient  piece  of  de 
fensive  armor,  in  the  form  of  a  coat  or 
tunic,  descending  from  the  neck  to  the 


HAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAL 


middle  of  the  body,  and  formed  of  tough 
hide,  or  many  quilted  linen  folds,  or  of 
scales  of  brass  overlapping  each  other 
like  fishes'  scales,  or  of  small  iron  rings 
or  meshes  linked  into  each  other,  Ex. 
28:32;  39:23. 

HA'BOR,  or  CIIABOR,  a  city  of  Media, 
near  which  Tiglath-pileser,  and  after 
wards  Shalmanezer  located  portions  of 
the  captive  Israelites.  It  is  thought  to 
have  stood  where  the  town  of  Abhar 
now  exists  on  a  branch  of  the  river  Go- 
zan,  2  Kin.  17:6;  18:11. 

HA'DAD,  I.,  an  Idumean  prince,  who 
defeated  the  Midianites  in  the  plains  of 
Moab,  Gen.  36:35  ;  1  Chr.  1:16. 

II.  A  second  prince  of  Edom,  men 
tioned  in  1  Chr.  1:61. 

III.  Another   Edomite   of  the   royal 
family,  who  fled  to  Egypt  while  young, 
upon  David's  conquest  of  Edom,  2  Sam. 
8:14;   was  well  received,  and  married 
the  queen's  sister.      After  the  death  of 
David  and  Joab,  he  returned  to  Edom 
and  made  an  ineffectual  effort  to  throw 
off  the  yoke  of  Solomon,  1  Kin.  11:14- 
22;  2  Chr.  8:17. 

HADADE'ZER,  or  HADARE'ZER,  a  pow 
erful  king  of  Syria,  reigning  in  Zobah 
and  the  surrounding  country,  even  to 
the  Euphrates,  1  Kin.  11:23.  He  was 
thrice  defeated  and  his  power  overthrown 
by  David,  2  Sam.  8  :  3,  4  ;  10  :  6-14,  16- 
19;  IChr.  18:3;  19:6. 

HA'DAD-RIM'MON,  a  place  in  the 
valley  of  Megiddo,  where  the  good  king 
Josiah  lost  his  life  in  a  battle  with  the 
Ethiopians,  2  Kin.  23:29;  2  Chr.  35:20- 
25.  The  lamentation  over  this  event 
was  very  great,  Zech.  12:11. 

HADO'RAM.     See  ADONIRAM. 

HA'GAR,  stranger,  an  Egyptian  bond 
maid  in  the  household  of  Sarah,  Gen. 
12:16,  who,  being  barren,  gave  her  to 
Abraham  for  a  secondary  wife,  that  by 
her,  as  a  substitute,  she  might  have 
children,  in  accordance  with  the  customs 
of  the  East  in  that  age.  The  history  of 
Hagar  is  given  in  Gen.  16;  17  ;  21.  In 
an  allegory,  Paul  makes  Hagar  represent 
the  Jewish  church,  which  was  in  bond 
age  to  the  ceremonial  law;  as  Sarah 
represents  the  true  church  of  Christ, 
which  is  free  from  this  bondage,  Gal. 
4 : 24.  Her  name  is  much  honored  among 
the  Arabs  claiming  to  be  her  descend 
ants. 

HAGARENES',  or  HA'GARITES,  1  Chr. 
5 : 10,  20,  descendants  of  Hagar  and  Ish- 


mael.  In  Psa,  83:6,  the  name  seems  to 
be  given  to  a  distinct  portion  of  the  Ish- 
maelites. 

HAG'GAI,  one  of  the  minor  prophets, 
probably  accompanied  Zerubbabel  in  the 
first  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon, 
B.  c.  536.  He  began  to  prophesy  in  the 
second  year  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  B.  c. 
520 ;  and  the  object  of  his  prophesying 
was  to  excite  his  countrymen  to  begin 
again  the  building  of  the  temple,  which 
had  been  so  long  interrupted.  In  this 
he  was  successful,  Darius  having  grant 
ed  a  decree  for  this  purpose,  Ezra  6.  The 
exceeding  glory  of  the  second  temple 
was,  as  he  foretold,  that  Christ  "the 
Desire  of  all  nations  "  came  into  it,  and 
made  the  place  of  his  feet  glorious,  Hag. 
2:7-9. 

HAIL !  a  salutation,  importing  a  wish 
for  the  welfare  of  the  person  addressed. 
It  is  now  seldom  used  among  us ;  but 
was  customary  among  our  Saxon  ances 
tors,  and  imported  "joy  to  you,"  or 
"health  to  you,"  including  in  the  term 
health  all  kinds  of  prosperity. 

HAIL-STONES,  are  drops  of  rain  form 
ed  into  ice  by  the  power  of  cold  in  the 
upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  Hail 
was  among  the  plagues  of  Egypt,  Ex. 
9:24,  and  was  the  more  terrible,  because 
it  rarely  occurred  in  that  country.  Hail 
was  also  made  use  of  by  God  for  defeat 
ing  an  army  of  Canaanites,  Josh.  10:11; 
and  is  used  figuratively  to  represent  ter 
rible  judgments,  Isa.  28:2;  Rev.  16:21. 

HAIR.  The  Jewish  men,  except  Naz- 
arites,  Num.  6:5,  9,  and  cases  like  that 
of  Absalom,  2  Sam.  14:26,  cut  their  hair 
moderately  short,  1  Cor.  11:14,  and  ap 
plied  fragrant  ointments  to  it,  Ex.  30:30- 
33  ;  Psa.  23  :  5  ;  Eccl.  9:8.  In  mourn 
ing  they  wholly  neglected  it,  or  shaved 
it  close',  or  plucked  it  out  by  handfuls, 
Jer.  7:29.  Women  prized  a  fine  head  of 
hair,  and  plaited,  perfumed,  and  decked 
it  in  many  ways,  Isa.  3:18,  24;  1  Cor. 
11:15,  so  much  as  to  call  for  apostolic 
interdictions,  1  Tim.  2  :  9  ;  1  Pet.  3  :  9. 
"Hair  like  women's"  characterized  the 
locusts  of  antichrist,  Rev.  9:8.  Lepers, 
when  cleansed,  and  Levites,  on  their  con 
secration,  shaved  the  whole  body,  Lev. 
13;  14:8,  9. 

HALAH,  2  Kin.  17:6.     See  HABOR. 

HALLELU'JAH,  and  in  the  New  Tes< 

tament,    ALLELUIAH,    Praise  ye  Jehovah. 

This  word  occurs  at  the  beginning  and 

at  the  end  of  many  psalms.     It  was  also 

181 


HAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAN 


sung  on  solemn  days  of  rejoicing,  as  an 
expression  of  joy  and  praise,  and  as  such 
it  has  been  adopted  in  the  Christian 
church,  and  is  still  used  in  devotional 
psalmody,  Rev.  19:1,  3,  4,  6. 

HAL/LOW,  to  render  sacred,  set  apart, 
consecrate.  The  English  word  is  from 
the  (Saxon,  and  means  to  make  holy:  hence 
hallowed  persons,  things,  places,  rites, 
etc.  ;  hence  also  the  name,  power,  and 
dignity  of  God  are  hallowed,  that  is,  rev 
erenced  as  holy. 

HAM,  burnt,  swarthy,  black,  I.,  a  son  of 
Noah,  Gen.  5  :  32  ;  7  :  13  ;  9  :  18  ;  10  : 1. 
The  impiety  revealed  in  his  conduct  tow 
ards  his  father,  drew  upon  him,  or  rath 
er,  according  to  the  Bible  statement,  on 
his  son  Canaan,  a  prophetic  malediction, 
Gen.  9  :  20-27.  Ham  was  the  father  of 
Cush,  Mizraim,  Phut,  and  Canaan,  that 
is,  the  ancestor  of  the  Canaanites,  South 
ern  Arabians,  Ethiopians,  Egyptians,  and 
the  Africans  in  general,  Gen.  10:6-20. 

II.  A  poetical  name  for  Egypt,  Psa. 
78:51;  106:22. 

III.  An  unknown  place  of  the  Zuzim, 
Gen.  14:5. 

HA' MAN,  a  favoriteof  Ahasuerus.  king 
of  Persia.  In  order  to  revenge  himself 
upon  Mordccai  the  Jew,  he  plotted  the 
extermination  of  all  the  Jews  in  the 
kingdom  ;  but  in  the  providence  of  God 
he  was  thwarted  by  Esther,  fell  into  dis 
grace  with  the  king,  and  wrought  his 
own  ruin  and  the  upbuilding  of  the 
Jews.  He  is  called  an  Agagite  ;  and  as 
Agag  was  a  common  name  of  the  Ama- 
lekite  kings,  the  Jews  believe  he  was  of 
that  race.  This  would  help  to  explain 
his  malice  against  the  Jews.  See  AMALEK- 
ITES.  Similar  wholesale  slaughters  are 
still  plotted  in  Asia,  and  the  whole  narra 
tive  is  confirmed  and  illustrated  by  the 
descriptions  of  eastern  life  furnished  by 
modern  travellers  in  the  same  region. 
The  death  of  Hainan  took  place  about 
485  B.  c.  His  eventful  history  shows 
that  pride  goes  before  destruction  ;  that 
the  providence  of  God  directs  all  things; 
that  his  people  are  safe  in  the  midst  of 
perils  ;  and  that  his  foes  must  perish. 

HA  MATH,  a  celebrated  city  of  Syria. 
Hamath,  like  Jerusalem  and  Damascus, 
is  one  of  the  few  places  in  Syria  and  Pal 
estine  which  have  retained  a  certain  de 
gree  of  importance  from  the  very  earliest 
ages  to  the  present  time.  The  name  oc 
curs  in  Gen.  10:18,  as  the  seat  of  a  Ca- 
naanitish  tribe  ;  and  it  is  often  mentiou- 
182 


ed  as  the  northern  limit  of  Canaan  in  its 
widest  extent,  Num.  13:21;  Josh.  13:5; 
Judg.  3:3.  In  David's  time,  Toi  king 
of  Hamath  was  his  ally,  2  Sam.  8:9,  10. 

Burckhardt  describes  Hamath  as  "sit 
uated  on  both  sides  of  the  Orontes ;  a 
part  of  it  is  built  on  the  declivity  of  a 
hill,  and  a  part  in  the  plain.  The  town 
is  of  considerable  extent,  and  must  con 
tain  at  least  30,000  inhabitants.  There 
are  four  bridges  over  the  Orontes  in  the 
town.  The  river  supplies  the  upper 
town  with  water  by  means  of  buckets 
fixed  to  high  wheels,  which  empty  them 
selves  into  stone  canals,  supported  by 
lofty  arches  on  a  level  with  the  upper 
part  of  the  town.  There  are  about  a 
dozen  of  the  wheels  ;  the  largest  of  them 
is  at  least  seventy  feet  in  diameter.  The 
principal  trade  of  Hamath  is  with  the 
Arabs,  who  buy  here  their  tent  furniture 
and  clothes.  The  government  of  Ha 
math  comprises  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty  inhabited  villages,  and  seventy 
or  eighty  which  have  been  abandoned. 
The  western  part  of  its  territory  is  the 
granary  of  northern  Syria,  though  the 
harvest  never  yields  more  than  ten  for 
cue,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  im 
mense  numbers  of  mice,  which  some 
times  wholly  destroy  the  crops."  "The 
entering  in  of  Hamath ' '  is  the  northern 
part  of  the  valley  which  leads  up  to  it 
from  Palestine,  between  Lebanon  and 
Anti-Lebanon,  Num.  13:21;  IKin.  8:65. 

HANANEEL',  a  kinsman  of  Jeremiah, 
from  whom  the  prophet  bought  a  piece 
of  ground  before  the  captivity,  and  had 
the  legal  record  made,  in  token  of  his 
prophetic  assurance  that  his  people  would 
return  to  their  possessions,  Jer.  82:6-12. 

HANA'NI,  I.,  a  seer  in  the  time  of 
Asa,  955-914  B.  c.,  imprisoned  for  his 
fidelity.  He  was  also  the  father  of  the 
prophet  Jehu,  1  Kin.  16  :  1-7  ;  2  Chr. 
16:7-10;  19:2;  20:34. 

II.  A  brother  of  Nehemiah,  who 
brought  to  Babylon  an  account  of  the 
wretched  state  of  the  Jews  then  at  Jeru 
salem,  and  afterwards  had  charge  of  the 
gates  of  the  city,  Neh.  1:1-3;  7  :  2,  3, 
B.  c.  455. 

HANANI'AH,  I.,  a  false  prophet  of 
Gibeon,  who  for  his  impious  hardihood 
was  overtaken  with  speedy  death,  accord 
ing  to  the  word  of  God,  Jer.  28:15-17. 

II.  The  Hebrew  name  of  Shadrach. 

III.  A  pious  and  faithful  officer  under 
Nehemiah,  Neh.  7:2. 


HAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAR 


HAND  is  often  put  for  strength,  power ; 
so  to  be  "in  the  hand"  of  any  one,  is 
to  be  in  his  power.  Joining  hands,  or 
striking  hands,  is  a  very  common  meth 
od  of  pledging  one's  self  to  a  contract  or 
bargain  ;  just  as  persons  among  us  often 
shake  hands  in  token  of  an  agreement. 
To  "  lift  the  hand,"  means  to  make  oath. 
"  At  the  right  hand  of  God,"  is  the  place 
of  honor,  power,  and  happiness,  Psa. 
16:11;  45:9;  110:1;  Matt.  26:64;  Col. 
3:1.  The  right  hand  meant  towards  the 
south,  the  Jews  being  wont  to. speak  as 
if  facing  the  east,  the  "laying  on  of 
hauls,"  signified  consecration  to  office, 
and  the  bestowal  of  a  blessing  or  of  di 
vine  gifts,  Gen.  48  :  14  ;  Num.  8  :  10  ; 
27:18  ;  Mirk  10  :  16  ;  Acts  6:6;  19  :  6  ; 
ITitn.  4:14.  The  hands  of  the  high- 
priest  laid  upon  the  scape-goat,  as  if 
transferring  the  guilt  of  the  people  to 
his  heid,  represented  the  work  wrought 
by  Christ  in  order  that  the  sinner  might 
not  be  "  driven  away  in  his  wickedness." 
See  WASHING. 

HA'NES,  a  city  of  Egypt,  Isa.  30 :  4, 
thought  to  be  the  modern  Ehnes,  in 
middle  Egypt  on  the  Nile. 

HANNAH,  the  pious  wife  of  a  Levite 
of  Rauiathaun-Zophitn,  named  Elkan.ih, 
and  mother  of  Samuel,  B.C.  1171.  She 
had  earnestly  besought  the  Lord  for  him, 
and  freely  devoted  him  to  serve  God  ac 
cording  to  her  vow.  She  was  afterwards 
blessed  with  three  other  sons  and  two 
daughters,  1  Sam.  1-2:21. 

HA'NQN,  a  king  of  the  Ammonites, 
whose  father  Nahash  had  befriended  Da 
vid  in  his  early  troubles.  Upon  the  death 
of  Nahash,  David  sent  an  embassage  to 
condole  with  his  son.  The  shameful 
treatment  received  by  these  ambassadors 
led  to  a  destructive  war  upon  the  Am 
monites,  2  Sam.  10:  1  Chr.  19. 

HA  RA,  1  Chr  ,.5: 26,  probably  a  moun 
tainous  region  in  the  northern  part  of 
Media. 

HA'RAN,  I.,  the  eldest  son  of  Terah, 
brother  of  Abraham,  and  father  of  Lot, 
Milcah,  and  Iscah.  He  died  before  his 
father  Terah,  Gen.  11:26-31. 

II.  An  ancient  city,  called  in  the  New 
Testament  Charran,  in  the  north-west 
part  of  Mesopotamia.  Here,  after  leav 
ing  Ur,  Abraham  dwelt  till  his  father 
Terah  died ;  and  to  this  old  homestead 
Isaac  sent  for  a  wife,  and  Jacob  fled  from 
the  wrath  of  Esau,  Gen.  11:31,  32  ;  12:5  ; 
24 ;  27:43  ;  28  :  10 ;  29  :  4.  Haran  was 


ravaged  by  the  Assyrians  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiah,  2  Kin.  19  :  12 ;  Isa.  37  :  12. 
Here  also  Crassus  the  Roman  general 
was  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Parthi- 
ans.  Harran,  as  it  is  now  called,  is  sit 
uated  on  a  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  in 
36°  52'  N.  lat.,  and  39°  5'  E.  long.,  in  a 
flat  and  sandy  plain,  and  is  only  peopled 
by  a  few  wandering  Arabs,  who  select  it 
for  the  delicious  water  it  furnishes. 


THE   COMMON  HARE   OF   PALESTINE. 

HARE,  of  the  same  genus  as  the  rab- 
bit,  prohibited  to  the  Jews  for  food,  Lev. 
11:6,  because,  though  it  "  cheweth  the 
cud,"  it  "divideth  not  the  hoof."  No 
species  of  hare  is  known  which  strictly 
chews  the  cud.  There  were  several  va 
rieties  of  the  hare  in  Syria. 

HAR' LOT,  an  abandoned  woman,  Prov. 
29:3;  a  type  of  idolatrous  nations  and 
cities,  Isa.  1  :  21 ;  Ezek.  16  ;  Nah.  3  :  4. 
Among  the  Jews,  prostitutes  were  often 
foreigners  ;  hence  their  name  of  "  strange 
women."  They  were  often  devoted  to 
heathen  idols,  and  their  abominations 
were  a  part  of  the  worship,  Num.  25:1- 
5  ;  Hos.  4:14;  a  custom  from  the  defile 
ment  of  which  the  house  of  God  was  ex 
pressly  defended,  Deut.  23:18. 

HAR'NESS,  a  suit  of  defensive  armor, 
1  Kin.  20  : 11 ;  2  Chr.  18  :  33.  The  He 
brews  went  out  from  Egypt  "harness 
ed,'.'  that  is,  properly  equipped  or  ar 
ranged. 

HAROD,  a  spring  near  Jezreel  and 
mount  Gilboa,  Judg.  7:1 ;  2  Sam.  23:25. 

HARO'SHETH  OF  THE  GENTILES,  a  city 
in  t'ue  north  of  Canaan,  the  residence  of 
Sisera,  Judg.  4:2  ;  13  ;  16.  The  mission 
ary  Thompson  finds  its  ruins  at  a  place 
still  called  Har*othieh,  the  Arabic  equiv 
alent  for  Harosheth,  on  a  hill  command 
ing  the  entrance  to  the  narrow  passage 
of  the  Kishon  from  the  plain  of  Esdrae- 
lon  to  the  plain  of  Acre. 

HARP,  Hebrew  KINNOR,  the  most  an 
cient  and  common  stringed  instrument 
183 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HAZ 


ANCIENT   HARPS   OR  LYRES 

of  the  Jews,  more  properly  translated 
lyre.  It  was  light  and  portable,  and 
was  used  on  joyful  occasions,  whether 
sacred  or  not.  It  was  invented  by  Ju- 
bal,  Gen.  4  :  21 ;  31  :  27  ;  1  Chr.  16  :  5  ; 
25:1-5;  Psa.  81:2.  David  was  a  profi 
cient  in  its  use,  1  Sam.  16:16,  23  ;  18:10. 
The  instrument  most  nearly  resembling 
our  harp  was  the  Hebrew  NEBEL,  trans 
lated  psaltery  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Psa.  57:8;  81:2;  92:3;  108:2.  It  had 
a  general  triangular  shape,  and  seven  to 
twelve  strings,  Psa.  33  :  2  ;  144  :  9.  It 
was  played  with  the  hand,  or  with  a 
short  iron  rod  or  plectrum,  according  to 
its  size.  The  Jews  had  other  stringed 
instruments,  like  the  guitar  and  lute, 
but  little  can  be  accurately  determined 
respecting  their  form,  etc.  See  Music. 

HART,  or  STAG,  a  species  of  deer,  clean 
by  the  Levitical  law,  Deut.  12:15,  and 
celebrated  for  its  elegance,  agility,  and 
grace,  Song  2:9;  Isa.  35:6.  See  HIND, 
and  ROE. 

HATE  often  denotes  in  Scripture  only 
a  less  degree  of  love,  Gen.  29  :  30,  31 ; 
Deut.  21:15;  Prov.  13:24;  Mai.  1:2,  3: 
Luke  14  :  26  ;  Rom.  9  :  13.  God  has  a 
just  and  perfect  abhorrence  of  sin  and 
sinners,  Psa.  5:5.  But  hatred  in  gen 
eral  is  a  malevolent  passion,  Gal.  5:20, 
and  no  one  who  is  not  perfect  in  love, 
can  hate  without  sin. 

HAU'RAN,  Ezek.  47:16,  was  original 
ly  a  small  district  south  of  Damascus, 
and  east  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  but  was 
afterwards  extended  to  .the  south  and 
east,  and  under  the  Romans  was  called 
Auranitis.  It  now  includes  the  ancient 
Trachonitis,  the  Haouran,  Iturasa,  and 
part  of  Batanaea,  and  is  very  minutely 
described  by  Burckhardt.  Many  ruins 
of  cities,  with  Greek  inscriptions,  are 
scattered  over  its  rugged  surface.  i 

184 


HAVI'LAH.  The  Scriptures  mention 
a  Havilah  descended  from  Ham,  Gen. 
10 :  7,  and  another  from  Shem,  Gen. 
11:29.  We  must  assume  a  double  Havi 
lah,  corresponding  to  each  of  these. 

1.  The  location  of  one  Havilah  is  con 
nected  with  that  of  the  garden  of  Eden. 
According  to  one  theory,  it  is  to  be  sought 
on  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the 
Black  sea  ;  according  to  another,  at  the 
head  of  the  Persian  gulf.     See  EDEN. 

2.  The  other  Havilah  seems  to  have 
been  in  Arabia.     From  the  statement  in 
1  Sam.  15:7,  that  "Saul  smote  the  Am- 
alekites  from  Havilah  unto  Shur,  that  is 
over  against  Egypt,"  it  would  seem  to 
have  been  somewhere  in  the  north-west 
ern  part  of  Arabia ;  since,  from  the  cir 
cumstances  of  this  campaign,  we  cannot 
well  suppose  that  it  extended  over  a  great 
tract  of  country. 

HA'VOTH-JAIR',  huts  of  Jair,  a  dis 
trict  in  Gilead,  containing  thirty  ham 
lets  belonging  to  the  thirty  sons  of  Jair, 
judges  of  Israel,  Num.  32  :  41 ;  Judg. 
10:3,  4. 

HAWK,  or  FALCON,  a  strong-winged 
and  rapacious  bird,  of  several  species  in 
Syria;  unclean  for  the  Hebrews,  Lev. 
11:16,  but  sacred  among  the  Greeks  and 
Egyptians.  In  its  migrations,  it  illus 
trates  the  wise  providence  of  the  Crea* 
tor,  Job  39:26. 

HAY,  in  Prov.  27:25  and  Isa.  15:6, 
denotes  the  first  shoots  of  grass.  The 
Jews  did  not  prepare  and  store  up  hay 
for  winter  use,  as  is  customary  in  cold 
climates. 

HAZAEL,  an  officer  of  Benhadad  king 
of  Syria,  whose  future  accession  to  the 
throne  was  revealed  to  the  prophet  Eli 
jah,  1  Kin.  19  :  15.  Many  years  after 
wards  he  was  sent  by  Benhadad  to  con 
sult  Elisha,  then  at  Damascus,  as  to  his 
recovery  from  sickness,  and  on  the  next 
day  smothered  the  king  with  a  wet  cloth, 
2  Kin.  8  :  7-15,  B.  c.  885.  His  discom 
posure  under  the  eye  of  the  prophet  was 
an  indication  that  he  had  already  medi- 
iated  this  crime.  Having  usurped  the 
ihrone,  he  reigned  forty  years ;  and  by 
lis  successful  and  cruel  wars  against  Ju- 
dah  and  Israel  justified  the  forebodings 
of  Elisha,  2  Kin.  8  :  28  ;  10  :  32  ;  12  : 17  ; 
13:3,  7;  2  Chr.  22:5. 

HAZ'ERIM,  an  ancient  abode  of  the 
A  vim,  apparently  in  the  north-western 
part  of  Arabia  Petrasa,  Deut.  2:23. 

HAZ'EROTH,  a  station  of  the  Israel- 


HAZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEB 


ites,  about  five  days'  journey  from  mount 
Sinai,  Num.J.l:35.  Here  they  remained 
a  week  or  more,  Num.  12  ;  and  their  next 
station  recorded  was  near  Kadesh-bar- 
nea,  on  the  borders  of  Canaan,  Num. 
12:16;  13:26;  Deut.  1:19-21. 

HAZE'ZON-TA'MAR.     See  EN-GEDI. 

HA'ZOR,  I.,  a  chief  city  of  northern 
Canaan,  whose  king  Jabin,  at  the  head 
of  an  allied  host,  was  defeated  by  Joshua, 
Josh.  11:1-13.  Hazor  revived,  however, 
and  for  a  time  oppressed  the  Israelites ; 
but  was  subdued  by  Barak,  fortified  by 
Solomon,  and  remained  in  the  possession 
of  Israel  until  the  invasion  of  Tiglath- 
pileser,  Josh.  19:36;  Judg.  4:2;  1  Kin. 
9: 15  ;  2  Kin.  15:29.  It  lay  not  far  from 
lake  Merom. 

II.  A  legion  in  Arabia,  laid  waste  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer.  49:28-33.     Its  lo 
cation  is  unknown. 

III.  Cities  in  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
Josh.  15:23;  Neh.  11:33. 

HEATH,  supposed  to  be  the  Juniper, 
a  low  tree  found  in  desert  and  rocky 
places,  and  thus  contrasted  with  a  tree 
growing  by  a  water-course,  Jer.  17:5-8  ; 
48:6. 

HEAVEN,  in  the  Bible,  means  pri 
marily  the  region  of  the  air  and  clouds, 
and  of  the  planets  and  stars,  but  chiefly 
the  world  of  holy  bliss  above  the  visible 
heavens.  It  is  called  "the  third  heav 
en,"  "the  highest  heaven,"  and  "the 
heaven  of  heavens,"  expressions  nearly 
synonymous.  There  holy  beings  are  to 
dwell,  seeing  all  of  God  that  it  is  possi 
ble  for  creatures  to  see.  Thither  Christ 
ascended,  to  intercede  for  his  people  and 
prepare  for  them  a  place  where  all  shall 
at  length  be  gathered,  to  go  no  more  out 
for  ever,  Eph.  4:10;  Heb.  8:1 ;  9:24-28. 
In  this  life  we  can  know  but  little  of  the 
location  and  appearance  of  heaven,  or  of 
the  employments  and  blessedness  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  Scriptures  inform  us 
that  all  sin,  and  every  other  evil,  are 
for  ever  excluded ;  no  fruits  of  sin  will 
be  found  there — no  curse  nor  sorrow  nor 
sighing,  no  tear,  no  death  :  the  former 
things  are  passed  away.  They  describe 
it  figuratively,  crowding  together  all  the 
images  which  nature  or  art  can  supply 
to  illustrate  its  happiness.  It  is  a  king 
dom,  an  inheritance  :  there  are  rivers  of 
pleasure,  trees  of  life,  glorious  light,  rap 
turous  songs,  robes,  crowns,  feasting, 
mirth,  treasures,  triumphs.  They  also 
give  us  positive  representations:  the 


righteous  dwell  in  the  presence  of  God ; 
they  appear  with  Christ  in  glory.  Heav 
en  is  life,  everlasting  life  :  glory,  an  eter 
nal  weight  of  glory  :  salvation,  repose, 
peace,  fulness  of  joy,  the  joy  of  the  Lord. 
There  are  different  degrees  in  that  glory, 
and  never-ceasing  advancement.  It  will 
be  a  social  state,  and  its  happiness,  in 
some  measure,  will  arise  from  mutual 
communion  and  converse,  and  the  ex 
pressions  and  exercises  of  mutual  benev 
olence.  I  twill  include  the  perfect  purity 
of  every  saint ;  delightful  fellowship  with 
those  we  have  here  loved  in  the  Lord, 
Matt.  8:11;  17  :  3,  4  ;  1  Thess.  2  :  19  ; 
4:13-18  ;  the  presence  of  Christ,  and  the 
consciousness  that  all  is  perfect  and  ever 
lasting.  We  are  taught  that  the  body 
will  share  this  bliss  as  well  as  the  soul : 
the  consummation  of  our  bliss  is  subse 
quent  to  the  resurrection  of  the  body ; 
for  it  is  redeemed  as  well  as  the  soul, 
and  shall,  at  the  resurrection  of  the  just, 
be  fashioned  like  unto  Christ's  glorious 
body.  By  descending  from  heaven,  and 
reascending  thither,  he  proves  to  the 
doubting  soul  the  reality  of  heaven  ;  he 
opens  its  door  for  the  guilty  by  his  aton 
ing  sacrifice  ;  and  all  who  are  admitted 
to  it  by  his  blood  shall  be  made  meet  for 
it  by  his  grace,  and  find  their  happiness 
for  ever  in  his  love.  See  KINGDOM  OF 
HEAVEN. 

HE'BER,  I.,  an  ancestor  of  the  He 
brews,  Luke  3 : 35.  See  HEBREWS. 

II.  A  Kenite,  descended  from  Hobab, 
Moses'  father-in-law.  He  resided  in  the 
northern  part  of  Canaan,  and  seems  to 
have  been  a  man  of  note  in  his  day.  His 
•wife  Jael  slew  Sisera  with  her  own  hand, 
Judg.  4:11,  17;  5:24. 

HE' BREWS,  that  branch  of  the  poster- 
ity  of  Abraham  whose  home  was  in  the 
land  of  promise.  The  name  Hebrew  is 
first  applied  to  Abraham  in  Gen.  14:13, 
and  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
derived  from  Heber,  the  last  of  the  long- 
lived  patriarchs.  Heber  outlived  six 
generations  of  his  descendants,  includ 
ing  Abraham  himself,  after  whose  death 
he  was*for  some  years  the  only  surviving 
ancestor  of  Isaac  and  Jacob.  Hebrews 
appears  to  have  been  the  name  by  which 
the  Jewish  people  were  known  to  for- 
igners,  in  distinction  from  their  com 
mon  domestic  name,  "the  children  of 
Israel. ' '  The  name  of  Jews,  derived  from 
Judah,  was  afterwards  applied  to  them 
as  inhabitants  of  Judea,  2  Kin.  16:6. 
185 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEB 


Abraham,  the  founder  of  the  Jewish 
nation,  was  a  migratory  shepherd,  whose 
property  consisted  mainly  in  vast  flocks 
and  herds,  but  who  had  no  fixed  resi 
dence,  and  removed  from  place  to  place 
as  the  convenience  of  water  and  pastur 
age  dictated.  As  such  a  nomad,  he  had 
lived  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  and  then  in 
Haran,  whence  he  removed  and  dwelt  in 
the  same  manner  among  the  Canaanites, 
in  the  country  which  God  promised  to 
give  to  his  posterity.  His  son  and 
grandson,  Isaac  and  Jacob,  followed  in 
his  steps.  By  a  miraculous  arrange 
ment  of  Providence,  Joseph,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Jacob,  became  grand- vizier  of 
Egypt ;  and  in  a  time  of  famine  invited 
his  family  to  settle  in  that  land.  Here 
they  dwelt  four  hundred  and  thirty 
years  ;  during  which  time  the  Egyptians 
reduced  them  to  a  state  of  bondage. 
From  this  they  were  delivered  by  Jeho 
vah  through  Moses,  who  led  them  out 
with  great  signs  and  wonders  to  Sinai, 
where  God  gave  them  his  law;  and 
then,  after  forty  years  of  wanderings,  he 
brought  them  to  the  borders  of  the 
promised  land.  Here  Moses  died,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Joshua,  who  conquer 
ed  the  desired  country,  and  allotted  it 
to  the  several  tribes.  From  this  time 
they  were  governed  in  the  name  of  Je 
hovah,  by  chiefs,  julges,  or  patriarchal 
rulers,  until  the  time  of  Samuel ;  when 
the  government  was  changed  to  a  mon 
archy,  and  Saul  anointed  king.  David, 
a  shepherd  youth,  but  the  man  after 
God's  own  heart,  was  afterwards  king, 
and  founded  a  family  which  continued 
to  reign  in  Jerusalem  until  the  entire 
subjugation  of  the  country  by  the  Chal 
deans.  Under  his  grandson  Rehoboam, 
however,  ten  tribes  revolted  and  formed 
a  separate  kingdom,  that  of  Israel,  be 
tween  which  and  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
there  were  hostile  feelings  and  frequent 
wars.  The  termination  of  the  whole  was 
the  carrying  away  of  the  greater  part  of 
both  nations  to  Babylonia,  Media,  etc. 
After  seventy  years  of  exile,  a  few  small 
colonies  of  Hebrews  returned,  aftd  built 
another  temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  at 
tempted  to  reestablish  their  nation  ;  but 
they  had  to  struggle  first,  under  the 
Maccabees,  against  the  kings  of  the  Se- 
leucian  race,  (see  JERUSALEM,)  and  then 
against  the  Romans  ;  by  whom  at  length, 
under  Titus,  Jerusalem  was  taken  and 
utterly  destroyed,  A.  D.  70-71.  Since 
186 


that  time,  although  Jerusalem  has  been 
rebuilt,  the  Hebrews  have  Ceased  to  exist 
as  an  independent  people ;  but  they  are 
scattered  among  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  where  they  retain  their  character 
istic  traits,  and  live  as  strangers,  and,  hi 
a  great  measure,  as  outcasts. 

The  government  of  the  Hebrews  is, 
by  Josephus,  called  a  theocracy — a  form 
of  government  which  assigns  the  whole 
power  to  God,  with  the  management  of 
all  the  national  affairs— God,  in  fact, 
being  the  proper  King  of  the  state.  This 
government,  however,  underwent  sev 
eral  changes  under  the  legislator  Moses, 
his  successor  Joshua,  the  judges,  the 
kings,  and  the  high-priests.  But  amid 
all  these  revolutions,  God  was  considered 
as  the  monarch  of  Israel,  though  he  did 
not  exercise  his  jurisdiction  always  in 
the  same  manner.  In  the  time  of  Moses, 
he  dwelt  among  his  people  as  a  king  in 
his  palace,  or  in  the  midst  of  his  camp  ; 
always  ready  to  be  consulted,  promul 
gating  all  needful  laws,  and  giving  spe 
cific  directions  in  all  emergencies.  This 
was,  properly,  the  time  of  the  theocracy, 
in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term.  Under 
Joshua  and  the  judges,  it  continued 
nearly  the  same  :  the  former  being  filled 
by  the  spirit  which  animated  Moses, 
would  undertake  nothing  without  con 
sulting  Jehovah ;  and  the  latter  were 
leaders,  raised  up  by  God  himself,  to  de 
liver  the  Hebrews  and  govern  in  his 
name.  The  demand  of  the  people  for  a 
king  occasioned  to  Samuel,  the  proph 
et-judge,  great  disquietude;  for  he  re 
garded  it  as  a  rejection  of  the  theocratic 
government,  1  Sam.  8  :  6,  7.  God  com 
plied  with  the  wishes  of  the  people ; 
but  he  still  asserted  his  own  sovereign 
authority,  and  claimed  the  obedience  of 
all. 

The  religion  of  the  Hebrews  may  be 
considered  in  different  points  of  view, 
with  respect  to  the  different  conditions 
of  their  nation.  Under  the  patriarchs, 
they  were  instructed  in  the  will  of  God 
by  direct  revelation,  worshipped  him  by 
prayer  and  sacrifices,  opposed  idolatry 
and  atheism,  used  circumcision  as  the 
appointed  seal  of  the  covenant  made  by 
God  with  Abraham,  and  followed  the 
laws  which  the  light  of  grace  and  faith 
discovers  to  those  who  honestly  and  se 
riously  seek  God,  his  righteousness,  and 
truth.  They  lived  in  expectation  of  the 
Messiah,  the  Desire  of  all  nations,  to 


HEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEB 


complete  their  hopes  and  wishes,  and 
fully  to  instruct  and  bless  them.  Such 
was  the  religion  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Ja 
cob,  Judah,  Joseph,  etc.,  who  maintained 

the  worship  of  God  and  the  tradition  of 
the  true  religion.  After  the  time  of  Mo 
ses,  the  religion  of  the  Hebrews  became 
more  fixed,  and  ceremonies,  days,  feasts, 
priests,  and  sacrifices  were  determined 
with  great  exactness.  This  whole  dis 
pensation  only  prefigured  that  more  per 
fect  one  which  should  in  after-times  aiise, 
when  the  Messiah  should  come,  and  bring 
life  and  immortality  to  light  in  his  gos 
pel,  and  make  a  full  atonement  for  the 
sins  of  the  world.  See  TYPE. 

The  long  abode  of  the  Hebrews  in 
Egypt  had  cherished  in  them  a  strong 
propensity  to  idolatry ;  and  neither  the 
miracles  of  Moses,  nor  his  precautions  to 
withdraw  them  from  the  worship  of 
idols,  nor  the  rigor  of  his  laws,  nor  the 
splendid  marks  of  God's  presence  in  the 
Israelitish  camp,  were  able  to  conquer 
this  unhappy  perversity.  We  know  with 
what  facility  they  adopted  the  adoration 
of  the  golden  calf,  when  they  had  re 
cently  been  eye-witnesses  of  such  divine 
wonders.  Saul  and  David,  with  all  their 
authority,  were  not  able  entirely  to  sup 
press  such  inveterate  disorders.  Super 
stitions,  which  the  Israelites  did  not  dare 
to  exercise  in  public,  were  practised  in 
private.  They  sacrificed  on  the  high 
places,  and  consulted  diviners  and  ma 
gicians.  Solomon,  whom  God  had  cho 
sen  to  build  his  temple,  was  himself  a 
stone  of  stumbling  to  Israel.  He  erected 
altars  to  the  false  gods  of  the  Phoenicians, 
Moabites,  and  Ammonites,  and  not  only 
permitted  his  wives  to  worship  the  gods 
of  their  own  country,  but  himself  to 
some  extent  adored  them,  1  Kin.  11:5-7. 
Most  of  his  successors  showed  a  similar 
weakness.  Jeroboam  introduced  the 
worship  of  the  golden  calves  into  Israel, 
which  took  such  deep  root  that  it  was 
never  entirely  extirpated.  It  was  for 
this  cause  that  God  gave  the  Hebrews 
over  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  to 
captivity  and  dispersion.  See  IDOLATRY. 
After  the  captivity,  they  appear  to  have 
been  wholly  free  from  the  worship  of 
idols ;  but  they  were  still  corrupt  and  far 
from  God,  and  having  filled  the  cup  of 
their  guilt  by  rejecting  and  crucifying 
the  Lord  of  glory,  they  were  extirpated 
as  a  nation  and  became  strangers  and 
sojourners  over  all  the  earth. 


For  the  language  of  the  Hebrews,  see 
LANGUAGE. 

The  existence  of  the  Hebrews  as  a 
people  distinct  from  all  others,  to  this 
day,  is  a  miracle  of  that  indisputable 
kind  which  may  well  justify  a  few  re 
marks. 

1.  They  are  spread  into  all  parts  of 
the  earth ;  being  found  not  only  in  Eu 
rope  and  America,  but  to  the  utmost 
extremity  of  Asia,  even  in  Thibet  and 
China.     They  abound  in  Persia,  North 
ern  India,  and  Tartary,  wherever  travel 
lers    have    penetrated.      They   are,    as 
they  assert,   descendants  of  the  tribes 
carried  away  captive  by  the  Assyrian 
monarchs.     They  are  also  numerous  in 
Arabia,  in  Egypt,  and  throughout  Africa. 

2.  In  most  parts  of  the  world  their 
state  is  much  the  same— one  of  dislike, 
contempt,  and  oppression.     In  past  ages 
innumerable  exactions  and  wrongs  have 
been  heaped  upon  them.      Within  the 
last  few  years  they  have  received  more 
justice  at  the  hands  of  some  of  the  Euro 
pean  states ;  but  they  have  usually  held 
their  possessions  by  a  very  precarious 
tenure. 

3.  They  everyAvhere  maintain  observ 
ances  peculiar  to  themselves :   such  as 
circumcision,  performed  after  the  law  of 
their  fathers;   the  great  day  of  expia 
tion  ;  also  the  observance  of  a  sabbath  or 
day  of  rest  on  Saturday,  and  not  on 
the  Christian  Sabbath.     They  have  gen 
erally  retained  the  observance  of  the 
passover  in  some  form. 

4.  They  are  divided  into  various  sects. 
Some  of  them  are  extremely  attached  to 
the  traditions  of  the  rabbins,  and  to  the 
multiplied  observances  enjoined  in  the 
Talmud.     Others,  as  the  Caraites,  reject 

|  these  with  scorn,  and  adhere  solely  to 
1  Scripture.  The  majority  of  the  Jews  in 
Europe,  and  those  with  whose  works  we 
are  mostly  conversant,  are  rabbinists, 
and  may  be  taken  as  representatives  of 
the  ancient  Pharisees. 

5.  They  everywhere  consider  Judea  as 
their  proper  country,  and  Jerusalem  ap 
their  metropolitan  city.     Wherever  set 

|  tied,  and  for  however  long,  they  still 
(  cherish  a  recollection  of  country,  unpar 
alleled  among  other  nations.    They  have 
not  lost  it ;   they  will  not  lose  it ;  and 
they  transmit  it  to  their  posterity.    How 
ever  comfortably  they  may  be  settled  in 
any  residence,  they  hope  to  see  Zion  and 
Jerusalem  revive  from  their  ashes. 
187 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEL 


6.  The  number  of  the  Jewish  nation 
was  estimated  a  few  years  ago,  for  the 
information  of  Buonaparte,  at  the  fol 
lowing  amount,  but  from  what  docu 
ments  we  know  not: 

In  the  Turkish  empire 1,000,000 

In  Persia,  China,  India,  on  the 

east  and  west  of  the  Ganges-  -  300,000 
In  the  west  of  Europe,  Alrica, 

America 1 ,700,000 

Total 3,000,000 

This  number  is  probably  very  far  short 
of  the  truth.  Maltebrun  estimates  them 
at  from  four  to  five  millions. 

HEBREWS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.  The  object 
of  this  epistle,  which  ranks  among  the 
most  important  of  the  New  Testament 
books,  was  to  prove  to  the  Jews,  from 
their  own  Scriptures,  the  divinity,  hu 
manity,  atonement,  and  intercession  of 
Christ,  particularly  his  preeminence  over 
Moses  and  the  angels  of  God ;  to  demon 
strate  the  superiority  of  the  gospel  to 
the  law,  and  the  real  object  and  design 
of  the  Mosaic  institution  ;  to  fortify  the 
minds  of  the  Hebrew  converts  against 
apostasy  under  persecution,  and  to  en 
gage  them  to  a  deportment  becoming 
their  Christian  profession.  In  this  view, 
the  epistle  furnishes  a  key  to  the  Old 
Testament  Scriptures,  and  is  invaluable 
as  a  clear  elucidation  and  an  inspired, 
unanswerable  demonstration  of  the  doc 
trine  of  the  great  atoning  Sacrifice  as  set 
forth  in  Old  Testament  institutions.  The 
name  of  the  writer  of  this  epistle  is  no 
where  mentioned.  The  majority  of  crit 
ics,  however,  refer  it  to  the  apostle  Paul. 
It  is  also  believed  to  have  been  written 
in  Greek,  at  Rome,  and  about  A.  D.  63. 
See  PAUL. 

HE'BRON,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  of  Canaan,  being  built  seven  years 
before  Tanis,  the  capital  of  Lower  Egypt, 
Num.  13  :  22.  It  was  anciently  called 
Kirjath-arba,  (see  ARBA,)  and  Mamre, 
and  was  a  favorite  residence  of  the  patri 
archs  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  Here 
too  they  were  buried,  Gen.  14  :  13-24 ; 
23 : 2-19  ;  35 : 27.  Under  Joshua  and  Ca 
leb  the  Israelites  conquered  it  from  the 
Canaanites  and  Anakim,  and  it  was  after 
wards  made  a  Levitical  city  of  refuge, 
Josh.  14:13-15;  15:13;  21:11,  13;  Judg. 
1:10,  20.  It  was  David's  seat  of  govern 
ment  during  the  seven  years  when  he 
reigned  over  Judah  only,  2  Sam.  2:3;  5:5. 
Here  Absalom  raised  the  standard  of  re 
volt,  2  Sam.  15:9,  10.  It  was  fortified  by 
188 


Rehoboam,  and  is  mentioned  after  the 
captivity,  but  not  in  the  New  Testa 
ment,  Neh.  11:25.  At  present  Hebron  is 
an  un walled  city  of  about  8,000  inhabit 
ants,  of  whom  some  600  are  Jews,  and 
the  remainder  Turks  and  Arabs.  It  lies 
in  a  deep  valley  and  on  the  adjacent  hill 
side,  in  the  ancient  hill  country  of  Ju- 
dea,  about  twenty  miles  south  of  Jerusa 
lem,  and  2,600  feet  above  the  sea.  Its 
modern  name,  El-khulil,  the  friend,  is 
the  same  which  the  Moslems  give  to 
Abraham,  "the  friend  of  God;"  and 
they  profess  to  hold  in  their  keeping  the 
burial-place  of  the  patriarchs,  the  ' '  cave 
of  Machpelah. "  It  is  covered  by  a  small 
mosque,  surrounded  by  a  stone  structure 
60  feet  high,  150  feet  wide,  and  200  feet 
long.  Within  this  no  Christian  is  per 
mitted  to  enter ;  but  it  is  evidently  of 
very  high  antiquity,  and  may  well  be 
regarded  as  inclosing  the  true  site  of  the 
ancient  tomb.  Other  relics  of  antiquity 
exist  in  two  stone  reservoirs,  the  larger 
133  feet  square,  and  21  feet  deep.  They 
are  still  in  daily  use  ;  and  one  of  them  was 
probably  the  "pool  in  Hebron,"  above 
which  David  hung  up  the  assassins  of 
Ish-bosheth,  2  Sam.  4:12.  The  city  con 
tains  nine  mosques  and  two  synagogues. 
Its  streets  are  narrow  ;  the  houses  of 
stone,  with  flat  roofs  surmounted  by 
small  domes.  Large  quantities  of  glass 
lamps  and  colored  rings  are  here  manu^ 
factured  ;  also  leathern  bottles,  raisins, 
and  dibs,  or  grape-syrup.  The  environs 
of  the  city  are  very  fertile,  furnishing 
the  finest  vineyards  in  Palestine,  numer 
ous  plantations  of  olive  and  other  fruit 
trees,  and  excellent  pasturage.  See  ESH- 
COL,  MAMRE. 

HEIF'ER.  Red  heifers  were  to  be  of 
fered  in  sacrifice  for  the  national  sins,  in 
the  impressive  manner  described  in  Num. 
19:1-10,  illustrating  the  true  sacrifice  for 
sin  in  the  person  of  Christ,  Heb.  9:13, 
14.  The  well-fed  heifer  was  a  symbol  of 
wanton  wildness,  Jer.  46  :  20  ;  50  :  11 ; 
Hos.  4:16. 

HEL'BON,  formerly  supposed  to  be 
Haleb,  or  as  called  in  Europe,  Aleppo,  a 
city  of  Syria,  about  one  hundred  and 
eighty  miles  north  of  Damascus,  and 
about  eighty  from  the  Mediterranean 
sea.  In  1822,  Aleppo  was  visited  by  a 
dreadful  earthquake,  by  which  it  was 
almost  entirely  destroyed.  Its  present 
population  is  not  one  half  of  the  200,000 
it  then  possessed.  But  recently  a  valley 


HEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HEL 


has  been  found  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
An ti -Lebanon,  north  of  the  Barada,  call 
ed  Helbon,  from  one  of  its  principal  vil 
lages.  Its  grapes  and  the  wine  made 
from  them  are  still  remarkable  for  their 
fine  quality.  This  valley  is  probably  the 
Helbon  of  Ezek.  27:18. 

HELIOP'OLIS,  city  of  the  sun,  I.,  a  cel 
ebrated  city  of  Egypt,  called  in  Coptic, 
Hebrew,  and  the  English  version,  ON,  sun, 
light,  Gen.  41:45.  The  Seventy  mention 
expressly,  Ex.  1:11,  that  On  is  Heliop- 
olis.  Jeremiah,  43  :  13,  calls  this  city 
Beth-shemesh,  that  is,  house  or  temple 
of  the  sun.  In  Ezekiel,  30:17,  the  name 
is  pronounced  Aven,  which  is  the  same 
as  On.  The  Arabs  called  it  Ain-Shems, 
fountain  of  the  sun.  All  these  names 
come  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
city  was  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Egyp 
tian  worship  of  the  sun.  It  was  in  ruins 
in  the  time  of  Strabo,  who  mentions  that 
two  obelisks  had  -already  been  carried 
away  to  Rome.  At  present  its  site,  six 


miles  north-north-east  from  Cairo,  is 
marked  only  by  extensive  ranges  of  low 
mounds  full  of  ruinous  fragments,  and  a 
solitary  obelisk  formed  of  a  single  block 
of  red  granite,  rising  about  sixty  feet 
above  the  sand,  and  covered  on  its  four 
sides  with  hieroglyphics. 

II.  Another  Heliopolis  is  alluded  to  in 
Scripture  under  the  name  of  the  "plain 
of  Aven,"  or  field  of  the  sun,  Amos  1:5. 
This  was  the  Heliopolis  of  Ccele-Syria, 
now  Baalbec.  Its  stupendous  ruins  have 
been  the  wonder  of  past  centuries,  and 
will  continue  to  be  the  wonder  of  future 
generations,  till  barbarism  and  earth 
quakes  shall  have  done  their  last  work. 
The  most  notable  remains  are  those  of 
three  temples,  the  largest  of  which,  with 
its  courts  and  portico,  extended  1,000 
feet  from  east  to  west.  A  magnificent 
portico,  180  feet  long,  with  twelve  lofty 
and  highly  wrought  columns,  led  to  a 
large  hexagonal  court,  and  this  to  a  vast 
quadrangle,  440  feet  by  370.  Fronting 


RUINS   OF   BAALBEC. 


on  this,  rose  ten  columns  of  the  peristyle 
which  surrounded  the  inner  temple. 
There  were  nineteen  columns  on  each 
side,  or  fifty-four  in  all,  only  six  of 
which  are  now  standing,  and  they  were 
seven  feet  in  diameter,  and  sixty-two 
feet  high,  besides  the  entablature  of 


nearly  fourteen  feet.  This  temple  rested 
on  an  immense  vaulted  substructure, 
rising  nearly  fifty  feet  above  the  ground 
outside,  and  in  this  are  three  stones  six 
ty-three  feet  long  and  thirteen  feet  high, 
lying  twenty  feet  above  the  ground, 
the  temples  are  of  Roman  oricdn ;  and 
189 


HEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


HER 


in  vastncss  of  plan,  combined  with  elab 
orateness  and  delicacy  of  execution,  they 
seem  to  surpass  all  others  in  the  world. 
1 '  They  are  like  those  of  Athens  for  light 
ness,  but  far  surpass  them  in  vastness-; 
they  are  vast  and  massive,  like  those  of 
Thebes,  but  far  excel  them  in  airiness 
and  grace."  (Robinson.) 

HEL'KATH-HAZZU'RIM,  field  of  he 
roes,  a  place  near  Gibeon,  so  named  from 
a  fatal  duel-like  combat,  preceding  a 
battle  between  the  armies  of  David  and 
Ish-bosheth,  2  Sam.  2:16. 

HELL.  The  Hebrew  SHEOL,  and  the 
Greek  HADES,  usually  translated  hell, 
often  signify  the  place  of  departed  spir 
its,  Psa.  16:10;  Isa.  14:9;  Ezek.  31:16. 
Here  was  the  rich  man,  after  being  bur 
ied,  Luke  16  :  23.  The  above  and  many 
other  passages  in  the  Old  Testament 
show  the  futility  of  that  opinion  which 
attributes  to  the  Hebrews  an  ignorance 
of  a  future  state. 

The  term  hell  is  most  commonly  ap 
plied  to  the  place  of  punishment  in  the 
unseen  world,  and  is  usually  represented 
in  the  Greek  New  Testament  by  the  word 
Gehenna,  valley  of  Ilinnom.  See  HINNOM. 
In  2  Pet.  2:4,  the  rebellious  angels  are 
said,  in  the  original  Greek,  to  have  been 
cast  down  into  "  Tartarus,"  this  being  the 
Grecian  name  of  the  lowest  abyss  of  Ha 
des.  Other  expressions  are  also  used,  in 
dicating  the  dreadfulness  of  the  anguish 
there  to  be  endured.  It  is  called  "outer 
darkness,"  "flame,"  "furnace  of  fire," 
"unquenchable  fire,"  "fire  and  brim 
stone,"  etc.,  Matt.  8:12;  13:42;  22:13; 
25:20;  41;  Mark  9: 43-48  ;  Jude  13;  Rev. 
20 : 14.  The  misery  of  hell  will  consist  in 
the  privation  of  the  vision  and  love  of 
God,  exclusion  from  every  source  of  hap 
piness,  perpetual  sin,  remorse  of  con 
science  in  view  of  the  past,  malevolent 
passions,  the  sense  of  the  just  anger  of 
God,  and  all  other  sufferings  of  body  and 
soul  which  in  the  nature  of  things  are  the 
natural  results  of  sin,  or  which  the  law 
of  God  requires  as  penal  inflictions.  The 
degrees  of  anguish  will  be  proportioned  to 
the  degrees  of  guilt,  Matt.  10 : 15  ;  23 : 14 ; 
Luke  12:47,  48.  And  these  punishments 
will  be  eternal,  like  the  happiness  of 
heaven.  The  wrath  of  God  will  never 
cease  to  abide  upon  the  lost  soul,  and  it 
will  always  be  "the  wrath  to  come." 

HE'MAN,  L,  a.celebrated  sage,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah.     The  period  of  his  life  is 
unknown,  1  Kin.  4:31. 
190 


II.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  to  whom  as  a 
chief  musician  of  the  temple  the  eighty- 
eighth  Psalm  is  inscribed,  1  Chr.  6:33; 
16:41,  42. 

HEM'LOCK,  Hos.  10:4,  Amos  6:12, 
in  Hebrew,  ROSH,  usually  translated  gall 
or  bitterness,  Deut.  32:32,  and  mention* 
ed  in  connection  with  wormwood,  Deut. 
29  :  18  ;  Jer.  9  :  15  ;  23  : 15  ;  Lam.  3:19. 
It  indicates  some  wild,  bitter,  and  nox 
ious  plant,  which  it  is  difficult  to  deter 
mine.  According  to  some  it  is  the  poi 
sonous  hemlock,  while  others  consider  it 
to  be  the  poppy. 

HEN.  The  care  of  a  hen  to  protect 
her  brood  from  hawks,  etc.,  illustrates 
the  Saviour's  tender  care  of  his  people 
when  exposed  to  the  swoop  of  the  Ro 
man  eagle,  as  in  all  similar  perils,  Matt. 
23:37;  24:22.  The  common  barn-door 
fowl  is  not  often  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
Mark  13:35 ;  14:30 ;  Luke  22:34 ;  but  at 
the  present  day  they  and  their  eggs  are 
more  used  in  Syria  than  any  other  food 
not  vegetable. 

HE'NA,  supposed  to  have  been  a  city 
of  Mesopotamia  afterwards  called  Ana, 
at  a  ford  of  the  Euphrates,  2  Kin.  18:34 ; 
19:13;  Isa.  37:13 

HEPH'ZIBAH,  my  delight,  the  mother 
of  Manasseh,  2  Kin.  21:1,  and  a  name 
given  to  the  church,  Isa.  62:4. 

HER'ESY,  choice,  chosen  way  of  life 
or  faith  ;  sect,  school,  party.  The  Greek 
word  properly  designates  any  sect  or 
party,  without  implying  praise  or  cen 
sure.  So  everywhere  in  the  book  of 
Acts,  5:17  ;  15:5;  26:4,  5.  In  the  epis 
tles  it  denotes  a  sect  or  party  in  a  bad 
sense,  implying  a  refractory  spirit,  as 
well  as  error  in  faith  and  practice,  1  Cor. 
11 : 19  ;  Gal.  5: 20  ;  2  Pet.  2:1.  After  the 
primitive  age,  the  word  came  to  signify 
simply  error  in  doctrine. 

HER'MAS,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  Rom. 
16:14;  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
the  writer  of  the  ancient  work  called 
"The  Shepherd  of  Hennas" — a  singular 
mixture  of  truth  and  piety  with  folly 
and  superstition. 

HERMOG'ENES,  and  PHYGEL'LUS, 
fellow-laborers  with  Paul  in  Asia  Minor, 
who  deserted  him  during  his  second  im 
prisonment  at  Rome,  2  Tim.  1 : 15. 

HER'MON,  a  lofty  mountain  on  the 
north-east  border  of  Palestine,  called 
also  Sirion,  Shenir,  and  Sion,  (not  Zion,) 
Deut.  3  :  8 ;  4  :  39.  It  is  a  part  of  the 
great  Anti-Lebanon  range  ;  at  the  point 


HER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HER 


where  an  eastern  and  lower  arm  branches 
off,  a  little  south  of  the  latitude  of  Da 
mascus,  and  runs  in  a  southerly  direction 
terminating  east  of  the  head  of  the  sea 
of  Galilee.  This  low  range  is  called  Je- 
bel  Heish.  Mount  Hermon  is  believed 
to  be  what  is  now  known  as  Jebel  esh- 
Sheikh,  whose  highest  summit,  surpass 
ing  every  other  in  Syria,  rises  into  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow  or  ice,  ten 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 

For  a  view  of.  Hermon,  see  MEROM. 
Professor  Hackett  thus  describes  its  ap 
pearance  as  seen  from  a  hill  north  of 
Nazareth:  "The  mountain  was  conceal 
ed  one  moment,  and  the  next,  on  ascend 
ing  a  few  steps  higher,  stood  arrayed 
before  me  with  an  imposing  effect  which 
I  cannot  easily  describe.  It  rose  im 
mensely  above  every  surrounding  object. 
The  purity  of  the  atmosphere  caused  it 
to  appear  near,  though  it  was  in  reality 
many  miles  distant.  The  snow  on  its 
head  and  sides  sparkled  under  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  as  if  it  had  been  robed  in  a 
vesture  of  silver.  In  my  mind's  eye  at 
that  moment  it  had  none  of  the  appear 
ance  of  an  inert  mass  of  earth  and  rock, 
but  glowed  with  life  and  animation.  It 
stood  there  athwart  my  path,  like  a 
.  mighty  giant  rearing  his  head  towards 
heaven  and  swelling  with  the  proud 
consciousness  of  strength  and  majesty. 
I  felt  how  natural  was  the  Psalmist's 
personification:  "The  north  and  the 
south  thou  hast  created  them  ;  Tabor 
arid  Hermon  shall  rejoice  in  thy  name,'  " 
Psa.  89:12. 

The  ' '  little  Hermon ' '  of  modern  trav 
ellers,  not  mentioned  in  Scripture,  is  a 
shapeless  mass  of  hills  north  of  the 
smaller  valley  of  Jezreel.  "Hermon- 
ites,"  or  Hermons,  in  Psa.  42:6,  de 
notes  the  peaks  of  the  Hermon  range. 

HER'OD,  the  name  of  four  princes, 
Idumyeans  by  descent,  who  governed 
either  the  whole  or  a  part  of  Judea, 
under  the  Romans,  and  are  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament. 

I.  HEROD  THE  GREAT,  Matt.  2;  Luke 
1:5.  He  was  the  son  of  Antipater,  an 
Idumaean,  who  was  in  high  favor  with 
Julius  Caesar.  At  the  age  of  fifteen 
years,  Herod  was  constituted  by  his 
father  procurator  of  Galilee  under  Hyr- 
canus  II.,  who  was  then  at  the  head  of 
the  Jewish  nation ;  while  his  brother 
Phasael  was  intrusted  with  the  same 
authority  over  Judea.  In  these  stations 


they  were  afterwards  confirmed  by  An 
tony,  with  the  title  of  tetrarch,  about 
the  year  41  B.  o.  The  power  of  Hyrca- 
nus  had  always  been  opposed  by  his 
brother  Aristobulus ;  and  now  Antigo- 
nus,  the  son  of  the  latter,  continued  in 
hostility  to  Herod,  and  was  assisted  by 
the  Jews.  At  first  he  was  unsuccessful, 
and  was  driven  by  Herod  out  of  the 
country  ;  but  having  obtained  the  aid  of 
the  Parthians,  he  at  length  succeeded  in 
defeating  Herod,  and  acquired  possession 
of  the  whole  of  Judea,  about  the  year  40 
B.  c.  Herod  meanwhile  fled  to  Rome; 
and  being  there  declared  king  of  Judea 
through  the  exertions  of  Antony,  he  col 
lected  an  army,  vanquished  Antigonus, 
recovered  Jerusalem,  and  extirpated  all 
the  family  of  the  Maccabees,  B.  c.  37. 
After  the  battle  of  Actium,  in  which 
his  patron  Antony  was  defeated,  Herod 
joined  the  party  of  Octavius,  and  was 
confirmed  by  him  in  all  his  possessions. 
He  endeavored  to  conciliate  the  affec 
tions  of  the  Jews,  by  rebuilding  and  dec 
orating  the  temple,  (see  TEMPLE,)  and  by 
founding  or  enlarging  many  cities  and 
towns ;  but  the  prejudices  of  the  nation 
against  a  foreign  yoke  were  only  height 
ened  when  he  introduced  quinquennial 
games  in  honor  of  Ca?sar,  and  erected 
theatres  and  gymnasia  at  Jerusalem. 
The  cruelty  of  his  disposition  also  was 
such  as  ever  to  render  him  odious.  He 
put  to  death  his  own  wife  Mariamne, 
with  her  two  sons  Alexander  and  Aris 
tobulus  ;  and  when  he  himself  was  at 
the  point  of  death,  he  caused  a  number 
of  the  most  illustrious  of  his  subjects  to 
be  thrown  into  prison  at  Jericho,  and 
exacted  from  his  sister  a  promise  that 
they  should  be  murdered  the  moment  he 
expired,  in  order,  as  he  said,  that  tears 
should  be  shed  at  the  death  of  Herod. 
This  promise,  however,  was  not  fulfilled. 
His  son  Antipater  was  executed  for  con 
spiring  to  poison  his  father ;  and  five 
days  after,  Herod  died,  A.  D.  2,  aged  sixty- 
eight,  having  reigned  as  king  about  thir 
ty-seven  years.  It  was  during  his  reign 
that  Jesus  was  born  at  Bethlehem  ;  and 
Herod,  in  consequence  of  his  suspicious 
temper,  and  in  order  to  destroy  Jesus, 
gave  orders  for  the  destruction  of  all  the 
children  of  two  years  old  and  under  in 
the  place,  Matt.  2.  This  is  also  men 
tioned  by  Macrobius.  After  the  death 
of  Herod,  half  of  his  kingdom,  includ 
ing  Judea,  Idurnaca,  and  Samaria,  was 
191 


HER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HER 


given  to  his  son  Archelaus,  with  the  title 
of  Ethnarch ;  while  the  remaining  half 
was  divided  between  two  of  his  other 
sons,  Herod  Antipas  and  Philip,  with  the 
title  of  Tetrarchs  ;  the  former  having  the 
regions  of  Galilee  and  Perea,  and  the  lat 
ter  Batanea,  Trachonitis,  and  Auranitis. 

II.  HEROD  PHILIP.     See  PHILIP. 

III.  HEROD  AN'TIPAS,  Luke  3:1,  was 
the  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Malthace 
his  Samaritan  wife,  and  own  brother  to 
Archelaus,    along    with   whoni    he   was 
educated  at  Rome.      After  the  death  of 
his  father,  he  was  appointed  by  Augus- 
AIS  to  be  tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  Perea, 
that  is,  the  southern  part  of  the  country 
east  of  the  Jordan,  Luke  3:1,   whence 
also  the  general  appellation  of  king  is 
sometimes  given  to  him,   Mark  6  :  14. 
The  Saviour,  as  a  Galilean,  was  under 
his  j  urisdiction,  Luke  23 : 6-12.     He  first 
married  a  daughter  of  Aretas,  an  Arabian 
king ;   but  afterwards  becoming  enam 
oured  of  Herodias,  the  wife  of  his  brother 
Herod  Philip,  and  his  own  niece,  he  dis 
missed  his  former  wife,  and  induced  He 
rodias  to  leave  her  own  husband  and  con 
nect  herself  with  him.    At  her  instigation 
he  afterwards  went  to  Rome  to  ask  for  the 
dignity  and  title  of  king  ;  but  being  there 
accused  before  Caligula,  at  the  instance 
of  Herod  Agrippa,  his  nephew  and  the 
brother  of  Herodias,  he  was  banished  to 
Lugdunum  (now  Lyons)  in  Gaul,  about 
A.  D.  41,  and  the  provinces  which  he  gov 
erned  were  given  to  Herod  Agrippa.     It 
was  Herod  Antipas  who  caused  John  the 
Baptist  to  be  beheadad,  Matt.  14:1-12; 
Mark  6: 14-29.     He  also  appears  to  have 
been  a  follower,  or  at  least  a  favorer,  of 
the  sect  of  the  Sadducees,  Mark  8 :  15. 
Compare  Matt.  16:6.     See  HERODIANS. 

IV.  HEROD  AGRIPPA  MAJOR  or  I.,  Acts 
12;  23:35,  was  a  grandson  of  Herod  the 
Great   and   Mariamne,   and  son   of  the 
Aristobulus  who  was  put  to  death  with 
his  mother,  by  the  orders  of  his  father. 
(See  above,  HEROD  I.)     On  the  accession 
of  Caligula  to  the  imperial  throne,  Agrip 
pa  was  taken  from  prison,  where  he  had 
been  confined  by  Tiberius,  and  received 
from  the  emperor,  A.  D.  38,  the  title  of 
king,  together  with  the  provinces  which 
had  belonged   to  his   uncle   Philip  the 
tetrarch,  (see  HEROD  I.,)  and  also  to  the 
tetrarch  Lysanias.     (See  ABILENE.)     He 
was  afterwards  confirmed  in  the  posses 
sion  of  these  by  Claudius,  who  also  an 
nexed  to  his  kingdom  all  those  parts  of  j 

192 


Judea  and  Samaria  which  had  formerly 
belonged  to  his  grandfather  Herod,  A.  D. 
43.  In  order  to  ingratiate  himself  with 
the  Jews,  he  commenced  a  persecution 
against  the  Christians ;  but  seems  to 
have  proceeded  no  further  than  to  put 
to  death  James,  and  to  imprison  Peter, 
since  he  soon  after  died  suddenly  and 
miserably  at  Cyssarea,  A.  D.  44,  Acts  12. 
He  is  mentioned  by  Josephus  only  under 
the  name  of  Agrippa. 

V.  HEROD  AGRIPPA  MINOR  or  II. ,  Acts 
25  ;  26,  was  the  son  of  Herod  Agrippa 
I.,  and  was  educated  at  Rome,  under 
the  care  of  the  emperor  Claudius.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  when  he  was 
seventeen  years  old,  instead  of  causing 
him  to  succeed  to  his  father's  kingdom, 
the  emperor  set  him  over  the  kingdom 
of  Chalcis,  which  had  belonged  to  his 
uncle  Herod.  He  was  afterwards  trans 
ferred  (A.  D.  63)  from  Chalcis,  with  the 
title  of  king,  to  the  government  of  those 
provinces  which  his  father  at  first  pos 
sessed,  namely,  Batanea,  Trachonitis> 
Auranitis,  and  Abilene,  to  which  several 
other  cities  were  afterwards  added.  He 
is  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  and 
by  Josephus  only  by  the  name  of  Agrip 
pa.  It  was  before  him  that  St.  Paul  was 
brought  by  Festus,  Acts  25:13  ;  26.  He 
died  in  the  third  year  of  Trajan's  reign, 
at  the  age  of  seventy  years. 

HERO'DIANS,  partisans  of  Herod  An 
tipas,  Matt.  22:16;  Mark  3:6.  Herod 
was  dependent  on  the  Roman  power, 
and  his  adherents  therefore  maintained 
the  propriety  of  paying  tribute  to  Caesar, 
which  the  Pharisees  denied.  This  ex 
plains  Matt.  22:16. 

HERO'DIAS,  a  granddaughter  of  Her 
od  the  Great  and  Mariamne,  daughter 
of  Aristobulus,  and  sister  of  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  She  was  first  married  to  her 
uncle  Herod  Philip,  but  afterwards  aban 
doned  him  and  connected  herself  with 
his  brother  Herod  Antipas.  It  was  by 
her  artifice  that  Herod  was  persuaded  to 
cause  John  the  Baptist  to  be  put  to 
death,  she  being  enraged  at  John  on  ac 
count  of  his  bold  denunciation  of  the 
incestuous  connection  which  subsisted 
between  her  and  Herod.  When  Herod 
was  banished  to  Lyons,  she  accompanied 
him,  Matt.  14  :  3,  6  ;  Mark  6  : 17  ;  Luke 
3:19.  See  HEROD  III. 

HER'ON.  This  name  is  put  in  Lev. 
11:19,  Deut.  14  : 18,  for  a  Hebrew  word 
of  very  uncertain  meaning.  See  BIRDS. 


HES 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HIN 


HESH'BON,  a  celebrated  city  of  the 
Amorites,  twenty  miles  east  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Jordan,  Josh.  3:10;  13:17.  It 
was  given  to  Reuben ;  but  was  after 
wards  transferred  to  Gad,  and  then  to 
the  Levites.  It  had  been  conquered  from 
the  Moabites  by  Sihon,  and  became  his 
capital ;  and  was  taken  by  the  Israelites 
a  little  before  the  death  of  Moses,  Num. 
21 : 25  ;  Josh.  21 : 39.  After  the  ten  tribes 
were  transplanted  into  the  country  be 
yond  the  Euphrates,  the  Moabites  recov 
ered  it,  Isa.  15:4  ;  Jer.  48:2,  34,  45.  Its 
ruins  are  still  called  Hesban,  and  cover 
the  sides  of  a  hill  seven  miles  north  of 
Medeba. 

HEZEKIAH,  a  pious  king  of  Judah, 
succeeded  his  father  Ahaz  about  726 
B.  c.,  and  died  about  698  B.  c.  His  his 
tory  is  contained  in  2  Kin.  18-20  ;  2  Chr. 
29-32.  Compare  Isa.  36-38.  His  reign 
is  memorable  for  his  faithful  efforts  to  re 
store  the  worship  of  Jehovah ;  for  his  pride 
and  presumption  towards  the  Assyrians  ; 
for  the  destruction  of  their  invading  host 
in  answer  to  his  prayer ;  for  his  sickness 
and  humiliation,  and  the  prolonging  of 
his* life  fifteen  years  of  peace.  He  was 
succeeded  by  the  unworthy  Manasseh. 

HID'DEKEL,  one  of  the  rivers  of  Par 
adise.  Its  modern  name  is  Tigris.  See 
EDEN,  and  EUPHRATES. 

HI'EL,  God  liveth,  a  Bethelite,  who  re 
built  Jericho  in  despite  of  the  woe  de 
nounced  five  hundred  years  before,  Josh. 
6 : 26.  The  fulfilment  of  the  curse  by  the 
death  of  his  children,  proves  the  truth 
which  his  name  signified,  1  Kin.  16:34. 

HIEKAP'OLIS,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  sit 
uated  on  its  western  border,  near  the 
junction  of  the  rivers  Lycus  and  Mean 
der,  and  not  far  from  Colosse  and  Lao- 
dicea.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  warm 
springs  and  baths.  A  Christian  church 
was  early  established  here,  and  enjoyed 
the  ministrations  of  the  faithful  Epaph- 
ras,  Col.  4:12,  13.  The  city  is  now  des 
olate,  but  its  ruins  still  exhibit  many 
traces  of  its  ancient  splendor.  Among 
them  are  the  remains  of  three  churches, 
a  theatre,  a  gymnasium,  and  many  se 
pulchral  monuments.  The  white  front 
of  the  cliffs,  above  which  the  city  lay, 
has  given  it  its  present  name  of  Pam- 
luke-kaleh,  the  Cotton  Castle. 

HIGGAI'ON,  in  Psa.  9:16,  is  supposed 
to  indicate  a  pause  in  the  singing  of  the 
Psalm,  for  meditation,  probably  with  an 
instrumental  interlude. 
9 


HIGH  PLACES.  The  ancient  Ca- 
naanites,  and  other  nations,  worshipped 
the  heavenly  bodies  and  their  idols  upon 
hills,  mountains,  and  artificial  eleva 
tions.  The  Israelites  were  commanded 
to  destroy  these  places  of  idol- worship, 
Deut.  12:2,  but  instead  of  this,  they 
imitated  the  heathen,  and  at  first  wor 
shipped  Jehovah  in  high  places,  1  Sam. 
9:12;  1  Kin.  3:4,  and  afterwards  idols, 
1  Kin.  11  :  7  ;  2  Kin.  17  : 10,  11.  Here 
also  they  built  chapels  or  temples, 
"houses  of  the  high  places,"  1  Km. 
13  :  32  ;  2  Kin.  17  :  29,  and  had  regular 
priests,  1  Kin.  12  :  32 ;  2  Kin.  17  :  32. 
Different  groves  were  sacred  to  differ 
ent  gods ;  and  the  high  places  were  in 
separably  linked  to  idolatry.  Hence 
one  reason  why  Jehovah  required  the 
festivals  and  sacrifices  of  the  Jews  to 
be  centred  at  his  temple  in  Jerusalem  ; 
that  the  people  of  the  living  and  only 
true  God  might  be  delivered  from  the 
temptations  of  the  groves,  and  witness 
as  one  man  against  idolatry.  The  proph 
ets  reproach  the  Israelites  for  worship 
ping  on  the  high  places  ;  the  destroying 
of  which  was  a  duty,  but  the  honor  of 
performing  it  is  given  to  few  princes  in 
Scripture,  though  several  of  them  were 
zealous  for  the  law.  Before  the  temple 
was  built,  the  high  places  were  not  ab 
solutely  contrary  to  the  law,  provided 
God  only  was  adored  there.  Under  the 
judges,  they  seem  to  have  been  tolerated 
in  some  exceptional  cases ;  and  Samuel 
offered  sacrifice  in  several  places  where 
the  ark  was  not  present.  Even  in  Da 
vid's  time,  the  people  sacrificed  to  the 
Lord  at  Shiloh,  Jerusalem,  and  Gibeon. 
The  high  places  were  much  frequented 
in  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  and  on  these 
hills  they  often  adored  idols,  and  com 
mitted  a  thousand  abominations.  See 
BAMOTH  and  GROVES. 

HILKIAH,  a  faithful  high-priest  in 
the  reign  of  Josiah,  2  Kin.  22  ;  23. 

This  was  also  the  name  of  the  fathers 
of  Jeremiah  and  Eliakim,  2  Kin.  18:18; 
Jer.  1:1. 

HIN,  a  Hebrew  liquid  measure ;  as  of 
oil,  Ex.  30:24;  Ezek.  45:24,  or  of  wine, 
Ex.  29 : 40  ;  Lev.  23 : 13.  It  was  the  sixth 
part  of  an  ephah  or  bath,  and  contained 
ten  or  eleven  pints. 

HIND,  the  female  of  the  hart  or  stag, 

a  species  of  deer,  distinguished  for  the 

lightness  and  elegance  of  its  form.     The 

hind  is  destitute  of  horns,  like  all  the 

193 


H1N 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HIR 


HIND   AND   FAWN. 

females  of  this  class,  except  the  reindeer. 
In  Gen.  49:21,  Naphtali  is  compared  to 
a  hind  roaming  at  liberty,  or  quickly 
growing  up  into  elegance ;  while  the 
"goodly  words"  of  Naph tali  refer  to  the 
future  orators,  prophets,  and  poets  of  the 
tribe.  A  faithful  and  affectionate  wife  is 
compared  to  the  hind,  Prov.  5 :  19,  as 
also  are  swift  and  sure-footed  heroes, 
2  Sam.  22:34;  Hab.  3:19. 

HIN'NOM,  that  is,  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom,  or  of  the  son  of  Hinnom,  a  narrow 
valley  just  south  of  Jerusalem,  running 
up  westward  from  the  vallay  of  the  Ce- 
dron,  and  passing  into  the  valley  of  Gi- 
hon,  which  follows  the  base  of  mount 
Zion  north,  up  to  the  Joppa  gate.  It 
was  well  watered,  and  in  ancient  times 
most  verdant  and  delightfully  shaded 
with  trees.  The  boundary  line  between 
Judah  and  Benjamin  passed  through  it, 
Josh.  15  :  8  ;  18  :  6  ;  Neh.  11:30.  In  its 
lowest  part,  towards  the  south-east,  and 
near  the  king's  gardens  and  Siloam,  the 
idolatrous  Israelites  made  their  children 

?ass  through  the  fire  to  Moloch,  1  Kin. 
1:7  ;  2  Kin.  16:3  ;  Jer.  32:35.  See  MO 
LOCH.  The  place  of  these  abominable 
sacrifices  is  also  called  Tophet,  Isa.  30 : 33  ; 
Jer.  7 : 31.  According  to  some,  this  name 
is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  toph,  drum, 
because  drums  are  supposed  to  have  been 
used  to  drown  the  cries  of  the  victims. 
But  this  opinion  rests  only  on  conjecture. 
King  Josiah  defiled  the  place,  2  Kin. 
23:10,  probably  by  making  it  a  deposito 
ry  of  filth.  It  has  been  a  common  opin 
ion  that  the  later  Jews,  in  imitation  of 
Josiah,  threw  into  this  place  all  manner 
of  filth,  as  well  as  the  carcasses  of  ani- 
194 


mals  and  the  dead  bodies  of  malefactors  ; 
and  that  with  reference  to  either  the 
baleful  idolatrous  fires  in  the  worship  of 
Moloch,  or  to  the  fires  afterwards  main 
tained  there  to  consume  the  mass  of  im 
purities  that  might  otherwise  have  occa 
sioned  a  pestilence,  came  the  figurative 
use  of  the  fire  of  Gehenna,  that  is,  Valley 
of  Hinnom,  to  denote  the  eternal  fire  in 
which  wicked  men  and  fallen  spirits  shall 
be  punished.  This  supposition,  how 
ever,  rests  upon  uncertain  grounds. 

It  seems  clear  that  the  later  Jews  bor 
rowed  their  usage  of  the  fire  of  the  val 
ley  of  Hinnom  (Gehenna)  to  represent 
the  punishment  of  the  wicked  in  the 
future  world  directly  from  two  passages 
of  Isaiah :  ' '  For  Tophet  is  ordained  of 
old  ;  yea,  for  the  king  it  is  prepared  ;  he 
hath  made  it  deep  and  large:  the  pile 
thereof  is  fire  and  much  wood ;  the 
breath  of  the  Lord,  like  a  stream  of 
brimstone,  doth  kindle  it, ' '  chap.  80:33; 
"And  they  shall  go  forth,  and  look  upon 
the  carcasses  of  the  men  that  have  trans 
gressed  against  me :  for  their  worm  shall 
not  die,  neither  shall  their  fire  be  quench 
ed:  and  they  shall  be  an  abhorring  unto 
all  flesh, ' '  chap.  66 : 24.  These  they  cor 
rectly  interpreted  figuratively,  as  repre 
senting  the  vengeance  which  God  would 
take  on  his  enemies  and  the  oppressors 
of  his  people.  That  the  prophet,  in  this 
terrible  imagery,  alluded  to  any  fire  kept 
perpetually  burning  in  the  valley  of  Hin 
nom,  has  not  been  clearly  proved.  But 
however  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that 
the  Jews  transferred  the  name  Gehenna, 
that  is,  valley  of  Hinnom,  to  the  place  in 
which  devils  and  wicked  men  are  to  be 
punished  in  eternal  fire,  and  which  in  the 
New  Testament  is  always  translated  hell, 
Matt.  5:22,  29,  30;  10:28;  Mark  9:43, 
45,  47  ;  Luke  12 : 5  ;  James  3 : 6.  See  HELL. 

The  rocks  on  the  south  side  of  Hinnom 
are  full  of  gaping  apertures,  the  mouths 
of  tombs  once  filled  with  the  dead,  but 
now  vacant. 

HI'RAM,  or  HU'RAM.  I.,  a  king  of 
Tyre,  who  sent  to  congratulate  David 
on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  and  aided 
him  in  building  his  palace,  2  Sam.  5:11 ; 
1  Chr.  14:1.  He  seems  to  have  been  the 
Abibal  of  secular  history. 

II.  A  king  of  Tyre,  probably  a  son  of 
the  former,  2  Chr.  2:13,  and  like  him  a 
friend  of  David.  He  congratulated  Sol 
omon  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
and  furnished  essential  aid  in  building 


HIS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOL 


the  temple.  He  provided  timber  and 
stones,  together  with  gold  to  an  immense 
amount,  and  received  in  return  large 
supplies  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil,  with  twen 
ty  cities  in  Galilee,  1  Kin.  5 ;  2  Chr.  2. 
See  CABUL.  He  afterwards  joined  Sol 
omon  in  his  commercial  enterprises  in 
the  eastern  seas,  1  Kin.  9:26-28;  10:11- 
22  ;  2  Chr.  8:18.  Josephus  relates  that 
he  and  Solomon  were  w6nt  to  exchange 
enigmas  with  each  other ;  that  he  greatly 
improved  his  city  and  realm,  and  died 
after  a  prosperous  reign  of  thirty-four 
years,  at  the  age  of  fifty-two. 

III.  A  skilful  artificer  of  Tyre,  whose 
mother  was  a  Jewess.  The  interior  dec 
orations  and  utensils  of  Solomon's  tem 
ple  were  made  under  his  direction,  1  Kin. 
7:13,  14;  2  Chr.  2:13,  14. 

HIS'SING,  as  a  mode  of  calling  an  at 
tendant  to  his  master's  side,  is  a  custom 
very  prevalent  in  Palestine.  Says  Os- 
borne,  "Whenever  a  servant  wras  want 
ed,  the  usual  '  shee  !'  which  is  so  common 
throughout  the  land,  started  two  or  three 
in  an  instant."  The  same  custom  is  ev 
idently  alluded  to  in  Isa.  5:26;  7:18; 
"The  Lord  shall  hiss  for  the  fly  that  is 
in  the  uttermost  part  of  the  rivers  of 
Egypt,"  etc. 

HIT'TITES,  descendants  of  Heth,  Gen. 
10:15,  a  Canaanite  tribe  dwelling  near 
Hebron  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  Gen. 
15:20;  23,  and  subdued  in  the  Israelit- 
ish  invasion,  Ex.  3:8  ;  Josh.  3:10.  They 
were  not,  however,  exterminated  :  Uriah 
was  a  Hittite,  2  Sam.  11:3;  Solomon 
used  their  services,  1  Kin.  9:20 ;  wre  read 
of  the  "kings  of  the  Hittites"  in  the 
south,  1  Kin.  10  :  29  ;  2  Kin.  7:6;  and 
they  were  not  lost  as  a  people  until  after 
the  Jews'  return  from  captivity,  Ezra 
9:1.  See  CANAANITES. 

HI'VITES.     See  CAXAANITES. 

HO'BAB,  the  son  of  Raguel  or  Reuel, 
Num.  10:29.  According  to  one  suppo 
sition  he  was  the  same  as  Jethro,  Moses' 
father-in-law,  Zipporah  being  called  the 
daughter  of  Keuel  as  one  of  his  descend 
ants.  According  to  another  view,  he 
was  the  brother  of  Jethro.  Those  who 
hold  this  opinion  maintain  that  the  He 
brew  word  rendered  father-in-law,  Judg. 
4:11,  may  denote  simply  a  relation  by 
marriage.  When  the  Hebrews  were 
about  leaving  mount  Sinai,  Moses  re 
quested  him  to  cast  in  his  lot  with  the 
people  of  God,  both  for  his  own  sake  and 
because  his  knowledge  of  the  desert  and 


its  inhabitants  might  often  be  of  service 
to  the  Jews.  It  would  appear  that  he 
acceded  to  this  request,  Judg.  1  :  16  ; 
4:11. 

HO'BAII,  a  place  north  of  Damascus, 
visited  by  Abraham,  Gen.  14 :  15 ;  now 
unknown. 

HO'LY,  HOLINESS.  These  terms 
sometimes  denote  outward  purity  or 
cleanliness ;  sometimes  internal  purity 
and  sanctification.  True  holiness  char 
acterizes  outward  acts,  but  still  more  the 
motive  and  intent  of  the  heart.  It  is  an 
inward  principle  ;  not  mere  rectitude  or 
benevolence,  or  any  one  moral  excel 
lence,  but  the  harmonious  and  perfect 
blending  of  all,  as  all  the  colors  of  the 
prism  duly  blended  form  pure  light. 
God  is  holy  in  a  transcendent  and  infi 
nitely  perfect  manner,  Isa.  1:4;  6:3. 
The  Messiah  is  called  "the  Holy  One," 
Psa.  16:10  ;  Luke  4:34 :  Acts  3:14  ;  and 
Holy  is  the  common  epithet  given  to  the 
third  person  of  the  Trinity,  the  Holy 
Spirit.  God  is  the  fountain  of  holiness, 
innocence,  and  sanctification.  Mankind 
lost  all  holiness  in  the  fall;  but  God 
makes  his  people  gradually  "partakers 
of  his  holiness"  here,  and  in  heaven 
they  will  be  found  perfectly  and  for  ever 
sanctified ;  as  an  earnest  of  which,  he 
looks  upon  them  as  already  in  Christ, 
holy  and  beloved.  The  Bible  applies 
the  epithet  holy  in  a  secondary  sense  to 
whatever  pertains  especially  to  God — to 
heaven,  to  his  temple,  its  parts,  utensils, 
and  services ;  to  his  day,  his  ministers, 
priests,  prophets,  and  apostles.  The 
Jews  were  called  a  holy  people,  because 
they  were  separated  unto  God,  to  be  a 
religious  and  consecrated  people ;  and 
Christians,  as  a  body,  arc  also  called 
holy,  because  they  are  in  like  mariner 
separated  unto  Christ.  But  a  "  holy 
man,"  in  the  ordinary  Christian  sense, 
is  one  who  exhibits  in  his  conduct  the 
inward  purity,  benevolence,  and  holy 
devotedness  to  the  Saviour,  with  which 
his  heart  ovei'flows. 

HO'LY  SPIRIT,  or  HOLY  GHOST,  the 
third  person  in  the  blessed  Trinity.  He 
is  said  to  proceed  from  the  Father,  and 
to  be  sent  by  the  Father  and  the  Son 
upon  disciples,  John  14  :  26  ;  15  :  26  ;  to 
be  the  Spirit  of  the  Father,  Matt.  10:20; 
1  Cor.  2  :  11 ;  and  the  Spirit  of  Christ, 
Gal.  4:6;  Phil.  1:19. 

That  he  is  a  real  PERSON,  and  not  mere- 
|  ly  an  attribute  or  emanation  of  God,  is 
195 


HOM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOR 


clear  from  the  numerous  passages  in  the 
Bible  which  describe  him  as  exercising 
the  acts,  thoughts,  emotions,  and  voli 
tions  of  a  distinct  intelligent  person. 
None  other  could  be  pleased,  vexed,  and 
grieved,  could  speak,  console,  and  inter 
cede,  or  divide  his  gifts  severally  to  every 
one  as  he  will.  So  also,  in  Greek  as  in 
English,  the  personal  masculine  pro 
nouns  are  applied  to  him;  whereas,  if 
he  were  not  a  person,  the  neuter  pro 
nouns  would  be  necessary. 

That  he  is  a  DIVINE  person,  equally 
with  the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  proved 
from  his  association  with  them  in  a  great 
variety  of  acts  purely  divine ;  as  in  the 
work  of  creation,  Gen.  1:2;  Psa.  33:6; 
104:30.  He  is  honored  as  they  are  in 
the  baptismal  formula,  Matt.  28:19,  and 
in  the  apostolic  benediction,  2  Cor.  13 : 14. 
He  receives  the  name,  2  Cor.  3:17,  and 
exercises  the  attributes  of  God,  Rom. 
8:14;  1  Cor.  2:10  ;  6:19  ;  Heb.  9:14.  He 
is  prayed  to  as  God,  Rev.  1  :  4,  5 ;  sin 
against  him  is  sin  against  God,  Acts  5:3, 
4  ;  Eph.  4  :  30  ;  and  blasphemy  against 
him  is  unpardonable,  Matt.  12:31. 

The  WORK  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  divine. 
Of  old,  he  inspired  the  sacred  writers  and 
teachers,  and  imparted  miraculous  gifts. 
Under  the  Christian  dispensation,  he 
applies  the  salvation  of  Christ  to  men's 
hearts,  convicting  them  of  sin,  John 
16:8,  9;  showing  them  "the  things  of 
Christ,"  illuminating  and  regenerating 
them,  John  3:5;  Eph.  2:1.  He  is  the 
Comforter  of  the  church,  aids  believers 
in  prayer,  witnesses  with  and  intercedes 
for  them,  directs  them  in  duty,  and  sanc 
tifies  them  for  .heaven. 

HO'MER,  or  COR,  the  largest  dry  meas 
ure  of  the  Hebrews,  equal  to  ten  baths 
or  ephahs,  and  containing  about  eight  of 
our  bushels,  Ezek.  45:14. 

HON'EY  was  formerly  very  plentiful 
in  Palestine,  and  hence  the  frequent  ex 
pressions  of  Scripture  which  import  that 
that  country  was  a  land  flowing  with 
milk  and  honey,  Lev.  20:24.  Wild  bee 
honey  was  often  found  in  hollow  trees 
and  clefts  in  the  rocks,  Deut.  32:13 ;  Psa. 
81 : 16  ;  and  on  this  John  the  Baptist  fed, 
Matt.  3  :  4.  Honey  was  highly  prized, 
Psa.  19:10;  Prov.  5:3;  27:7.  Modern 
travellers  observe  that  it  is  still  very 
common  there,  and  that  the  inhabitants 
mix  it  in  all  their  sauces.  Forskal  says 
the  caravans  of  Mecca  bring  honey  from 
Arabia  to  Cairo,  and  that  he  has  often 
196 


seen  honey  flowing  in  the  woods  in  Ara 
bia.  It  would  seem  that  this  flowing 
honey  is  bee-honey,  and  this  fact  illus 
trates  the  story  of  Jonathan,  1  Sam. 
14:25,  27.  But  there  is  also  a  vegetable 
honey  that  is  very  plentiful  in  the  East. 
Burckhardt,  speaking  of  the  productions 
of  the  Ghor,  or  valley  of  the  Jordan, 
says  one  of  the  most  interesting  produc 
tions  of  this  place  is  the  Beyrouk  honey, 
as  the  Arabs  call  it.  It  was  described  to 
him  as  a  juice  dropping  from  the  leaves 
and  twigs  of  a  tree  called  Gharrab,  of 
the  size  of  an  olive-tree,  with  leaves  like 
those  of  the  poplar,  but  somewhat  broad 
er.  The  honey  collects  on  the  leaves 
like  dew,  and  is  gathered  from  them,  or 
from  the  ground  under  the  tree.  An 
other  vegetable  product  is  referred  to  in 
the  Bible  as  honey,  2  Chr.  31:5.  It  is  a 
syrup,  prepared  by  boiling  down  the  juice 
of  dates,  etc.  That  made  from  grapes 
is  called  dibs,  and  is  much  used  by  the 
Arabs  as  a  condiment  with  food.  It  re 
sembles  thin  molasses,  and  is  pleasant  to 
the  taste,  Gen.  43:11. 

HOPH'NI.     See  next  page. 


HOR,  a  mountain  of  a  conical  form  in 
the  range  of  mount  Seir,  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Arabah,  or  great  valley  running 
from  the  Dead  sea  to  the  Elanitic  gulf. 
It  is  an  irregularly  truncated  cone,  with 
three  rugged  peaks,  overlooking  a  wil 
derness  of  heights,  cliffs,  ravines,  and 
deserts.  On  this  mountain  Aaron  died, 
alone  with  his  brother  and  son,  Num. 
20:22-29;  33:38.  It  is  still  called  Jcbel 
Neby  Haroon,  mount  of  the  prophet 
Aaron  ;  and  on  its  summit  stands  a  Mo 
hammedan  tomb  of  Aaron,  on  the  site 
of  a  still  more  ancient  structure,  and 
marking  perhaps  the  place  of  his  burial. 


HOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOS 


HOPH'NI,  and  PHIN'EHAS,  the  guilty 
and  wretched  sons  of  Eli  the  high-priest. 
They  grossly  and  continuously  abused 
the  influence  of  their  position  and  sacred 
office ;  and  their  cupidity,  violence,  and 
impious  profligacy,  overbearing  the  fee 
ble  remonstrances  of  their  father,  brought 
disgrace  and  ruin  on  their  family.  The 
ark,  which  they  had  carried  to  ihe  camp 
in  spite  of  divine  prohibitions,  was  tak 
en,  and  they  were  slain  in  battle,  1  Sam. 
2-4.  See  ELI.  The  ark  of  God  protects 
only  those  who  love  and  obey  him.  Men 
in  all  ages  are  prone  to  rely  on  a  form  of 
religion,  while  the  heart  and  life  are  not 
right  with  God ;  and  all  who  thus  sin, 
like  the  sons  of  Eli,  must  perish  like 
wise. 

HO'REB.     See  SINAI. 

HOR'ITES,  or  HO'RIM,  a  race  of  early 
dwellers  in  mount  Seir,  whence  they 
were  expelled  by  the  Edomites,  Gen. 
14  :  6  ;  Deut.  2  :  12,  22.  They  are  sup 
posed  to  have  lived  in  caves,  like  the 
men  referred  to  in  Job  30: 6,' and  to  have 
been  divided  into  several  tribes,  Gen. 
36:20-30. 

HOR'MAH,  destruction,  Num.  21:1-3; 
also  called  Zephath ;  a  city  in  the  ex 
treme  south  of  Canaan,  near  which  the 
rebellious  Hebrews  were  defeated,  in  the 
second  year  after  leaving  Egypt,  Num. 
14  : 45  ;  it  was  afterwards  laid  waste, 
Judg.  1:16,  17.  The  Simeonites  repeo- 
pled  it,  Josh.  19:4,  and  David  sent  them 
some  of  his  spoils  taken  from  the  Ama- 
lekites,  1  Sam.  30:30. 


HORNS  of  animals  were  used  as  drink- 
Ing- vessels,  and  to  hold  ointments,  per 


fumes,  etc.,  1  Sam.  16  : 1 ;  1  Kin.  1  :  39. 
The  "horns  of  the  altar"  were  its  four 
corners  and  the  elevations  on  them,  Ex. 
27 : 2  ;  30 : 2.  See  ALTAR.  The  principal 
defence  and  ornament  of  many  beasts 
are  in  their  horns  ;  and  hence  the  horn 
is  often  a  symbol  of  strength,  honor,  and 
dominion.  The  Lord  exalted  the  horn 
of  David,  and  of  his  people  ;  he  breaketh 
the  horn  of  the  ungodly.  We  read  also 
of  raising  up  a  horn  of  salvation,  and 
of  defiling  the  horn  in  the  dust,  Deut. 
33:17  ;  1  Sam.  2:1,  10  ;  Job  16:15  ;  Psa. 
75:10;  Dan.  7 : 20-24  ;  Luke  1 : 69.  There 
may  be  an  allusion  in  these  passages  to 
a  very  common  part  of  the  female  dress 
in  some  parts  of  the  East.  The  married 
women  among  the  Druses  of  mount  Leb 
anon  still  wear  on  their  heads  silver 
horns,  as  in  the  accompanying  cut ;  the 
other  head  is  that  of  an  Abyssinian  chief. 

HOB/NET,  a  well-known  insect,  which 
has  a  powerful  sting.  The  Lord  drove 
out  many  of  the  Canaanites  before  Israel 
by  means  of  this  insect,  Ex.  23:28  ;  Deut. 
7 :20  ;  Josh.  24: 12.  The  Israelites,  being 
in  the  sandy  wilderness,  would  escape  it. 
Compare  FLY. 

HOR'SES  were  anciently  less  used  for 
labor,  in  Bible  lands,  than  oxen  and 
asses.  They  were  used  by  princes  and 
warriors,  both  with  and  without  chari 
ots,  Ex.  14:9,  23  ;  Esth.  6:8  ;  Eccl.  10:7. 
The  finest  description  of  the  war-horse 
ever  written,  is  found  in  one  of  the  most 
ancient  books,  Job  39  : 19-25.  Horses 
were  common  in  Egypt,  Gen.  47  : 17 ; 
50:9;  Song  1:9;  but  the  Jews  were  at 
first  forbidden  to  go  there  for  them, 
Deut.  17:16,  or  to  keep  any  large  num 
ber,  Josh.  11:6  ;  2  Sam.  8:4.  The  object 
of  this  was  to  restrain  them  from  grow 
ing  proud,  idolatrous,  and  fond  of  con 
quest.  Isa.  31 : 1-3.  Solomon,  however, 
procured  a  large  cavalry  and  chariot 
force,  2  Chr.  1 :  14-17  ;  9  :  25.  Horses 
were  sometimes  consecrated  to  idols, 
2  Kin.  23  :  11,  and  were  often  used  as 
symbols  of  angelic  and  earthly  powers, 
under  the  control  of  God,  2  Kin.  2:11  ; 
6:15-17;  Zech.  1:8;  6:2-6;  Rev.  2-8. 

HORSE'LEECH,  the  bloodsucker,  a 
well-known  water-worm  ;  an  apt  em 
blem  of  avarice  and  rapacity,  Prov. 
30 : 15.  Cicero  speaks  of  the  horseleeches 
of  the  public  treasury  at  Rome. 

HOSAN'NA,  a  word  of  joyful  accla 
mation  in  Hebrew,  signifying  save  now. 
The  people  cried  Hosanna  as  Jesus  enter- 
197 


HOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOS 


ed  in  triumph  into  Jerusalem ;  that  is, 
they  thus  invoked  the  blessings  of  heav 
en  on  him  as  the  Messiah,  Matt.  21:9. 
This  was  also  a  customary  acclamation  at 
the  joyful  feast  of  tabernacles,  in  which 
the  Jews  repeated  Psa.  118:25,  26. 

HOSE'A,  the  first  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets,  as  arranged  in  our  Bibles.  He 
prophesied  for  a  long  time,  from  Uzziah 
to  Hezekiah,  about  785-725  B.  c. 

The  BOOK  OF  HOSEA  contains  properly 
two  parts.  The  first  three  chapters  con 
tain  a  series  of  symbolical  actions  di 
rected  against  the  idolatries  of  Israel. 
It  is  disputed  whether  the  marriage  of 
the  prophet  was  a  real  transaction,  or 
an  allegorical  vision  ;  in  all  probability 
the  latter  is  the  correct  view  ;  but  in  ei 
ther  case  it  illustrated  the  relations  of 
idolatrous  Israel  to  her  covenant  God. 
The  remaining  chapters  are  chiefly  occu 
pied  with  denunciations  against  Israel, 
and  especially  Samaria,  for  the  worship 
of  idols  which  prevailed  there.  Hosea's 
warnings  are  mingled  with  tender  and 
pathetic  expostulations.  His  style  is  ob 
scure,  and  it  is  difficult  to  fix  the  pe 
riods  or  the  divisions  of  his  various  pre 
dictions.  He  shows  a  joyful  faith  in  the 
coming  Redeemer,  and  is  several  times 
quoted  in  the  New  Testament,  Matt. 
9:13;  Rom.  9:25,  26;  1  Pet.  2:10. 

HOSHE'A,  the  last  king  of  Israel,  the 
successor  of  Pekah,  whom  he  slew,  2  Kin. 
15:30,  B.  c.  730.  He  reigned  nine  years, 
and  was  then  carried  away  captive  by 
Shalmaneser,  2  Kin.  17  :  1-6  ;  18  :  9-12, 
B.  c.  721. 

HOSPITALITY  is  regarded  by  all  ori 
ental  nations  as  one  of  the  highest  vir 
tues.  The  following  notices  by  mod 
ern  travellers  serve  to  illustrate  very 
strikingly  many  passages  of  Scripture. 
Thus  De  la  Roque  says,  "We  did  not 
arrive  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  till 
after  sunset,  and  it  was  almost  night 
when  we  entered  the  plain ;  but  as  it 
was  full  of  villages,  mostly  inhabited  by 
Maronites,  we  entered  into  the  first  we 
came  to,  to  pass  the  night  there.  It  was 
the  priest  of  the  place  who  wished  to 
receive  us ;  he  gave  us  a  supper  under 
the  trees  before  his  little  dwelling.  As 
we  were  at  table,  there  came  by  a  stran 
ger,  wearing  a  white  turban,  who,  after 
having  saluted  the  company,  sat  himself 
down  to  the  table  without  ceremony, 
ate  with  us  during  some  time,  and  then 
went  away,  repeating  several  times  the 
198 


j  name  of  God.  They  told  us  it  was  some 
traveller  who  no  doubt  stood  in  need  of 
refreshment,  and  who  had  profited  by 
the  opportunity,  according  to  the  cus 
tom  of  the  East,  which  is  to  exercise 
hospitality  at  all  times  and  towards  all 
persons. ' '  This  reminds  us  of  the  guests 
of  Abraham,  Gen.  18,  of  the  conduct  of 
Job,  31:17,  and  of  that  frankness  with 
which  the  apostles  of  Christ  were  to  en 
ter  into  a  man's  house  after  a  salutation, 
and  there  to  continue  "eating and  drink 
ing  such  things  as  were  set  before  them," 
Luke  10:7.  The  universal  prevalence  of 
such  customs,  and  of  the  spirit  of  hospi 
tality,  may  help  to  explain  the  indigna 
tion  of  James  and  John  against  certain 
rude  Samaritans,  Luke  9:52-56,  and  also 
the  stern  retribution  exacted  for  the 
crime  of  the  men  of  Gibeah,  Judg.  19  ; 
20. 

Says  Niebuhr,  "The  hospitality  of  the 
Arabs  has  always  been  the  subject  of 
praise ;  and  I  believe  that  those  of  the 
present  day  exercise  this  virtue  no  less 
than  their  ancestors  did.  When  the  Arabs 
are  at  table,  they  invite  those  who  hap 
pen  to  come,  to  eat  with  them,  whether 
they  be  Christians  or  Mohammedans, 
gentle  or  simple.  In  the  caravans,  I 
have  often  seen  with  pleasure  a  mule- 
driver  press  those  who  passed  to  partake 
of  his  repast ;  and  though  the  majority 
politely  excused  themselves,  he  gave, 
with  an  air  of  satisfaction,  to  those  who 
would  accept  of  it,  a  portion  of  his  little 
meal  of  bread  and  dates  ;  and  I  was  not 
a  little  surprised  when  I  saw,  in  Tur 
key,  rich  Turks  withdraw  themselves 
into  corners,  to  avoid  inviting  those  who 
might  otherwise  have  sat  at  table  with 
them." 

We  ought  to  notice  here  also  the  ob 
ligations  understood  to  be  contracted  by 
the  intercourse  of  the  table.  Niebuhr 
says,  "When  a  Bedaween  sheikh  eats 
bread  with  strangers,  they  may  trust 
his  fidelity  and  depend  on  his  protection. 
A  traveller  will  always  do  well  therefore 
to  take  an  early  opportunity  of  securing 
the  friendship  of  his  guide  by  a  meal." 
This  brings  to  recollection  the  complaint 
of  the  psalmist,  Psa.  41:9,  penetrated 
with  the  deep  ingratitude  of  one  whom 
he  describes  as  having  been  his  own 
familiar  friend,  in  whom  he  trusted, 
' '  who  did  eat  of  my  bread,  even  he  hath 
lifted  up  his  heel  against  me. ' ' 

Beautiful  pictures  of  primitive  hospi- 


HOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOU 


tality  may  be  found  in  Gen.  18;  19; 
Ex  2:20;  Judg.  13:15;  19:1-9.  The 
incidents  of  the  first  two  narratives  may 
have  suggested  the  legends  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  which  represent  their  gods 
as  sometimes  coming  to  them  disguised 
as  travellers,  in  order  to  test  their  hos 
pitality,  etc.,  Heb.  13:2. 

The  primitive  Christians  considered 
one  principal  part  of  their  duty  to  con 
sist  in  showing  hospitality  to  strangers, 
Bom.  12:13;  1  Tim.  5:10;  remembering 
that  our  Saviour  had  said,  whoever  re 
ceived  those  belonging  to  him,  received 
himself;  and  that  whatever  was  given 
to  such  a  one,  though  but  a  cup  of  cold 
water,  should  not  lose  its  reward,  Matt. 
10  :  40-42  ;  25  : 34-45.  They  were,  in 
fact,  so  ready  in  discharging  this  duty, 
that  the  very  heathen  admired  them  for 
it.  They  were  hospitable  to  all  stran 
gers,  but  especially  to  those  of  the  house 
hold  of  faith.  Believers  scarcely  ever 
travelled  without  letters  of  communion, 
which  testified  the  purity  of  their  faith, 
and  procured  them  a  favorable  reception 
*vherever  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  was 
known.  Indeed,  some  suppose  that  the 
two  minor  epistles  of  John  may  be  such 
letters  of  communion  and  recommenda 
tion. 

HOUGH,  (pronounced  hock,)  to  ham 
string,  or  cut  the  cords  of  tlfe  hind  legs. 
The  horses  taken  by  David  from  the 
Syrians  were  thus  disabled,  Josh.  11:6, 
9;  2  Sam.  8:4. 

HOURS.  The  word  hour,  in  Scripture, 
signifies  one  of  the  twelve  equal  parts 
into  which  each  day,  from  sunrise  to 
sunset,  was  divided,  and  which  of  course 
were  of  different  lengths  at  different  sea 
sons  of  the  year,  Matt.  20:3-6;  John 
11:9.  This  mode  of  dividing  the  day 
prevailed  among  the  Jews  at  least  after 
the  exile,  and  perhaps  earlier,  Dan.  3:6; 
4:19.  The  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours 
were  the  appointed  seasons  for  prayer, 
Acts  2 : 15 ;  3 : 1 ;  10 : 9.  Anciently,  how 
ever,  the  usual  division  of  the  day  was 
into  four  parts,  namely,  the  morning — 
the  heat  of  the  day,  commencing  about 
the  middle  of  the  forenoon — midday, 
and  evening.  In  a  similar  manner,  the 
Greeks  appear  at  first  to  have  divided 
the  day  into  only  three  parts,  to  which 
they  afterwards  added  a  fourth  division. 
The  ancient  Hebrews,  as  well  as  the 
Greeks,  appear  to  have  divided  the 
night  also  into  three  parts  or  watches, 


namely,  the  first  watch,  Lam.  2:19 ;  the 
middle,  or  second  watch,  Judg.  7:19; 
and  the  morning,  or  third  watch,  Ex. 
14:24.  But  after  the  Jews  became  sub 
ject  to  the  Romans,  they  adopted  the 
Roman  manner  of  dividing  the  night 
into  four  watches,  namely,  the  evening, 
or  first  quarter,  after  sunset ;  the  mid 
night,  or  second  quarter,  ending  at  mid 
night  ;  cock-crowing,  or  third  quarter, 
from  midnight  on ;  and  the  morning,  or 
fourth  quarter,  including  the  dawn,  Matt. 
14:25;  Mark  6: 48;  13:35;  Luke  12:48. 
A  watch  in  the  night  seems  but  an  in 
stant  to  one  who  spends  it  in  slumber, 
Psa.  90:4;  equally  short  does  the  life  of 
man  appear  in  view  of  eternity. 

HOUSE  is  often  put  for  dwelling,  res 
idence  ;  and  hence  the  temple,  and  even 
the  tabernacle,  are  called  the  house  of 
God. 

The  universal  mode  of  building  houses 
in  the  East,  is  in  the  form  of  a  hollow 
square,  with  an  open  court  or  yard  in 
the  centre ;  which  is  thus  entirely  shut 
in  by  the  walls  of  the  house  around  it. 
Into  this  court  all  the  windows  open, 
there  being  usually  no  windows  towards 
the  street.  Some  houses  of  large  size 
require  several  courts,  and  these  usually 
communicate  with  each  other.  These 
courts  are  commonly  paved ;  and  in 
many  large  houses  parts  of  them  are 
planted  with  shrubs  and  trees,  Psa. 
84:3  ;  128:3  ;  they  have  also,  when  pos 
sible,  a  fountain  in  them,  often  with  a 
jet  d'eau,  2  Sam.  17:18.  It  is  customary 
in  many  houses  to  extend  an  awning 
over  the  whole  court  in  hot  weather ; 
and  the  people  of  the  house  then  spend 
much  of  the  day  in  the  open  air,  and 
indeed  often  receive  visits  there.  In 
Aleppo,  at  least,  there  is  often  on  the 
south  side  of  the  court  an  alcove  in  the 
wall  of  the  house,  furnished  with  divans 
or  sofas,  for  reclining  and  enjoying  the 
fresh  air  in  the  hot  seasons. 

In  the  middle  of  the  front  of  each 
house  is  usually  an  arched  passage,  lead 
ing  into  the  court — not  directly,  lest  the 
court  should  be  exposed  to  view  from  the 
street,  but  by  turning  to  one  side.  The 
outer  door  of  this  passage  was,  in  large 
houses,  guarded  by  a  porter,  Acts  12:13. 
The  entrance  into  the  house  is  either 
from  this  passage  or  from  the  court  itself. 

The  following  extracts  from  Dr.  Shaw 
will  interest  the  reader,  and  at  the  same 
time  serve  to  illustrate  many  passages  of 
199 


HOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOU 


INTERIOR  OF  AN  ANCIEKT  HOUSE. 


Scripture.  He  remarks,  "The  general 
method  of  building,  both  in  Barbary  and 
the  Levant,  seems  to  have  continued  the 
game  from  the  earliest  ages,  without  the 
least  alteration  or  improvement.  Large 
doors,  spacious  chambers,  marble  pave 
ments,  cloistered  courts,  with  fountains 
sometimes  playing  in  the  midst,  are  cer 
tainly  conveniences  very  well  adapted 
to  the  circumstances  of  these  climates, 
where  the  summer  heats  are  generally 
so  intense.  The  jealousy  likewise  of 
these  people  is  less  apt  to  be  alarmed, 
while  all  the  windows  open  into  their 
respective  courts,  if  we  except  a  latticed 
window  or  balcony  which  sometimes 
looks  into  the  streets,  2  Kin.  9:30. 

"The  streets  of  eastern  cities,  the  bet 
ter  to  shade  them  from  the  sun,  are 
usually  narrow,  with  sometimes  a  range 
of  shops  on  each  side.  If  from  these 
we  enter  into  one  of  the  principal  houses, 
we  shall  first  pass  through  a  porch  or 
gateway  with  benches  on  each  side, 
where  the  master  of  the  family  receives 
visits  and  despatches  business ;  few  per 
sons,  not  even  the  nearest  relations,  hav 
ing  a  further  admission,  except  upon 
extraordinary  occasions.  .From  hence 
we  are  received  into  the  court,  or  qiiad- 
rangle,  which,  lying  open  to  the  weath 
er,  is,  according  to  the  ability  of  the 
owner,  paved  with  marble,  or  such  ma 
terials  as  will  immediately  carry  off  the 
200 


water  into  the  common  sewers.  When 
much  people  are  to  be  admitted,  as  upoa 
the  celebration  of  a  marriage,  the  cir 
cumcising  of  a  child,  or  occasions  of  the 
like  nature,  the  company  is  rarely  or 
never  received  into  one  of  the  chambers. 
The  court  is  the  usual  place  of  their 
reception,  which  is  strowed  accordingly 
with  mats  and  carpets  for  their  more 
commodious  entertainment.  Hence  it  is 
probable  that  the  place  where  our  Sav 
iour  and  the  apostles  were  frequently 
accustomed  to  give  their  instructions, 
was  in  the  area,  or  quadrangle,  of  one  of 
this  kind  of  houses.  In  the  summer 
season,  and  upon  all  occasions  when  a 
large  company  is  to  be  received,  this 
court  is  commonly  sheltered  from  the 
heat  or  inclemency  of  the  weather  by  a 
veil  or  awning,  which,  being  expanded 
upon  ropes  from  one  side  of  the  parapet 
wall  to  the  other,  may  be  folded  or  un 
folded  at  pleasure.  The  psalmist  seems 
to  allude  either  to  the  tents  of  the  Beda- 
ween,  or  to  some  covering  of  this  kind, 
in  that  beautiful  expression,  of  spreading 
out  the  heavens  like  a  curtain,  Psa.  104:2. 
The  court  is  for  the  most  part  surround 
ed  with  a  cloister  or  colonnade ;  over 
which,  when  the  house  has  two  or  three 
stories,  there  is  a  gallery,  erected,  of  the 
same  dimensions  with  the  cloister,  hav 
ing  a  balustrade,  or  else  a  piece  of  carved 
or  latticed  work  going  round  about  it, 


HOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HOU 


to  prevent  people  from  falling  from  it 
into  the  court.  From  the  cloisters  and 
galleries  we  are  conducted  into  large 
spacious  chambers,  of  the  same  length 
with  the  court,  but  seldom  or  never 
communicating  with  one  another.  One 
of  them  frequently  serves  a  whole  fam 
ily  ;  particularly  when  a  father  indulges 
his  married  children  to  live  with  him  ; 
or  when  several  persons  join  in  the  rent 
of  the  same  house.  From  whence  it  is, 
that  the  cities  of  these  countries,  which 
in  general  are  much  inferior  in  bigness 
to  those  of  Europe,  yet  are  so  exceeding 
ly  populous,  that  great  numbers  of  peo 
ple  are  always  swept  away  by  the  plague, 
or  any  other  contagious  distemper." 

The  chambers  of  the  rich  were  often 
hung  with  velvet  or  damask  tapestry, 
Esth.  1:6;  the  upper  part  adorned  with 
fretwork  and  stucco ;  and  the  ceilings 
with  wainscot  or  mosaic  work  of  fragrant 
wood,  sometimes  richly  painted,  Jer. 
22  :  14.  The  floors  were  of  wood,  or  of 
painted  tiles,  or  marble;  and  were  usu 
ally  spread  with  carpets.  Around  the 
walls  were  mattresses  or  low  sofas,  in 
stead  of  chairs.  The  beds  were  often 
at  one  end  of  the  chamber,  on  a  gallery 
several  feet  above  the  floor,  with  steps 
and  a  low  balustrade,  2  Kin.  1:4,  16. 
The  stairs  were  usually  in  a  corner  of 
the  court,  beside  the  gateway,  Matt. 
24:17. 

' '  The  top  of  the  house, ' '  says  Dr.  Shaw, 
' '  which  is  always  flat,  is  covered  with  a 
strong  plaster  of  terrace ;  from  whence, 
in  the  Frank  language,  it  has  attained 
the  name  of  the  terrace.  It  is  usually 
surrounded  by  two  walls ;  the  outermost 
whereof  is  partly  built  over  the  street, 
partly  makes  the  partition  with  the  con 
tiguous  houses,  being  frequently  so  low 
that  one  may  easily  climb  over  it.  The 
other,  which  I  call  the  parapet  wall, 
hangs  immediately  over  the  court,  being 
always  breast  high ;  we  render  it  the 
'  battlements,'  Deut.  22  :  8.  Instead  of 
this  parapet  wall,  some  terraces  are 
guarded  in  the  same  manner  the  galler 
ies  are,  with  balustrades  only,  or  latticed 
work  ;  in  which  fashion  probably,  as  the 
name  seems  to  import,  was  the  net,  or 
'lattice,'  as  we  render  it,  that  Ahaziah, 
2  Kin.  1:2,  might  be  carelessly  leaning 
over,  when  he  fell  down  from  thence 
into  the  court.  For  upon  these  terraces 
several  offices  of  the  family  are  perform 
ed  ;  such  as  the  drying  of  linen  and  flax, 
9* 


Josh.  2:6,  the  preparing  of  figs  and  rai 
sins ;  here  likewise  they  enjoy  the  cool, 
refreshing  breezes  of  the  evening ;  con 
verse  with  one  another,  1  Sam.  9  :  25 ; 
2  Sam.  11:2;  and  offer  up  their  devotions, 
2  Kin.  23  : 12  ;  Jer.  19  :  13  ;  Acts  10  :  9. 
In  the  feast  of  Tabernacles  booths  were 
erected  upon  them,  Neh.  8:16.  When, 
one  of  these  cities  is  built  upon  level 
ground,  we  can  pass  from  one  end  of  it 
to  the  other,  along  the  tops  of  the 
houses,  without  coming  down  into  the 
street. 

"Such,  in  general,  is  the  manner  and 
contrivance  of  the  eastern  houses.  And 
if  it  may  be  presumed  that  our  Saviour, 
at  the  healing  of  the  paralytic,  was 
preaching  in  a  house  of  this  fashion,  we 
may,  by  attending  only  to  the  struct 
ure  of  it,  give  no  small  light  to  one 
circumstance  of  that  history,  which  has 
given  great  offence  to  some  unbelievers. 
Among  other  pretended  difficulties  and 
absurdities  relating  to  this  fact,  it  has 
been  urged  that  the  uncovering  or  break 
ing  up  of  the  roof,  Mark  2:4,  or  the  let 
ting  a  person  down  through  it,  Luke 
5:19,  supposes  the  breaking  up  of  tiles, 
rafters,"  etc.  But  it  is  only  necessary 
here  to  suppose  that  the  crowd  being  so 
great  around  Jesus  in  the  court  below, 
that  those  who  brought  the  sick  man 
could  not  come  near  him,  they  went 
upon  the  flat  roof,  and  removing  a  part 
of  the  awning,  let  the  sick  man  down  in 
his  mattress  over  the  parapet,  quite  at 
the  feet  of  Jesus. 

Dr.  Shaw  proceeds  to  describe  a  sort 
of  addition  to  many  oriental  houses, 
which  corresponds  probably  to  the  upper 
chamber  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
He  says,  ' '  To  most  of  these  houses  there 
is  a  smaller  one  annexed,  which  some 
times  rises  one  story  higher  than  the 
house ;  at  other  times  it  consists  of  one 
or  two  rooms  only  and  a  terrace ;  while 
others  that  are  built,  as  they  frequently 
are,  over  the  porch  or  gateway,  have  (if 
we  except  the  ground  floor,  which  they 
have  not)  all  the  conveniences  that  be 
long  to  the  house,  properly  so  called. 
There  is  a  door  of  communication  from 
them  into  the  gallery  of  the  house,  kept 
open  or  shut  at  the  discretion  of  the 
master  of  the  family ;  besides  another 
door,  which  opens  immediately  from  a 
privy  stairs  down  into  the  porch,  with 
out  giving  the  least  disturbance  to  the 
house.  These  smaller  houses  are  known 
201 


HUL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HUS 


by  the  name  alee,  or  oleah,  and  in  them 
strangers  are  usually  lodged  and  enter 
tained  ;  and  thither  likewise  the  men  are 
wont  to  retire,  from  the  hurry  and  noise 
of  their  families,  to  be  more  at  leisure  for 
meditation  or  devotion,  Matt.  6:6;  be 
sides  the  use  they  are  at  other  times  put 
to,  in  serving  for  wardrobes  and  maga 
zines.  ' ' 

This  then,  or  something  like  this,  we 
may  suppose  to  have  been  the  ali'yah  or 
upper  chamber  of  the  Hebrews.  Such 
was  the  "  little  chamber  upon  the  wall," 
which  the  Shunammite  had  built  for 
Elisha,  2  Kin.  4:10;  the  "summer  par 
lor"  of  Eglon,  Judg.  3:20;  and  the 
"chamber  over  the  gate,"  where  David 
retired  to  weep,  2  Sam.  18:33  ;  and  per 
haps  in  the  New  Testament  the  "upper 
chamber ' '  where  Tabitha  was  laid  out, 
Acts  9 : 37,  and  whence  Eutychus  fell 
from  the  window  of  the  third  loft  into 
the  court,  Acts  20:9. 

The  flat  roofs  of  oriental  houses  often 
afford  a  place  of  retirement  and  medita 
tion  ;  here  Samuel  communed  with  Saul, 
1  Sam.  9  :  25 ;  and  from  ver.  26,  they 
would  seem  also  to  have  slept  there,  as 
is  still  common  in  the  East,  2  Sam. 
11:2;  Dan.  4:30.  Mr.  Wood  says,  "It 
has  ever  been  a  custom  with  them,"  the 
Arabs  in  the  East,  "equally  connected 
with  health  and  pleasure,  to  pass  the 
nights  in  summer  upon  the  house-tops, 
which  for  this  very  purpose  are  made 
flat,  and  divided  from  each  other  by 
walls.  We  found  this  way  of  sleeping 
extremely  agreeable  ;  as  we  thereby  en 
joyed  the  cool  air,  above  the  reach  of 
gnats  and  vapors,  without  any  other 
covering  than  the  canopy  of  heaven, 
which  unavoidably  presents  itself  in  dif 
ferent  pleasing  forms,  upon  every  inter 
ruption  of  rest,  when  silence  and  solitude 
strongly  dispose  the  mind  to  contempla 
tion,  Acts  10:9.  The  roof  of  an  ancient 
house  was  the  best  and  often  the  only 
place,  from  which  to  get  a  view  of  the 
region  around  ;  hence  the  resort  to  it  in 
times  of  peril,  Isa.  15 : 3 ;  22:1.  In  many 
cases  roofs  were  coated  with  hardened 
earth,  through  which,  when  cracked  or 
soaked  through  by  rain,  the  water  drip 
ped,  Prov.  27:15;  and  in  which,  when 
neglected,  the  grass  grows  in  spring,  but 
soon  withers  after  the  rains  have  ceased, 
Psa.  129:6,  7;  Isa.  37:27. 

The  common  material  for  building  the 
best  oriental  houses  is  stone.  Brick  is 
202 


also  used.  But  the  houses  of  the  people 
in  the  East  in  general  are  very  bad 
constructions,  consisting  of  mud  walls, 
reeds,  and  rushes ;  whence  they  become 
apt  illustrations  of  the  fragility  of  hu 
man  life,  Job  4: 19  ;  and  as  mud,  pebbles, 
and  slime,  or  at  best  unburnt  bricks  are 
used  in  forming  the  walls,  the  expres 
sion,  "digging  through  houses,"  Job 
24:16;  Matt.  6:19;  24:14,  is  easily  ac 
counted  for;  as  is  the  behavior  of  Eze- 
kiel,  12:5,  who  dug  through  such  a  wall 
in  the  sight  of  the  people ;  whereby,  as 
may  be  imagined,  he  did  little  injury  to 
his  house  ;  notwithstanding  which,  the 
symbol  was  very  expressive  to  the  be 
holders.  See  also  the  striking  illustra 
tion  in  Ezek.  13:10-16.  On  the  sites  of 
many  ancient  cities  of  Syria  and  Baby 
lonia  only  the  ruins  of  public  edifices  re 
main,  the  houses  having  entirely  disap 
peared  ages  ago.  Travellers  near  the 
Ganges  and  the  Nile  speak  of  multitudes 
of  huts  on  the  sandy  banks  of  those  riv 
ers  being  swept  away  in  a  night  by  sud 
den  freshets,  leaving  not  a  trace  behind. 
This  may  illustrate  our  Saviour's  para 
ble,  in  Matt.  7:24-27.  See  TENT. 

HUL'DAH,  a  prophetess  in  the  reign 
of  Josiah,  consulted  respecting  the  de 
nunciations  in  the  new-found  copy  of  the 
Book  of  the  Law,  2  Kin.  22:14-20, 
2  Chr.  34:22-28,  B.  c.  623. 

HUMILITY,  the  opposite  of  pride,  in 
its  nature  and  in  the  degree  of  its  preva 
lence.  It  is  often  extolled  in  the  Bible, 
Prov.  15  :  33  ;  16  : 19  ;  and  the  Saviour 
especially  exalts  it,  Matt.  18:4,  and  en 
nobles  and  endears  it  by  his  own  exam 
ple,  John  13:4-17  ;  Phil.  2:5-8.  Every 
created  being,  however  holy,  should 
possess  it ;  but  in  the  character  of  the 
sinful  sons  of  men  it  should  become  a 
fundamental  and  all-pervading  trait,  to 
continue  for  ever. 

HUR,  a  chief  man  among  the  He 
brews  in  the  desert,  associated  with 
Aaron  in  upholding  the  hands  of  Moses 
at  Rephidim,  and  in  supplying  his  place 
while  on  the  summit  of  Sinai,  Ex.  17 : 10  ; 
24:14. 

HU'SHAI,  the  Archite,  David's  friend. 
Being  informed  of  Absalom's  rebellion, 
and  that  David  was  obliged  to  fly  from 
Jerusalem,  he  met  him  on  an  eminence 
without  the  city,  with  his  clothes  rent 
and  his  head  covered  with  earth.  David 
suggested,  that  if  he  went  with  him  he 
would  be  a  burden  to  him ;  but  that  he 


HUS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


HYS 


might  do  him  important  service  if  he 
should  remain  in  Absalom's  suite  as  an 
adviser.  Hushai  therefore  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  and  by  defeating  the  counsel 
of  Ahithophel,  and  gaining  time  for  Da 
vid,  to  whom  he  sent  advices,  was  the 
cause  of  Ahithophel' s  suicide  and  of  Ab 
salom's  miscarriage,  2  Sam.  15  :  32-37  ; 
16:16-19;  17. 

HUSKS.  The  prodigal  son  desired  to 
feed  on  the  husks,  or  pods,  given  to  the 
hogs,  Luke  15  : 16.  The  Greek  word 
here  used,  means  the  kharob-beans,  the 
fruit  of  a  tree  of  the  same  name.  This 
fruit  is  common  in  all  the  countries  bor 
dering  on  the  Mediterranean:  it  is  suf 
fered  to  ripen  and  grow  dry  on  the  tree ; 
the  poor  eat  it,  and  cattle  are  fattened 
with  it.  The  tree,  the  Ceratonia  Siliqua, 
is  an  evergreen  of  a  middle  size,  full  of 


branches,  and  abounding  with  round 
dark  green  leaves,  an  inch  or  two  in 
diameter.  The  blossoms  are  little  red 
clusters,  with  yellowish  stalks.  The 
fruits  are  flat  brownish  pods,  from  six  to 
eight  inches  long,  and  an  inch  or  more 
broad:  they  resemble  the  pods  of  our 
locust-trees;  and  are  composed  of  two 
husks,  separated  by  membranes  into  sev 
eral  cells,  and  containing  flat,  shining 


seeds,  and  when  ripe  a  sweetish,  honey- 
like  kind  of  juice.  In  all  probability, 
their  crooked  figure  occasioned  their 
being  called,  in  Greek,  keratia,  which 
signifies  little  horns.  The  tree  is  called 
by  the  Germans,  Johannisbrodbaum, 
that  is,  "  John's-bread-tree,"  because 
John  the  Baptist  was  supposed  to  have 
lived  on  its  fruit. 

HYMENE'US,  a  member  of  the  church, 
probably  at  Ephesus,  who  fell  into  the 
heresy  of  denying  the  true  doctrine  of 
the  resurrection,  and  saying  it  had  al 
ready  taken  place.  When  first  men 
tioned,  1  Tim.  1  :  20,  he  was  excluded 
from  the  church  ;  and  when  again  men 
tioned,  2  Tim.  2:17,  18,  was  still  exert 
ing  a  pernicious  influence. 

HYMN.     See  next  page. 

HYPOCRITE,  one  who,  like  a  stage- 
player,  feigns  to  be  what  he  is  not.  The 
epithet  is  generally  applied  to  those  who 
assume  the  appearance  of  virtue  or  pie 
ty,  without  possessing  the  reality.  Our 
Saviour  accused  the  Pharisees  of  hypoc 
risy,  Luke  12:1. 


THE  CAPPAR3S  8P1NOSA,  OR  CAPEfc.PLANT. 

HYS'SOP  is  often  mentioned  in  Scrip 
ture,  and  is  directed  to  be  used  in  the 
sprinklings  which,  made  part  of  the  Jew 
ish  ceremonial  law,  Ex.  12  :  22  ;  Lev. 
14:4-6;  Psa.  51:9;  Heb.  9:19.  It  is 
some  low  shrub,  which  is  contrasted 
with  the  lofty  cedar,  1  Kin.  4  :  33.  In 
203 


HYM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IDO 


John  19:29,  the  soldiers  are  said  to  have 
' '  rilled  a  sponge  with  vinegar,  and  put 
it  upon  hyssop,"  that  is,  upon  a  rod  of 
hyssop,  two  feet  or  more  in  length, 
which  was  long  enough  to  enable  one 
to  reach  the  mouth  of  a  person  on  the 
cross.  Many  different  plants  have  been 
taken  for  the  hyssop  of  Scripture,  and 
among  others,  the  caper-plant. 

HYMN,  a  religious  canticle,  song,  or 
psalm,  Eph.  5:19;  Col.  3:16.  Paul  re 
quires  Christians  to  edify  one  another 
with  "psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual 
songs."  Matthew  says  that  Christ  and 
his  disciples,  having  supped,  sung  a 
hymn,  and  went  out.  They  probably 
chanted  a  part  of  the  psalms  which  the 
Jews  used  to  sing  after  the  Passover, 
which  they  called  the  Halal ;  that  is, 
the  Hallelujah  psalms.  These  are  Psa. 
113-118,  of  which  the  first  two  are  sup 
posed  to  have  been  chanted  before  the 
Passover  was  eaten,  and  the  others  after 
wards. 

I. 

IB'ZAN,  the  tenth  "judge  of  Israel," 
born  in  Bethlehem.  He  held  office  seven 
years,  and  was  noted  for  his  large  and 
prosperous  family,  B.  c.  1182,  Judg.  12:8. 

ICH'ABOD,  where  is  the  glory  ?  a  son  of 
Phinehas,  and  grandson  of  Eli,  both  of 
whom,  and  his  mother  also,  died  on  the 
day  of  his  birth,  1  Sam.  4:19-22  ;  14:3. 

ICO'NIUM,  a  large  and  opulent  city 
of  Asia  Minor,  now  called  Konieh.  The 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor  varied  so  much  at 
different  times,  that  Iconium  is  assigned 
by  different  writers  to  Phrygia,  to  Lyca- 
onia,  and  to  Pisidia.  Christianity  was 
introduced  here  by  Paul,  A.  t>.  45.  But 
he  was  obliged  to  flee  for  his  life  from  a 
persecution  excited  by  unbelieving  Jews, 
Acts  13:51 ;  14:1-6.  They  pursued  him 
to  Lystra,  where  he  was  nearly  killed, 
but  afterwards,  A.  D.  51,  he  revisited  Ico 
nium,  Acts  14:19-21 ;  2  Tim.  3:11.  The 
church  continued  in  being  here  for  eight 
centuries,  but  under  the  Mohammedan 
rule  was  almost  extinguished.  At  pres 
ent,  Konieh  is  the  capital  of  Caramania. 
It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile 
country,  260  miles  south-east  of  Con 
stantinople,  and  120  from  the  Mediter 
ranean.  It  is  very  large,  and  its  walls 
are  supported  by  108  square  towers,  forty 
paces  distant  from  each  > 
204 


habitants,  40,000  in  number,  are  Turkg, 
Armenians,  Greeks,  and  Jews. 

ID'DO,  a  prophet  of  Judah,  who  proph 
esied  against  Jeroboam,  and  wrote  the 
history  of  Rehoboam  and  Abijah,  2  Chr. 
9 : 29  ;  12 : 15  ;  13 : 22.  Josephus  and  oth 
ers  are  of  opinion  that  he  was  sent  to 
Jeroboam,  at  Bethel,  and  that  it  was 
he  who  was  killed  by  a  lion,  1  Kin.  13. 
Several  other  persons  of  this  name  are 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  1  Chr.  27  :  21 ; 
Ezra  8: 17-20;  Zech.  1:1. 

IDLE,  in  Matt.  12:36,  means  empty 
and  fruitless.  The  "idle  word"  which 
Christ  condemns  is  a  word  morally  use 
less  and  evil. 


THE   IDOI    JUGGERNAUT. 

I'DOL,  IDOLATRY.  The  word  idol 
signifies  literally  a  representation  or  fig 
ure.  It  is  always  employed  in  Scripture 
in  a  bad  sense,  for  representations  of 
heathen  deities  of  what  nature  soever. 
God  forbids  all  sorts  of  idols,  or  figures 
and  representations  of  creatures,  formed 
or  set  up  with  intention  of  paying  super 
stitious  worship  to  them,  Ex.  20  :  3,  4  ; 
34  :  13  ;  Dent.  4  :  16-19  ;  7  :  25,  26.  He 
also  forbids  all  attempts  to  represent 
him  by  any  visible  form,  Ex.  32 : 4,  5 ; 
Deut.  4:15;  Neh.  9:18. 

The  heathen  had  idols  of  all  sorts- 
paintings,  bas-reliefs,  and  all  varieties  of 
sculpture — and  these  of  many  kinds  of 
materials,  as  gold,  silver,  brass,  stone, 
wood,  potter's  earth,  etc.  Stars,  spirits, 
men,  animals,  rivers,  plants,  and  ele 
ments  were  the  subjects  jf  them.  Scarce 


IDO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IDO 


THE  HINDOO  IDOL  PITLLIAR. 

ly  an  object  or  power  in  nature,  scarcely 
a  faculty  of  the  soul,  a  virtue,  a  vice,  or 
a  condition  of  human  life,  has  not  re 
ceived  idolatrous  worship.  See  STARS. 
Some  nations  worshipped  a  rough  stone. 
Such  is  the  black  stone  of  the  ancient 
Arabs,  retained  by  Mohammed,  and  now 
kept  in  the  Caaba  at  Mecca. 

It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  period 
at  which  the  worship  of  false  gods  and 
idols  was  introduced.  No  mention  is 
made  of  such  worship  before  the  deluge  ; 
though  from  the  silence  of  Scripture 
we  cannot  argue  that  it  did  not  exist. 
Josephus  and  many  of  the  fathers  were 
of  opinion,  that  soon  after  the  deluge 
idolatry  became  prevalent ;  and  certain 
ly,  wherever  we  turn  our  eyes  after  the 
time  of  Abraham,  we  see  only  a  false 
worship.  That  patriarch's  forefathers, 
and  even  he  himself,  were  implicated  in 
it,  as  is  evident  from  Josh.  24:2,  14. 

The  Hebrews  had  no  peculiar  form  of 
idolatry  ;  they  imitated  the  superstitions 
of  others,  but  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
the  inventors  of  any.  When  they  were 
in  Egypt,  many  of  them  worshipped 
Egyptian  deities,  Ezek.  20:8  ;  in  the  wil 
derness,  they  worshipped  those  of  the 
Canaanites,  Egyptians,  Ammonites,  and 
Moabites ;  in  Judea,  those  of  the  Phreni- 
cians,  Syrians,  and  other  people  around 
them,  Num.  25  ;  Judg.  10:6  ;  Amos  5:25 ; 
Acts  7 : 42.  Rachel,  it  may  be,  had  adored 
idols  at  her  father  Laban's,  since  she  car 


ried  off  his  teraphim,  Gen.  31 -.30.  Ja 
cob,  after  his  return  from  Mesopotamia, 
required  his  people  to  reject  the  strange 
gods  from  among  them,  and  also  the  su 
perstitious  pendants  worn  by  them  in 
their  ears,  which  he  hid  under  a  tere 
binth  near  Shechem.  He  preserved  his 
family  in  the  worship  of  God  while  he 
lived. 

Under  the  government  of  the  judges, 
"the  children  of  Israel  did  evil  in  the 
sight  of  the  Lord,  and  served  Baalim. 
They  forsook  the  Lord  God  of  their  fa 
thers,  and  followed  other  gods— of  the 
gods  of  the  people  that  were  round  about 
them ;  and  they  forsook  the  Lord,  and 
served  Baal  and  Ashtaroth,"  Judg.  2:11, 
12.  Gideon,  after  he  had  been  favored 
by  God  with  a  miraculous  deliverance, 
made  an  ephod,  which  ensnared  the  Is 
raelites  in  unlawful  worship,  Judg.  8:27. 
Micah's  teraphim  also  were  the  objects 
of  idolatrous  worship,  even  till  the  cap 
tivity  of  Israel  in  Babylon,  Judg.  17:5; 
18:30,  31.  See  TERAPHIM. 

During  the  times  of  Samuel,  Saul,  and 
David,  the  worship  of  God  seems  to  have 
been  preserved  pure  in  Israel.  There 
was  corruption  and  irregularity  of  man 
ners,  but  little  or  no  idolatry.  Solomon, 
seduced  by  complaisance  to  his  strange 
wives,  caiised  temples  to  be  erected  in 
honor  of  Ashtoreth  goddess  of  the  Phoe 
nicians,  Moloch  god  of  the  Ammonites, 
and  Chemosh  god  of  the  Moabites.  Jero 
boam,  who  succeeded  Solomon,  set  up 
golden  calves  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  and 
made  Israel  to  sin.  The  people,  no  lon 
ger  restrained  by  royal  authority,  wor 
shipped  not  only  these  golden  calves, 
but  many  other  idols,  particularly  Baal 
and  Ashtoreth.  Under  the  reign  of 
Ahab,  idolatry  reached  its  height.  The 
impious  Jezebel  endeavored  to  extin 
guish  the  worship  of  the  Lord,  by  per 
secuting  his  prophets,  (who,  as  a  barrier, 
still  retained  some  of  the  people  in  the 
true  religion,)  till  God,  incensed  at  their 
idolatry,  abandoned  Israel  to  the  kings 
of  Assyria  and  Chaldea,  who  transplant 
ed  them  beyond  the  Euphrates.  Judah 
was  almost  equally  corrupted.  The  de 
scriptions  given  by  the  prophets  of  their 
irregularities  and  idolatries,  of  their 
abominations  and  lasciviousness  on  the 
high  places  and  in  woods  consecrated  to 
idols,  and  of  their  human  sacrifices,  fill 
us  with  dismay,  and  unveil  the  awful 
corruption  of  the  heart  of  man.  See  Mo- 
205 


IDU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IDU 


•LOCH.  After  the  return  from  Babylon, 
we  do  not  find  the  Jews  any  more  re 
proached  with  idolatry.  They  expressed 
much  zeal  for  the  worship  of  God,  and 
except  some  transgressors  under  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes,  1  Mac.  1,  the  people 
kept  themselves  clear  from  this  sin. 

As  the  maintenance  of  the  worship  of 
the  only  true  God  was  one  of  the  funda 
mental  objects  of  the  Mosaic  polity,  and 
as  God  was  regarded  as  the  king  of  the 
Israelitish  nation,  so  we  find  idolatry, 
that  is,  the  worship  of  other  gods,  occu 
pying,  in  the  Mosaic  law,  the  first  place 
in  the  list  of  crimes.  It  was  indeed  a 
crime,  not  merely  against  God,  but  also 
against  the  fundamental  law  of  the  state, 
and  thus  a  sort  of  high  treason.  The 
only  living  and  true  God  was  also  the 
civil  legislator  and  ruler  of  Israel,  and 
accepted  by  them  as  their  king  ;  and 
hence  idolatry  was  a  crime  against  the 
state,  and  therefore  just  as  deservedly 
punished  with  death,  as  high  treason  is 
in  modern  times.  By  the  Jewish  law, 
an  idolater  was  to  be  stoned  to  death, 
and  an  idolatrous  city  must  be  wholly 
destroyed,  with  all  it  contained,  Deut. 
13:12-18;  17:2,  5. 

At  the  present  day,  idolatry  prevails 
over  a  great  portion  of  the  earth,  and  is 
practised  by  about  600,000,000  of  the 
human  race.  Almost  all  the  heathen 
nations,  as  the  Chinese,  the  Hindoos, 
the  South  Sea  islanders,  etc.,  have  their 
images,  to  which  they  bow  down  and 
worship.  In  some  lands  professedly 
Christian,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  ado 
ration  of  crucifixes  and  paintings  is  noth 
ing  more  nor  less  than  idol-worship. 
But  when  we  regard  idolatry  in  a  moral 
point  of  view,  as  consisting  not  merely 
in  the  external  worship  of  false  gods, 
but  in  the  preference  of,  and  devotion 
to  something  else  than  the  Most  High, 
how  many  Christians  must  then  fall 
under  this  charge.  Whoever  loves  this 
world,  or  the  pursuits  of  wealth  or  hono.' 
or  ambition,  or  selfishness  in  any  form, 
and  for  these  forgets  or  neglects  God  and 
Christ,  such  a  one  is  an  idolater  in  as  bad 
a  sense  at  least  as  the  ancient  Israelites, 
and  cannot  hope  to  escape  an  awful  con 
demnation,  Col.  3:5. 

IDUM^E'A,  the  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  the  land  of  Edom,  or  mount 
Seir,  which  extended  originally  from  the 
Dead  sea  to  the  Elanitic  gulf  of  the  Red 
sea,  including  a  territory  about  one  hun- 
206 


dred  miles  long,  and  fifteen  or  twenty 
wide.  Afterwards  it  extended  more  into 
the  south  of  Judah,  towards  Hebron.  A 
large  part  of  it  was  occupied  by  the  long 
chain  of  mountains  lying  between  the 
great  sandy  valley  El-Ghor  and  El-Ara- 
bah  on  the  west,  (see  JORDAN,)  and  the 
Arabian  desert  on  the  east.  The  north 
ern  part  of  this  chain  is  now  called  Dje- 
bal,  the  ancient  Gebal,  which  see ;  the 
remainder  of  the  chain  takes  the  name 
Jebel  Shera.  The  whole  chain  is  inter 
sected  with  valleys  and  ravines,  running 
down  from  the  elevated  desert  on  the  east 
to  the  Arabah  on  the  west.  It  contains 
traces  of  many  towns  and  villages,  long 
since  destroyed,  and  many  springs,  and 
fertile  valleys  with  tokens  of  its  former 
productiveness,  Gen.  27:39.  But  at  this 
day,  desolation  reigns.  The  capital  of 
East  Idumsea  was  Bozra ;  but  the  chief 
capital  of  Edom  was  Petra,  or  Sela,  that 
is,  the  rock,  because  it  was  excavated  in 
part  from  a  mountain.  It  is  now  called 
Wady  Mousa,  the  valley  of  Moses.  See 
SELA. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  this  coun 
try  were  called  Horites,  and  were  dispos 
sessed  by  the  Idurmieans  of  history,  Gen. 
14:6  ;  36:21 ;  Deut.  12:2.  The  true  Idu- 
masans,  or  Edomites,  were,  as  their  name 
implies,  descendants  of  Edom,  or  Esau, 
elder  brother  of  Jacob,  Gen.  36:6-9. 
They  were  governed  by  dukes  or  princes, 
ver.  15,  and  afterwards  by  their  own 
kings,  ver.  31.  Compare  Exod.  15  :  15 ; 
Num.  20 :  14.  On  the  approach  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt  to  the  western  bor 
der  of  Edom,  they  were  refused  a  peace 
ful  passage  through  that  country  to  Mo- 
ab.  See  EXODUS.  They  were  divinely 
charged,  however,  to  preserve  friendly 
relations  with  their  "brother"  Esau, 
Num.  20  :  14-21 ;  Deut.  2:4-7;  23  :  7. 
Yet  hostilities  seemed  inevitable.  Saul 
was  involved  in  war  with  them,  1  Sam. 
14:47  ;  but  they  continued  independent 
till  the  time  of  David,  who  subdued 
them,  in  completion  of  Isaac's  proph 
ecy,  that  Jacob  should  rule  Esau,  Gen. 
27:29;  2  Sam.  8:14;  1  Kin.  11:15; 
1  Chr.  18  : 11-13.  The  Idumaeans  bore 
their  subjection  with  great  impatience, 
avid  at  the  end  of  Solomon's  reign,  Ha- 
dad,  an  Edomite  prince  who  had  been 
cairied  into  Egypt  during  his  childhood, 
returned  into  his  own  country,  where 
he  procured  himself  to  be  acknowledged 
king,  1  Kin.  11:14-22.  It  is  probable, 


ILL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IMM 


however,  that  he  reigned  only  in  East 
Edom,  1  Kin.  22  :  47  ;  2  Chr.  20  :  36  ;  for 
Edora  south  of  Judea  continued  subject 
to  the  kings  of  Judah  till  the  reign  of  Je- 
horam,  against  whom  it  rebelled,  2  Chr. 
21:8,  in  fulfilment  of  the  second  part  of 
Isaac's  prophecy,  Gen.  27:40.  Amaziah 
king  of  Judah  also  discomfited  the  Edom- 
ites,  killed  1,000  men,  and  cast  10,000 
more  from  a  precipice,  2  Kin.  14  :  7  ; 
2  Chr.  25  : 11,  12.  But  these  conquests 
were  not  permanent.  When  Nebuchad 
nezzar  besieged  Jerusalem,  the  Idumoe- 
ans  joined  him,  and  encouraged  him  to 
raze  the  very  foundations  of  the  city ; 
but  their  cruelty  did  not  long  continue 
unpunished.  Many  predictions  of  the 
prophets  foreshadowed  Edom's  real 
doom,  Obad.  ;  Jer.  49  :  7  ;  Ezek.  25  ;  35  ; 
Mai.  1:3,  4.  Five  years  after  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem,  Nebuchadnezzar  humbled 
all  the  states  around  Judea,  particularly 
Idumusa,  though  he  did  not  carry  them 
captive  ;  and  subsequently  John  Hyrca- 
nus  drove  them  from  Southern  Judea, 
into  which  they  had  penetrated,  entirely 
conquered  them,  and  obliged  them  to 
receive  circumcision  and  the  law.  They 
continued  subject  to  the  later  kings  of 
Judea  till  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
by  the  Romans.  Josephus  informs  us 
that  20,000  of  them  were  summoned  to 
aid  in  the  defence  of  that  city,  but  gave 
themselves  up  to  rapine  and  murder. 
Ultimately,  the  Idum;Eans  were  sup 
planted  and  absorbed  by  the  Nabathe- 
ans,  descendants  of  Nabaioth,  a  son  of 
Ishmael.  In  the  time  of  their  prosper 
ity,  the  Edomites  were  numerous  and 
powerful,  devoted  to  commerce  by  land 
and  by  sea,  and  also  to  agriculture  and 
the  raising  of  cattle,  Num.  20:17.  But 
neither  their  strong  rock-fortresses,  Jer. 
49  :  16,  nor  their  gods,  2  Chr.  25 :  20, 
could  save  that  rich  and  salubrious  coun 
try  from  becoming  a  desert,  and  a  strik 
ing  monument  of  the  truth  of  prophecy. 
See  KEITH  on  PROPHECY. 

ILLYR/ICUM,  a  country  of  Europe, 
lying  east  of  the  Adriatic  sea,  north  of 
Epirus,  and  west  of  Macedonia.  It  was 
anciently  divided  into  Liburnia,  now 
Croatia,  on  the  north,  and  Dalmatia  on 
the  south,  which  still  retains  its  name. 
See  DALMATIA.  The  limits  of  Illyricum 
varied  much  at  different  times.  It  was 
reached  by  Paul,  preaching  the  gospel  of 
Christ,  and  probably  traversed  in  part, 
A.  ».  57,  Bom.  15:19. 


IM'AGE,  an  exact  and  complete  copy 
or  counterpart  of  any  thing.  Christ  is 
called  "the  image  of  God,"  2  Cor.  4:4, 
'Col.  1:15,  Heb.  1:3,  as  being  the  same  in 
nature  and  attributes.  The  image  of  God 
in  which  man  was  created,  Gen.  1:27, 
was  in  his  spiritual,  intellectual,  and 
moral  nature,  in  righteousness  and  true 
holiness.  The  posterity  of  Adam  were 
born  in  his  fallen,  sinful  likeness,  Gen. 
5:3;  and  as  we  have  borne  the  image  of 
sinful  Adam,  so  we  should  be  moulded 
into  the  moral  image  of  the  heavenly 
man  Christ,  1  Cor.  15 : 47-49  ;  2  Cor. 
3:18. 

"An  image,"  Job  4:16,  was  that 
which  seemed  to  the  dreamer  a  reality. 
The  word  sometimes  appears  to  include, 
with  the  image,  the  idea  of  the  real  ob 
ject,  Psa.  73  :  20  ;  Heb.  10  : 1.  It  is  usu 
ally  applied  in  the  Bible  to  representa 
tions  of  false  gods,  painted,  graven,  etc., 
Dan.  3.  All  use  of  images  in  religious 
worship  was  clearly  and  peremptorily 
prohibited,  Ex.  20  :  4,  5  ;  Deut.  16  :  22  ; 
Acts  17  : 16  ;  Rom.  1 :  23.  Their  intro 
duction  into  Christian  churches,  near 
the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  was  at 
first  strenuously  resisted.  Now,  how 
ever,  they  are  universally  used  by  Pa 
pists  :  by  most  in  a  gross  breach  of  the 
second  commandment,  and  by  the  best 
in  opposition  to  both  the  letter  and  the 
spirit  of  the  Bible,  Ex.  20:4,  5;  32:4,  5  ; 
Deut.  4:15;  Isa.  40:18-31;  John  4:23, 
24;  Rev.  22:8,  9. 

The  "  chambers  of  imagery,"  in  Ezek. 
8  :  7-12,  had  their  walls  covered  with 
idolatrous  paintings,  such  as  are  found 
on  the  still  more  ancient  stone  walls  of 
Egyptian  temples,  and  such  as  modern 
researches  have  disclosed  in  Assyrian 
ruins.  See  NINEVEH. 

IMMAN'TJEL.     See  EMMANUEL. 

IMMORTAL'ITY,  in  God,  is  underived 
and  absolute  :  ' '  who  only  hath  immor 
tality."  In  creatures,  it  is  dependent 
upon  the  will  of  God.  The  immortality 
of  the  soul  is  argued  from  its  boundless 
desires  and  capacities,  its  unlimited  im 
provement,  its  desert  of  future  punish 
ment  or  reward,  etc.  All  arguments, 
however,  are  unsatisfying  without  the 
testimony  of  Scripture.  Christ  "hath 
brought  life  and  immortality  to  light 
through  the  gospel,"  2  Tim.  1:10:  the 
immortal  blessedness  of  Christians,  in 
cluding  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  is 
by  virtue  of  their  union  with  Christ, 
207 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


INS 


John  14:19.  The  everlasting  woe  of  the 
wicked,  the  punishment  of  their  sins, 
runs  parallel  with  the  eternal  life  of  the 
redeemed,  Matt.  25:46. 

IN'CENSE,  a  dry,  aromatic  gum,  ex 
uding  from  a  tree  which  grows  in  Arahia 
and  India.  It  is  called  also  frankincense, 
from  the  freedom  with  which  when  burn- 
ing  it  gives  forth  its  odors.  Other  spices 
were  mixed  with  it  to  make  the  sacred 
incense,  the  use  of  which  for  any  other 
purpose  was  strictly  forbidden,  Exod. 
30:84-38.  To  offer  incense,  among  the 
Hebrews,  was  an  office  peculiar  to  the 

Eriests;  for  which  purpose  they  entered 
ito  the  holy  apartment  of  the  temple 
every  morning  and  evening.  On  the 
great  day  of  expiation,  the  high-priest 
burnt  incense  in  his  censer  as  he  entered 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  the  smoke  which 
arose  from  it  prevented  his  looking  with 
too  much  curiosity  on  the  ark  and  mer 
cy-seat,  Lev.  16:13.  The  Levites  were 
not  permitted  to  touch  the  censers ;  and 
Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram  suffered  a 
terrible  punishment  for  violating  this  pro 
hibition.  Incense  was  especially  a  sym 
bol  of  prayer.  While  it  was  offered,  the 
people  prayed  in  the  court  without,  and 
their  prayers  ascended  with  the  sweet 
odor  of  the  incense,  until  the  priest  re 
turned  and  gave  the  blessing.  So  Christ 
presents  his  people  and  their  prayers  to 
God,  accepted  through  his  merits  and 
intercession,  and  gives  them  the  bless 
ing,  ' '  Your  sins  are  forgiven ;  go  in 
peace,"  Psa.  141:2  ;  Luke 2:9  ;  Rev.  5:8; 
8:4.  "  Incense  "  sometimes  signifies  the 
sacrifices  and  fat  of  victims,  as  no  other 
kind  of  incense  was  offered  on  the  altar 
of  burnt-offerings,  Psa.  66  : 15.  For  a 
description  of  the  altar  of  incense,  see 
ALTAR. 

IN'DIA,  Esth.  ]  :1 ;  8:9,  the  country 
lying  east  of  the  ancient  Persia  and  Bac- 
tria,  so  named  from  the  river  Indus 
which  passed  through  it.  The  India  of 
the  ancients  extended  more  to  the  north 
and  west  than  modern  India;  and  the 
southern  region,  now  best  known  to  us, 
was  comparatively  unknown  until  the 
era  of  modern  navigation. 

INHERITANCE.  The  laws  of  inher 
itance  among  the  Hebrews  were  very 
simple.  Land  might  be  mortgaged,  but 
could  not  be  alienated,  Num.  36  :  6-9. 
See  JUBILEE.  The  only  permanent  right 
to  property  was  by  heritage,  or  lineal 
succession.  The  eldest  son  had  a  double 
208 


portion.  Females  had  no  territorial  pos 
session  ;  but  if  a  man  left  no  sons,  his 
daughters  inherited — on  condition  of 
their  marrying  into  a  family  within  the 
tribe  to  which  their  father  belonged. 
If  a  man  had  no  children,  his  land  pass 
ed  to  distant  relatives,  according  to  a 
law  laid  down  in  Num.  27  :  8-11.  The 
law  of  Moses  rendered  wills  unnecessary  ; 
they  were  introduced,  however,  at  a  later 
period,  Gal.  3 : 15  ;  Heb.  9 : 17.  Property 
was  sometimes  distributed  among  chil 
dren  during  the  lifetime  of  the  father : 
thus,  in  the  parable  of  the  prodigal  son, 
the  father  divided  his  property  between 
the  two  sons,  Luke  15:12. 

INK,  Jer.  36:18.  The  ink  of  the  an 
cients  was  thick  and  durable,  and  resem 
bled  our  printer's  ink.  The  ordinary 
materials  were  powdered  charcoal,  or 
ivory-black,  water,  and  gum.  The  black 
matter  of  the  scuttle-fish  was  also  used. 
Writers  carried  their  inkhorns  within, 
or  suspended  from,  their  girdles,  Ezek. 
9:2.  See  GIRDLE. 

INNS.  There  appear  to  be  three  de 
scriptions  of  these  buildings  in  the  East. 
Some  are  simply  places  of  rest,  (by  the 
side  of  a  fountain,  if  possible,)  which, 
being  at  proper  distances  on  the  road, 
are  thus  named,  though  they  are  mere 
naked  walls  ;  others  have  an  attendant, 
who  subsists  either  by  some  charitable 
donation,  or  the  benevolence  of  passen 
gers  ;  and  others  are  more  considerable 
establishments,  where  families  reside 
to  take  care  of  them,  and  furnish  many 
necessary  provisions. 

INSPIRATION,  that  supernatural  in 
fluence  exerted  on  the  minds  of  the  sa 
cred  writers  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  in  vir 
tue  of  which  they  unerringly  declared 
his  will.  Whether  what  they  wrote  was 
previously  familiar  to  their  own  know 
ledge,  or,  as  in  many  cases  it  must 
have  been,  an  immediate  revelation  from 
heaven  ;  whether  his  influence  in  any 
given  case  was  dictation,  suggestion,  or 
superintendence;  and  however  clearly 
we  may  trace  in  their  writings  the  pe 
culiar  character,  style,  mental  endow 
ments,  and  circumstances  of  each ;  yet 
the  whole  of  the  Bible  was  written  under 
the  unerring  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
2  Tim.  3:16. 

Christ  everywhere  treats  the  Old  Tes 
tament  Scriptures  as  infallibly  true,  and 
of  divine  authority — the  word  of  God. 
To  the  New  Testament  writers  inspi-, 


INT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ISA 


ration  was  promised,  Matt.  10 : 19,  20 ; 
John  14:26  ;  16:13;  and  they  wrote  and 
prophesied  under  its  direction,  1  Cor. 
2  :  10-13  ;  14  :  37  ;  Gal.  1  :  12  ;  2  Pet. 
1:21;  3:15;  Rev.  1:1,  10-19. 

INTERCESSION,  Christ's  appearing 
before  the  throne  in  heaven  as  the  Ad 
vocate  of  his  people,  presenting  his  fin 
ished  work  as  the  reason  why  their  pray 
ers  should  be  heard  and  their  persons 
accepted  in  him,  Isa.  53:12  ;  Rom.  8:34  ; 
Heb.  7:25  ;  9:24  ;  1  John  2:1.  In  thus 
pleading  for  sinners  as  the  one  Mediator, 
his  work  is  perfect ;  it  precludes  all  help 
of  virgin,  saints,  or  angels;  and  will 
certainly  prevail.  The  Holy  Spirit  in 
the  hearts  of  believers  is  said  to  inter 
cede  for  them,  Rom.  8:26,  when  he  puts 
words  into  their  mouths,  and  holy  de 
sires  into  their  hearts,  such  as  they 
would  otherwise  fail  of,  but  which  are 
according  to  the  will  of  God  and  accept 
able  to  him  through  Christ. 

INTERPRETATION,  revealing  the 
true  meaning  of  supernatural  dreams, 
Gen.  41,  Dan.  2  ;  4,  of  unknown  tongues, 
etc.,  1  Cor.  12:12,  30;  14:5,  13. 

For  the  right  interpretation  of  the 
word  of  God,  the  chief  requisites  are,  a 
renewed  heart,  supremely  desirous  to 
learn  and  do  the  will  of  God  ;  the  aid  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  sought  and  gained ;  a 
linn  conviction  that  the  word  of  God 
should  rule  the  erring  reason  and  heart 
of  man ;  a  diligent  comparison  of  its  dif 
ferent  parts,  for  the  light  they  throw 
upon  each  other ;  all  reliable  informa 
tion  as  to  the  history  and  geography,  the 
customs,  laws,  and  languages,  the  public, 
domestic,  and  inner  life  of  Bible  times. 
Thus  to  study  the  Bible  for  one's  self  is 
the  privilege  and  duty  of  every  one. 

IRON  was  early  known  and  wrought, 
Gen.  4  :  22.  Moses  often  alludes  to  it. 
He  compares  the  bondage  in  Egypt  to  a 
furnace  for  smelting  iron,  and  speaks  of 
the  iron  ore  of  Canaan,  Deut.  3:11;  4 : 20 ; 
8 ;  9.  Many  different  articles  and  tools 
were  anciently  made  of  it.  Immense 
quantities  were  provided  for  the  build 
ing  of  the  temple,  1  Chr.  29  : 2,  7. 
"Iron"  is  used  to  illustrate  slavery, 
strength,  obstinacy,  fortitude,  affliction, 
etc.,  Deut.  28:48;  Job  40:18;  Isa.  48:4; 
Jer.  1:18;  Ezek.  22:18,  20;  Dan.  2:33. 
"Iron  sharpeneth  iron,"  says  the  wise 
man,  "  so  a  man  sharpeneth  the  counte 
nance  of  his  friend;"  that  is,  the  pres 
ence  of  a  friend  gives  us  more  confidence 


and  assurance.  God  threatens  his  un 
grateful  and  perfidious  people  that  he 
will  make  the  heaven  brass  and  the  earth 
iron ;  that  is,  make  the  earth  barren,  and 
the  heaven  to  produce  no  rain.  Char 
iots  of  iron  are  chariots  armed  with  iron 
spikes  and  scythes.  See  CHARIOTS. 

I'SAAC,  laughter,  Gen.  17:17;  18:12; 
21:6,  one  of  the  patriarchal  ancestors  of 
the  Hebrew  nation  and  of  Christ,  son  of 
Abraham  and  Sarah,  B.  c.  1896-1705. 
His  history  is  related  in  Gen.  21 ;  24-28 ; 
35 : 27-29.  He  is  memorable  for  the  cir~ 
cumstances  attending  his  birth,  as  a 
child  of  prophecy  and  promise,  in  the 
old  age  of  his  parents.  Even  in  child 
hood  he  was  the  object  of  dislike  to  his 
brother  Ishmael,  son  of  the  bondwoman ; 
and  in  this,  a  type  of  all  children  of  the 
promise,  Gal.  4:29.  Trained  in  the  fear 
of  God  to  early  manhood,  he  allowed  a 
noble  trust  and  obedience  in  his  conduct 
during  that  remarkable  trial  of  faith 
which  established  Abraham  as  the  "fa 
ther  of  the  faithful;"  and  in  his  meek 
submission  to  all  the  will  of  God,  prefig 
ured  the  only-begotten  Son  of  the  Fa 
ther.  At  the  age  of  forty  he  married 
the  pious  and  lovely  Rebekah  of  Meso 
potamia.  Most  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
the  southern  part  of  Canaan  and  its 
vicinity.  At  the  burial  of  his  father,  he 
was  joined  by  his  outcast  brother  Ish- 
niael.  Two  sons  of  Isaac  are  named  in 
Scripture.  The  partiality  of  the  mother 
for  Jacob,  and  of  the  father  for  Esau,  led 
to  unhappy  jealousies,  discord,  sin,  and 
long  separations  between  the  brothers, 
though  all  were  overruled  to  accomplish 
the  purposes  of  God.  At  the  age  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty-seven,  Isaac  blessed 
Jacob  and  sent  him  away  into  Mesopota 
mia.  At  the  age  of  one  hundred  and 
eighty,  he  died,  and  was  buried  in  the 
tomb  of  Abraham  by  his  two  sons.  In 
his  natural  character,  Isaac  was  humble, 
tranquil,  and  meditative ;  in  his  piety, 
devout,  full  of  faith,  and  eminently  sub 
missive  to  the  will  of  God. 

ISAI'AH,  the  son  of  Amoz,  (not  Amos,) 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  He 
brew  prophets.  He  began  to  prophesy 
at  Jerusalem  towards  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Uzziah,  about  the  year  759  B.  C., 
and  exercised  the  prophetical  office  some 
sixty  years,  under  the  three  following 
monarchs,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah, 
Isa.  1:1.  Compare  2  Kin.  15-20;  2  Chr. 
26-32.  The  first  twelve  chapters  of  his 
209 


ISA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ISA 


prophecies  refer  to  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah;  then  follow  chapters  13-23,  directed 
against  foreign  nations,  except  chapter  22, 
against  Jerusalem.  In  chapters  24-35, 
which  would  seem  to  belong  to  the  time 
of  Hezekiah,  the  prophet  appears  to  look 
forward  in  prophetic  vision  to  the  times 
of  the  exile  and  of  the  Messiah.  Chap 
ters  36-39  give  a  historical  account  of 
Sennacherib's  invasion,  and  of  the  ad 
vice  given  by  Isaiah  to  Hezekiah.  Thj.s 
account  is  parallel  to  that  in  2  Kiri. 
18 : 13,  to  20 : 1 9  ;  and  indeed  chapter  37  of 
Isaiah  is  almost  word  for  word  the  same 
with  2  Kin.  19.  The  remainder  of  the 
book  of  Isaiah,  chapters  40-66,  contains  a 
series  of  oracles  referring  to  the  future 
times  of  temporal  exile  and  deliverance, 
and  expanding  into  glorious  views  of  the 
spiritual  deliverance  to  be  wrought  by 
the  Messiah. 

Isaiah  seems  to  have  lived  and  proph 
esied  wholly  at  Jerusalem;  and  disap 
pears  from  history  after  the  accounts  con 
tained  in  chapter  39.  A  tradition  among 
the  Talmudists  and  fathers  relates  that 
he  was  sawn  asunder  during  the  reign  of 
Manasseh,  Heb.  11:37 ;  and  this  tradition 
is  embodied  in  an  apocryphal  book,  called 
the  "ascension  of  Isaiah  ;"  but  it  seems 
to  rest  on  no  certain  grounds. 

Some  commentators  have  proposed  to 
divide  the  book  of  Isaiah  chronologically 
into  three  parts,  as  if  composed  under 
the  three  kings,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hez 
ekiah.  But  this  is  of  very  doubtful  pro 
priety  ;  since  several  of  the  chapters  are 
evidently  transposed  and  inserted  out  of 
their  chronological  order.  But  a  very 
obvious  and  striking  division  of  the  book 
into  two  parts  exists ;  the  first  part,  in 
cluding  the  first  thirty-nine  chapters, 
and  the  second,  the  remainder  of  the 
book,  or  chapters  40-66. 

The  first  part  is  made  up  of  those 
prophecies  and  historical  accounts  which 
Isaiah  wrote  during  the  period  of  his 
active  exertions,  when  he  mingled  in  the 
public  concerns  of  the  rulers  and  the  peo 
ple,  and  acted  as  the  messenger  of  God 
to  the  nation  in  reference  to  their  internal 
and  external  existing  relations.  These 
are  single  prophecies,  published  at  dif 
ferent  times,  and  on  different  occasions  ; 
afterwards,  indeed,  brought  together  into 
one  collection,  but  still  marked  as  dis 
tinct  and  single,  either  by  the  super 
scriptions,  or  in  some  other  obvious  and 
known  method. 

210 


The  second  part,  on  the  contrary,  is 
occupied  wholly  with  the  future.  It  was 
apparently  written  in  the  later  years  of 
the  prophet,  when,  having  left  all  active 
exertions  in  the  theocracy  to  his  younger 
associates  in  the  prophetical  office,  he 
transferred  his  contemplations  from  the 
present  to  that  which  was  to  come. 
In  this  part  therefore,  which  was  not, 
like  the  first,  occasioned  by  external  cir 
cumstances,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  distin 
guish  in  like  manner  between  the  differ 
ent  single  prophecies.  The  whole  is 
more  like  a  single  gush  of  prophecy. 
The  prophet  first  consoles  his  people  by 
announcing  their  deliverance  from  the 
approaching  Babylonish  exile,  which  he 
had  himself  predicted,  chapter  39  :  6,  7  ; 
he  names  the  monarch  whom  Jehovah 
will  send  to  punish  the  insolence  of 
their  oppressors,  and  lead  back  the  peo 
ple  to  their  home.  But  he  does  not  stop 
at  this  inferior  deliverance.  With  the 
prospect  of  freedom  from  the  Babylon 
ish  exile,  he  connects  the  prospect  of 
deliverance  from  sin  and  error  through 
the  Messiah.  Sometimes  both  objects 
seem  closely  interwoven  with  each  oth 
er  ;  sometimes  one  of  them  appears 
alone  with  particular  clearness  and 
prominency.  Especially  is  the  view  of 
the  prophet  sometimes  so  exclusively 
directed  upon  the  latter  object,  that, 
filled  with  the  contemplation  of  the 
glory  of  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  God 
and  of  its  exalted  Fotinder,  he  loses  sight 
for  a  time  of  the  less  distant  future.  In 
the  description  of  this  spiritual  deliv 
erance  also,  the  relations  of  time  are 
not  observed.  Sometimes  the  prophet 
beholds  the  Author  of  this  deliverance 
in  his  humiliation  and  sorrows;  and 
again,  the  remotest  ages  of  the  Messiah's 
kingdom  present  themselves  to  his  en 
raptured  vision  —  when  man,  so  long 
estranged  from  God,  will  have  again  re 
turned  to  him ;  when  every  thing  op 
posed  to  God  shall  have  been  destroyed, 
and  internal  and  external  peace  univer 
sally  prevail ;  and  when  all  the  evil  in 
troduced  by  sin  into  the  world,  will  be 
for  ever  done  away.  Elevated  above  all 
space  and  time,  the  prophet  contem 
plates  from  the  height  on  which  the 
Holy  Spirit  has  thus  placed  him,  the 
whole  development  of  the  Messiah's 
kingdom,  from  its  smallest  beginnings 
to  its  glorious  completion. 

Isaiah  is  appropriately  named  "th< 


ISH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ISR 


evangelical  prophet,"  and  the  fathers 
called  his  book  ' '  the  Gospel  according  to 
St.  Isaiah. "  In  it  the  wonderful  person 
and  birth  of ' '  Emmanuel — God  with  us, ' ' 
his  beneficent  life,  his  atoning  death, 
and  his  triumphant  and  everlasting  king 
dom,  are  minutely  foretold,  Isa.  7:14- 
16;  9:6,7;  11:1-10  ;  32  ;  42  ;  49;  52:13- 
15;  53;  60;  61:1-3.  The  simplicity, 
purity,  sweetness,  and  sublimity  of  Isai 
ah,  and  the  fulness  of  his  predictions 
respecting  the  Messiah,  give  him  the  pre 
eminence  among  the  Hebrew  prophets 
and  poets. 

ISH'BI-BE'NOB,  a  giant  who  was  on 
the  point  of  killing  David  in  battle,  but 
was  slain  by  Abishai,  2  Sam.  21:16,  17. 

ISH'BOSHETH,  son  and  successor  of 
Saul.  Abner,  Saul's  kinsman  and  gen 
eral,  so  managed  that  Ishbosheth  was 
acknowledged  king  at  Mahanaim  by  the 
greater  part  of  Israel,  while  David  reign 
ed  at  Hebron  over  Judah.  He  was  forty- 
four  years  of  age  when  he  began  to 
reign,  and  he  reigned  two  years  peacea 
bly  ;  after  which  he  was  involved  in  a 
long  and  unsuccessful  war  against  David. 
Being  abandoned  by  Abner,  whom  he 
had  provoked,  he  became  more  and  more 
feeble,  and  was  at  last  assassinated,  2  Sam. 
2:8-11;  3;  4.  See  ESHBAAL. 

ISH'MAEL,  I.,  Gen.  16;  21,  son  of 
Abraham  and  Hagar,  B.  c.  1910.  He 
was  at  first  regarded  as  ' '  the  son  of  the 
promise ;"  but  after  the  birth  and  wean 
ing  of  Isaac  he  was  driven  from  his  fa 
ther's  house,  at  the  age  of  about  seven 
teen,  and  took  with  his  mother  the  way  to 
Egypt  her  native  land.  Overcome  with 
heat  and  thirst,  and  then  miraculously 
relieved,  he  remained  in  the  wilderness 
of  Paran,  took  a  wife  from  Egypt,  and 
was  the  father  of  twelve  sons,  heads  of 
Arab  tribes.  He  seems  to  have  become 
on  friendly  terms  with  Isaac,  and  to 
have  attended  at  the  bedside  of  their 
dying  father.  At  his  own  death,  he  was 
one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  years  old, 
Gen.  25:9,  17. 

The  Ishmaelites,  his  posterity,  were 
said,  in  the  days  of  Moses,  to  dwell 
"from  Havilah  unto  Shur  that  is  be 
fore  Egypt,"  that  is,  in  the  north-west 
ern  part  of  Arabia.  See  HAVILAH  II. 
Subsequently  they,  with  the  descendants 
of  Joktan,  the  fourth  from  Shem,  Gen. 
10  :  26-29,  and  Jokshan,  the  son  of 
Abraham  by  Keturah,  Gen.  25  :  3,  and 
perhaps  also  of  some  of  the  brethren 


of  Joktan  and  Jokshan,  occupied  the 
whole  peninsula  of  Arabia.  See  ARA 
BIA.  They  became  very  numerous  and 
powerful,  according  to  the  divine  prom 
ise,  Gen.  17:16.  The  prediction  also 
in  Gen.  16  : 12,  has  been  fully  verified 
in  their  history.  Located  near  their 
' '  brethren  ' '  the  Jews,  they  have  al 
ways  led  a  roving,  wild,  and  predatory 
life.  To  a  great  degree  unchanged,  they 
are  to  this  day  the  untamed  though 
tributary  masters  of  the  desert.  See 

MlDIANITES. 

II.  A  prince  of  Judah,  who  fled  to  the 
Ammonites  when  Jerusalem  was  de 
stroyed  by  the  Chaldeans.  Soon  after, 
he  returned  and  assassinated  Gedaliah 
the  governor  and  many  others ;  but  was 
obliged  to  flee  for  his  life,  Jer.  40 ;  41. 

ISLE,  ISLAND.  The  Hebrew  word 
which  is  more  commonly  translated  isle, 
means  strictly  dry  land,  habitable  coun 
try,  in  opposition  to  water,  or  to  seas 
and  rivers,  Isa.  42  : 15.  Compare  Isa. 
50  :  2.  Hence,  as  opposed  to  water  in 
general,  it  means  land  adjacent  to  water, 
either  washed  or  surrounded  by  it,  that 
is,  maritime  country,  coast,  island.  Thus 
it  means  coast,  when  used  of  Ashdod, 
Isa.  20  :  6  ;  of  Tyre,  Isa.  23  :  2,  6 ;  of  Pe 
loponnesus,  or  Greece,  Ezek.  27:7,  "the 
isles  of  Elishah. ' '  It  means  island  when 
used  of  Caphtor,  for  example,  or  Crete, 
Jer.  47:4;  also  Jer.  2:10;  so  Psa.  97:1  ; 
and  also  Esth.  10:  1,  where  the  phrase 
isles  of  the  sea  is  in  antithesis  with  the 
land  or  continent.  The  plural  of  this 
word,  usually  translated  islands,  was 
employed  by  the  Hebrews  to  denote  dis 
tant  regions  beyond  the  sea,  whether 
coasts  or  islands ;  and  especially  the 
islands  and  maritime  countries  of  the 
west,  which  had  become  indistinctly 
known  to  the  Hebrews,  through  the  voy 
ages  of  the  Phoenicians,  Isa.  24  :  15 ; 
40  :  15  ;  42  :  4,  10,  12 ;  Psa.  72  : 10.  In 
Ezek.  27 : 15,  the  East  Indian  Archipela 
go  would  seem  to  be  intended. 

IS'RAEL,  who  prevails  with  God,  a  name 
given  to  Jacob,  after  having  wrestled 
with  the  Ansrel-Jehovah  at  Penuel,  Gen. 
32:1,  2,  28,  30 ;  Hosea  12:3.  See  JACOB. 
By  the  name  Israel  is  sometimes  under 
stood  all  the  posterity  of  Israel,  the  seed 
of  Jacob,  1  Cor.  10 :  18 ;  sometimes  all 
true  believers,  his  spiritual  seed,  Rom. 
9:6;  and  sometimes  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  or  the  ten  tribes,  as  distinct  from 
the  kingdom  of  Judah. 

211 


ISR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


IVO 


ISRAELITES,  the  "children  of  Isra 
el,"  a  name  of  the  twelve  tribes  unitedly 
until  the  separation  under  Rehoboam, 
when  it  became  the  usual  designation  of 
the  ten  tribes  forming  the  kingdom  of 
Israel.  Ephraim,  the  leading  tribe 
among  the  ten,  seems  to  have  shown  an 
early  spirit  of  rivalry  towards  Judah  ; 
Joshua  had  belonged  to  Ephraim,  the 
ark  had  long  rested  within  its  borders  at 
Shiloh,  and  Jeroboam  was  also  an  Ephra- 
imite.  After  the  division,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  ten  tribes  from  repairing  to 
Jerusalem  to  worship,  the  two  golden 
calves  were  set  up,  at  Bethel  and  Dan, 
and  thus  idolatry  was  established  in 
those  tribes,  and  corruption  and  ungod 
liness  increased  more  rapidly  than  in 
Judah.  Israel  was  chastised  by  sword, 
famine,  etc.  ;  and  at  length,  having 
been  often  reproved  and  hardening  their 
necks,  they  were  suddenly  destroyed,  and 
that  without  remedy.  During  the  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  years  of  the  king 
dom  of  Israel,  B.  c.  975-721,  there  were 
nineteen  different  kings,  of  various  lines. 
See  KINGS.  Shechem,  Thirzah,  and  Sa 
maria  were  in  turn  the  seats  of  govern 
ment.  After  their  captivity  by  Shal- 
maneser,  the  Israelites  as  a  nation  never 
returned.  Those  who  did  return  were 
merged  in  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Ben 
jamin,  and  with  them  constituted  the 
Jews  of  our  Saviour's  day.  See  CANAAN, 
HEBREWS,  and  JUDA.H. 

IS'SACHAR,  recompense,  so  named  by 
Leah  his  mother,  Gen.  30:18,  the  ninth 
son  of  Jacob,  born  B.  c.  1749.  The 
character  of  his  posterity  was  foretold  by 
Jacob  and  by  Moses,  Gen.  49 : 14,  15 ; 
Deut.  33:18,  19. 

The  TRIBE  OF  ISSACIIAR  numbered  fifty- 
four  thousand  men  in  the  desert,  and  on 
entering  Canaan  was  the  third  in  pop 
ulation,  Num.  1:28;  26:25.  Their  por 
tion,  having  the  Jordan  on  the  east, 
Manasseh  on  the  west,  Zebulun  north, 
and  Ephraim  south,  included  a  consider 
able  part  of  the  fine  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
the  most  fertile  in  the  country.  They 
were  industrious  agriculturists,  and  are 
mentioned  with  honor  for  their  brave 
and  wise  patriotism,  Judg.  5:15;  1  Chr. 
7:1-5:  12:32. 

IT'ALY  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  unless  under  general  terms, 
as  Chittim,  Isles  of  the  sea.  In  the  New 
Testament,  Acts  18  :  2  ;  27  :  1,  6  ;  Heb. 
13:24,  it  is  chiefly  of  interest  on  account 
212 


of  HOME,  which  see.  The  Italian  band, 
mentioned  in  Acts  10:1,  was  probably  a 
Roman  cohort  from  Italy,  stationed  at 
Cccsarea  ;  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  other  troops,  which  were  drawn  from 
Syria  and  the  adjacent  regions. 

ITH'AMAR,  the  fourth  son  of  Aaron, 
consecrated  to  the  priesthood,  Ex.  6:23  ; 
Num.  3:2,  3.  His  posterity  took  charge 
of  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness,  Ex. 
38:21  ;  Num.  4:28.  Some  of  this  line 
namely,  Eli,  Ahitub,  Ahiah,  Ahimelech, 
and  Abiathar,  held  the  office  of  high- 
priest,  but  under  Solomon  it  reverted  to 
the  family  of  Eleazar,  1  Kin.  2:7.  See 
ABIATHAR. 

ITURE'A,  a  region  in  the  extreme 
north-east  of  Palestine,  perpetuating  the 
name  of  Jetur  a  son  of  Ishmael,  and  be 
longing  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh 
1  Chr.  1  :  31 ;  5  :  19.  The  name  Jedur 
still  remains  there.  In  the  time  of 
Christ,  Iturea  was  in  the  tetrarchy  of 
Philip,  Luke  3:1.  It  lay  about  midway 
between  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  Damas 
cus,  but  its  limits  are  not  well  known. 
Its  inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been  skil 
ful  archers  and  dexterous  robbers. 


IVORY  :    FROM  EGYPTIAN  RUINS. 

I'VORY  is  mentioned  in  the  reign  of 
Solomon,  and  referred  to  in  Psalm  45, 
as  used  in  decorating  palaces.  Solomon, 
who  traded  to  India,  brought  thence  ele 
phants  and  ivory  to  Judea.  ' '  For  the 
king  had  at  sea  a  navy  of  Tarshish,  with 
the  navy  of  Hiram  :  once  in  three  yean* 
came  the  navy  of  Tarshish,  bringing  gold 
and  silver  and  ivory,"  1  Kin.  10:22; 
2  Chr.  9:21.  Solomon  had  a  throne  dec 
orated  with  ivory,  and  inlaid  with  gold, 
these  beautiful  materials  relieving  the 
splendor  and  heightening  the  lustre  of 


JAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JAC 


each  other,  1  Kin.  10  :  18.  Ivory,  as  is 
well  known,  is  the  substance  of  the  tusks 
of  elephants,  and  hence  it  is  always  call 
ed  in  Hebrew,  tooth. 

As  to  the  "ivory  houses,"  1  Kin. 
22  :  39,  Amos  3:15,  they  may  have  had 
ornaments  of  ivory,  as  they  sometimes 
have  of  gold,  silver,  or  other  precious 
materials,  in  such  abundance  as  to  be 
named  from  the  article  of  their  decora 
tion  ;  as  the  emperor  Nero's  palace  was 
named  aurea,  or  golden,  because  overlaid 
with  gold.  This  method  of  ornamenting 
buildings  or  apartments  was  very  ancient 
among  the  Greeks,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Homer.  See  Ezek.  27:6,  15  ;  Amos  6:4; 
Rev.  18:12. 


J. 


JA'BAL,  son  of  Lamech  and  Adah, 
and  a  descendant  of  Cain.  He  is  sup 
posed  to  have  been  the  iirst  to  adopt  the, 
nomadic  mode  of  life,  still  practised  in 
Arabia  and  Tartary,  and  to  have  invent 
ed  portable  tents,  perhaps  of  skins,  Gen. 
4:20. 

JAB'BOK,  now  the  Zerka,  a  perennial 
stream,  flowing  into  the  Jordan  midway 
between  the  sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead 
sea,  about  thirty  miles  from  each,  after 
a  westerly  course  of  some  sixty  miles.  It 
traverses  at  first  an  elevated  and  desert 
region,  and  receives  a  branch  from  the 
north  and  another  from  the  south.  This 
latter  branch  separated  the  Ammonites 
from  Israel.  The  eastern  part  of  the 
Jabbok  is  dry  in  summer.  Towards  the 
west,  it  flows  through  a  deep  ravine. 
Penuel,  where  Jacob  wrestled  with  the 
Angel,  was  a  fording-place  of  the  Jab 
bok,  Gen.  32 :  22.  This  stream  divided 
the  territory  of  Og  from  that  of  Sihon, 
Josh.  12  :  2,  5,  and  traversed  the  region 
afterwards  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Gad. 

JA'BESH,  a  city  in  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh  east  of  the  Jordan,  generally 
called  Jabesh-gilead  because  situated 
within  the  territory  commonly  called 
Gilead.  Eusebius  places  it  six  miles 
from  Pella,  towards  Gerasa.  It  was 
sicked  by  the  Israelites  for  refusing  to 
aid  in  chastising  the  Benjamites,  Judg. 
21:8-10.  At  a  later  day,  it  was  besieged 
by  the  Ammonites,  and  relieved  by  Saul ; 
in  gratitude  for  which  service  the  men  of 
•Jabesh-gilead  rescued  the  dead  bodies  of 
Saul  and  his  sons  from  the  insults  of  the 


Philistines,  1  Sam.  11 ;  31:11-13  ;  2  Sam. 
2:5. 

JA'BEZ,  a  descendant  of  Judah,  whose 
high  distinction  among  his  brethren 
seems  to  have  been  owing  to  his  preva 
lence  in  prayer,  1  Chr.  4:9,  10. 

JA'BIN,  I.,  a  powerful  king  in  the 
time  of  Joshua,  at  Hazor  in  the  north 
of  Canaan.  The  league  which  he  or 
ganized  to  crush  Joshua,  only  made  his 
own  ruin  more  complete,  Josh.  11,  B.  c. 
1450. 

II.  Another  king  of  Hazor,  a  century 
and  a  half  later,  who  sorely  oppressed 
Israel  for  twenty  years,  till  Deborah  and 
Barak  were  raised  up  as  deliverers,  Judg. 
4;  Psa.  83:9. 

JAB'NEH,  afterwards  Jarnnia,  now 
Jebna,  a  Philistine  city  on  the  Mediter 
ranean  coast,  some  twelve  miles  south  of 
Joppa.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Jews, 
2  Chr.  26:6. 

JA'CHIN,  God  confirms,  the  name  of 
the  right-hand  brazen  column  at  the 
entrance  of  Solomon's  temple,  1  Kin. 
7:21.  See  BOAZ. 

JACINTH,  or  HYACINTH,  a  gem  of  a 
yellowish  red  or  hyacinth  color,  nearly 
related  to  zircon  and  to  the  amethyst. 
It  loses  its  color  by  being  heated,  and 
resembles  the  diamond,  Rev.  9 :  17  ; 
21:20. 

JA'COB,  son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah, 
and  twin-brother  to  Esau.  As  at  his 
birth  he  held  his  brother's  heel,  he  was 
called  Jacob,  that  is,  the  heel-holder, 
one  who  comes  behind  and  catches  the 
heel  of  his  adversary,  a  supplanter,  Gen. 
25  :  26.  This  was  a  kind  of  predictive 
intimation  of  his  future  conduct  in  life. 
Jacob  was  meek  and  peaceable,  living  a 
shepherd  life  at  home.  Esau  was  more 
turbulent  and  fierce,  and  passionately 
fond  of  hunting.  Isaac  was  partial  to 
Esau,  Rebekah  to  Jacob.  Jacob  hav 
ing  taken  advantage  of  his  brother's 
absence  and  his  father's  infirmity  to 
obtain  the  blessing  of  the  birthright, 
or  primogeniture,  was  compelled  to  fly 
into  Mesopotamia  to  avoid  the  conse 
quences  of  his  brother's  wrath,  Gen.  27  ; 
28.  On  his  journey  the  Lord  appeared 
to  him  in  a  dream,  (see  LADDER,)  prom 
ised  him  His  protection,  and  declared  Hig 
purpose  relative  to  his  descendants'  pos 
sessing  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  the  de 
scent  of  the  Messiah  through  him,  Gen. 
28:10,  etc.  His  subsequent  days,  which 
he  calls  "few  and  evil,"  were  clouded 
213 


JAG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JAM 


with  many  sorrows,  yet  amid  them  all 
he  was  sustained  by  the  care  and  favor 
of  God.  On  his  solitary  journey  of  six 
hundred  miles  into  Mesopotamia,  and 
during  the  toils  and  injuries  of  his  twen 
ty  years'  service  with  Laban,  God  still 
prospered  him,  and  on  his  return  to  the 
land  of  promise  inclined  the  hostile  spir 
its  of  Laban  and  of  Esau  to  peace.  On 
the  border  of  Canaan  the  angels  of  God 
met  him,  and  the  God  of  angels  wrestled 
with  him,  yielded  him  the  blessing,  and 
gave  him  the  honored  name  of  Israel. 
But  sore  trials  awaited  him  :  his  mother 
was  no  more ;  his  sister-wives  imbittered 
his  life  with  their  jealousies ;  his  chil 
dren  Dinah,  Simeon,  Levi,  and  Reuben 
filled  him  with  grief  and  shame  ;  his  be 
loved  Rachel  and  his  father  were  remov 
ed  by  death  ;  Joseph  his  favorite  son  he 
had  given  up  as  slain  by  wild  beasts ; 
and  the  loss  of  Benjamin  threatened  to 
bring  his  gray  hairs  with  sorrow  to  the 
grave.  But  the  sunset  of  his  life  was 
majestically  calm  and  bright.  For  sev 
enteen  years,  he  enjoyed  in  the  land  of 
Goshen  a  serene  happiness  :  he  gave  a 
dying  blessing  in  Jehovah's  name  to  his 
assembled  sons  ;  visions  of  their  future 
prosperity  rose  before  his  eyes,  especially 
the  long  line  of  the  royal  race  of  Judah, 
culminating  in  the  glorious  kingdom  of 
SHILOH.  "He  saw  it,  and  was  glad." 
Soon  after,  he  was  gathered  to  his  fathers, 
and  his  body  was  embalmed,  and  buried 
with  all  possible  honors  in  the  burial- 
place  of  Abraham  near  Hebron,  B.  c. 
1836-1689.  In  the  history  of  Jacob  we 
observe  that  in  repeated  instances  he 
used  unjustifiable  means  to  secure  prom 
ised  advantages,  instead  of  waiting,  in 
faith  and  obedience,  for  the  unfailing 
providence  of  God.  We  observe  also  the 
divine  chastisement  of  his  sins,  and  his 
steadfast  growth  in  grace  to  the  last, 
Gen.  25-50.  His  name  is  found  in  the 
New  Testament,  illustrating  the  sove 
reignty  of  God  and  the  power  of  faith, 
Rom.  9:13;  Heb.  11:9,  21. 

JACOB'S  WELL.     See  SHECHEM. 

JA'EL,  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite,  slew 
Sisera,  general  of  the  Canaanitish  army, 
who  had  fled  to  her  tent,  which  was  then 
temporarily  on  the  western  border  of  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon.  Jael  took  her  oppor 
tunity,  and  while  he  was  sleeping,  drove 
a  large  nail  or  tent-pin  through  his  tem 
ples,  Judg.  4:17-23.  The  life  of  Sisera 
was  undoubtedly  forfeited  to  the  Israel- 
214 


ites  by  the  usages  of  war,  and  probably 
to  society  by  his  crimes.  Besides  this, 
the  life.or  honor  of  Jael  may  have  been 
in  danger,  or  her  feelings  of  hospitality 
may  have  been  overpowered  by  a  sudden 
impulse  to  avenge  the  oppressed  Israel 
ites,  with  whom  she  was  allied  by  blood. 
The  song  of  Deborah  celebrates  the  act 
as  one  of  justice  and  heroism,  and  as  a 
divine  judgment  which,  as  well  as  the 
defeat  of  Sisera' s  host,  was  the  more  dis 
graceful  to  him  for  being  wrought  by  a 
woman,  Judg.  5:1,  24-27,  31. 

JAH,  a  Hebrew  contraction  for  JEHO 
VAH,  Psa.  68:4.  It  is  often  found  in  He 
brew  compound  words,  as  in  Adonijah, 
Malachia,  Hallelujah. 

JA'HAZ,  JAIIA'ZAII,  or  JAH'ZAH,  a  city 
in  the  north  of  Moab,  near  which  Moses 
defeated  Sihon,  Num.  21:23.  It  was  in 
the  limits  of  Reuben,  and  was  a  Levitical 
city,  Josh.  21:36.  In  Isa.  15:4,  and  Jer. 
48:21,  it  appears  as  again  in  the  hands 
jof  Moabites. 

JAIR,  I.,  a  leader  in  the  conquest  of 
Bashan,  probably  before  the  Jews  crossed 
the  Jordan,  B.  c.  1451.  Twenty-three 
cities  near  Argob  were  called  after  him 
Havoth-jair,  which  see. 

II.  The  eighth  judge  of  Israel,  in  Gil- 
ead  of  Manasseh,  B.  c.  1210.  He  seems 
to  have  been  a  descendant  and  heir  of 
the  former,  Judg.  10:3-5. 

JAI'RUS,  a  ruler  of  the  synagogue  at 
Capernaum,  memorable  for  his  faith  in 
Christ.  His  deceased  daughter,  twelve 
years  of  age,  was  restored  to  life  and 
health  by  the  Saviour,  Mark  5:22 ;  Luke 
8:41. 

JAM'BRES.     See  JAN'NES. 

JAMES,  I.,  surnamed  the  greater,  or 
the  elder,  to  distinguish  him  from  James 
the  younger,  was  one  of  the  twelve  apos 
tles,  brother  of  John  the  evangelist,  and 
son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome,  Matt.  4:21 ; 
27  :  56.  Compare  Mark  15  :  40.  James 
was  of  Bethsaida  in  Galilee,  and  left  his 
earthly  occupation  to  follow  Christ,  Mark 
1 : 19,  20.  His  mother  Salome  was  one  of 
those  women  who  occasionally  attended 
our  Saviour  in  his  journeys,  and  one  day 
desired  that  her  two  sons  might  be  seated 
at  his  right  and  left  hand  in  his  king 
dom,  Matt.  20:20-23. 

James  and  John  were  originally  fish 
ermen,  with  Zebedee  their  father,  Mark 
1 : 19.  They  were  witnesses  of  our  Lord's 
transfiguration,  Matt.  17:1,  2  ;  and  when 
certain  Samaritans  refused  to  receive  him, 


JAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JAS 


esia&d  Johnwlsfeed  fctfifi^efrom  heav 
en  to  <x>»&ume  them ,  Luke  9-: -54,  For  this 
freasoB,  or  because  of  their  <ia?al  and  en- 
•ergy  ^s  toiaisters  of  Christ,  the  name  of 
Boanerges,  or  -sons  of  thtmder,  was  after 
wards  givea  to  them-,  -Mark  3:17.  To 
gether  with  Peter  they  appear  to  have 
•enjoyed  -special  IIOHOTS  and  privileges 
among  the  -disciples,  -Mark  1 :  2'J  ;  5  :  87  ; 
9  :  2 ;  13,-  3 .;  14  ;  33 ;  Luke  8  :  61.  After 
the  .ascension,  of  our  Lord,  at  which 
James  was  present,  he  appears  to  have 
a-emaiped  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  put  to 
death  by  Herod,  -about  A.  D.  44,  the  first 
snartyr  among  the  apostles,  Acts  12:1,  2. 

II.  Another  .apostle,  son  of  Alphacus, 
•or  Cleophas,  Matt.  10  :  3  ;  Mark  3  :  18 ; 
Luke  6  :  15.     His  mother's  name  was 
Mary,  {III.,)  and  his  brethren  were  Joses 
and  Judas,  {III.,)  Matt.  27  :56;   Mark 
15:40.    He  is  here  called  THE  LESS,  or  the 
younger,  to  distinguish  him  from  James 
the  son  of  Zebedee. 

III.  "The  Lord's  brother,"  Gal.  1:19; 
either  a  brother  of  Christ,  being  a  son 
of  Joseph  and  Mary  ;  or  as  many  think, 
=a  cousin  of  Christ,  and  identical  with  the 
James  above,  II.     He  resided  at  Jerusa 
lem,  Acts  15:13;   and  is  called  "the 
Just"   by  Josephus,   and  said  to  have 
been  stoned  to  death,  about  A.  D.   62. 
The  epistle  of  James  is  ascribed  to  him 
Toy  those  who  distinguish  him  from  James 
the  Less.     The  question  of  his  true  rela 
tionship  to  Christ  is  involved  in  much 
•doubt.      The  gospels   repeatedly  men 
tion  James,  Joses,  Juda,  and  Simon,  as 
"brothers"   of  our  Lord,  and  speak  in 
the  same  connection  of  his  "mother" 
and  his  "sisters,"  Matt.  12  :  46  ;  13  :  56  ; 
Mark  3:31 ;  6:3  ;  Luke  8:19  ;  moreover, 
the  inspired  writers  expressly  distinguish 
the  brothers  of  Christ  from  the  apostles, 
while  they  include  among  the  apostles 
both  James  the  Less  and   Jude,    John 
2  :  12  ;  7  :  3-10 ;  Acts  1  :  13,  14,  thus  fur 
nishing  strong  reasons,  as  many  believe, 
for  the  opinion  that  James  the  Just  was 
literally  a  brother  of  our  Lord. 

The  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES  is  generally  sup 
posed  to  have  been  written  at  Jerusalem, 
about  A.  D.  61,  by  James  the  Just,  short 
ly  before  his  death.  It  is  addressed 
particularly  to  Jewish  converts,  but  was 
Intended  for  the  benefit  of  Christians 
generally.  It  is  hence  called  catholic. 
See  CATHOLIC  and  EPISTLE.  It  has  often 
teen  regarded  as  teaching  a  different 
doctrine  in  respect  to  faith  and  works, 


from  what  Paul  teaches  in  his  epistle 
to  the  Romans.  But  the  doctrine  of 
the  two  apostles  is  at  bottom  the  same, 
only  that  Paul  dwells  more  on  faith,  the 
sole  origin  of  good  works;  and  James 
dwells  more  on  good  works,  which  result 
from  true  faith.  According  to  Paul, 
there  can  be  no  true  faith  which  does 
not  manifest  itself  in  good  works ;  and 
according  to  James,  there  can  be  no  truly 
good  works  which  do  not  spring  from 
true  faith. 

JAN'NES  and  JAM'BRES  were  two  of 
the  principal  Egyptian  magicians,  who 
withstood  Moses  and  Aaron  by  attempt 
ing  to  imitate  the  miracles  which  they 
exhibited.  See  Exod.  7:11,  etc.  These 
names  are  not  found  in  the'  Old  Testa 
ment,  but  are  often  mentioned  in  the 
rabbinical  books,  2  Tim.  3:8. 

JAPHETH,  enlargement,  the  eldest  of 
Noah's  three  sons,  Gen.  9  :  24  ;  10  :  21, 
born  one  hundred  years  before  the  flood. 
He  was  perhaps  the  I'apetos,  whom  Greek 
legends  represent  as  the  progenitor  of 
the  Greek  race.  His  seven  sons,  Gen. 
10:2-5;  1  Chr.  1:5,  occupied  with  their 
posterity  the  north  of  Asia  and  most  of 
Europe.  The  probable  location  of  each 
of  the  seven  is  described  in  its  place.  In 
later  years  the  Greeks  and  Romans  sub 
dued  large  portions  of  Southern  and 
Western  Asia,  in  accordance  with  the 
prediction  of  Noah,  Gen.  9  :  27.  The 
"enlargement "  of  Japheth  now  extends 
over  America  also. 

JAPH'O.     See  JOPPA. 

JASH'ER,  THE  BOOK  OF,  that  is,  the 
book  of  the  upright,  or  of  the  excellent, 
noble-minded.  This  work  is  mentioned 
in  Josh.  10 :  13,  and  2  Sam.  1 : 18,  and 
would  seem  to  have  been  a  collection  of 
national,  historical,  triumphal,  and  ele 
giac  songs,  which  was  still  extant  in  the 
time  of  David.  Josephus  speaks  of  a 
book  of  Jasher  as  then  existing  in  the 
temple,  but  nothing  is  known  respecting 
it.  The  books  now  published  under  this 
name  are  gross  forgeries. 

JA'SON,  a  kinsman  and  host  of  Paul, 
at  Thessalonica.  His  person  and  goods 
were  interposed  to  shield  the  apostle 
from  the  rabble,  A.  ».  52,  Acts  17:5-30. 
He  seems  also  to  have  been  with  him 
at  Corinth,  five  years  afterwards,  Rom. 
16:21. 

JAS'PER,  a  precious  stone  of  various 
colors,  as  green,  purple,  etc.,  often  cloud 
ed  with  white,  and  beautifully  striped 
215 


JAV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JEH 


with  red  or  yellow,  Ex.  28:20  ;  Rev.  4:3  ; 
21:11. 

JA'VAN,  the  fourth  son  of  Japheth, 
Gen.  10:2,  4.  This  name  is  the  same  as 
the  Greek  Ion,  whence  comes  Ionia,  and 
it  is  understood  that  Javan  was  the  an 
cestor  of  the  Greeks.  See  GREECE. 

JA'ZER,  or  JAAZER,  Num.  21 :  32,  a 
city  of  the  Amorites,  in  Gilead ;  after 
wards  a  Levitical  city  in  Gad.  It  lay 
some  fifteen  miles  north  of  Heshbon, 
near  a  small  stream,  Num.  32:1 ;  Josh. 
21:39;  1  Chr.  26:31  ;  Jer.  48:32. 

JEALOUSY.  See  under  ADULTERY. 
The  idol  of  jealousy,  Ezek.  8:3,  5,  is  the 
same  with  Thammuz  in  verse  14.  See 
TIIAMMUZ. 

JEB'USITES.     See  CANAANITES. 

JECONI'AH.     See  JEHOIACHIN. 
^  JEDIDI'AH,  beloved  of  the  Lord,  a  name 
given  to  Solomon  at  his  birth,  by  Nathan 
the  prophet,  2  Sam.  12:25. 

JED'UTHUN,  a  Levite,  one  of  the  di 
rectors  of  music  at  the  temple,  1  Chr. 
16  :  38-42.  His  descendants  held  the 
same  office,  2  Chr.  35:15;  Neh.  11:17; 
and  the  name  of  one  of  them  appears 
in  the  title  of  Psalms  39,  62,  77.  See 
ASAPII. 

JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA,  heap  of  imt- 
ness,  a  Chaldee  name,  equivalent  to  Ga- 
leed  in  Hebrew,  both  marking  the  scene 
of  the  covenant  between  Jacob  and  La- 
ban,  Gen.  31:47. 

JEHO'AHAZ,  I.,  son  and  successor  of 
Jehu  king  of  Israel,  B.  c.  856,  reigned 
seventeen  years.  In  punishment  for  his 
sins  and  those  of  his  people,  Israel  was 
invaded  and  reduced  to  great  extremi 
ties  by  the  Syrians  under  Hazael  and 
Benhadad.  The  king  humbled  himself 
before  God,  and  deliverance  came  by  the 
hand  of  Joash  his  son,  2  Kin.  13:19,  25. 

II.  Also  called  Shallum,  1  Chr.  3:15, 
the  third  son  and  the  successor  of  Josiah 
king  of  Judah,  B.  c.  609,  reigned  about 
three  months  in  Jerusalem.  He  was  de 
posed  by  the  king  of  Egypt,  2  Kin.  23 :30- 
34  ;  2  Chr.  36 : 1-4.  See  also  Jer.  22 : 10- 
13;  Ezek.  19:3. 

JEHO'ASH.     See  JOASII. 

JEHOI'ACHIN,  son  and  successor  of 
Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah,  B.  c.  509, 
reigned  three  months,  and  was  then  car 
ried  away  to  Babylon,  where  he  was  im 
prisoned  for  thirty-six  years, 'and  then 
released  and  favored  by  Evil-merodach, 
2  Kin.  24:6-16  ;  25:27  ;  2  Chr.  36:9,  10. 
In  this  last  passage  he  is  said  to  have 
216 


been  eight  years  old  at  the  commence' 
ment  of  his  reign.  If  the  text  has  not 
here  been  altered  from  eighteen  years, 
as  it  stands  in  the  first  passage,  we  may 
conclude  that  he  reigned  ten  years  con 
jointly  with  his  father.  He  is  also  called 
Coniah,  and  Jecomah,  1  Chr.  3:16  ;  Jer. 
27  :  20 ;  37  : 1.  The  prediction  in  Jer. 
22 : 30.  signified  that  no  son  of  his  should 
occupy  the  throne,  1  Chr.  3: 17, 18 ;  Matt. 

JEHOIADA,  a  high-priest,  who  pre 
served  the  life  and  throne  of  the  young 
Josiah  against  the  usurping  Athaliah. 
His  wisdom  and  piety  continued  to  bless 
the  kingdom  until  he  died,  B.  c.  834, 
aged  130,  and  was  buried  with  royal 
honors,  2  Kin.  11 ;  2  Chr.  23  ;  24. 

JEHOIAKIM,  or  ELI'AKIM,  second  son 
of  Josiah,  brother  and  successor  of  Je- 
hoahaz  or  Shallum,  king  of  Judah,  for 
whom  he  was  substituted  by  the  king 
of  Egypt.  He  was  king  during  eleven 
years  of  luxury,  extortion,  and  idolatry. 
In  the  third  year,  Nebuchadnezzar  car 
ried  to  Babylon  a  part  of  his  princes  and 
treasures.  A  year  after,  his  allies  the 
Egyptians  were  defeated  on  the  Euphra 
tes  ;  yet  he  despised  the  warnings  of  Jer 
emiah,  and  cast  his  book  into  the  fire. 
At  length  he  rebelled  against  Nebuchad 
nezzar,  but  was  defeated  and  inglorious- 
ly  slain,  B.  c.  599,  2  Kin.  23:34;  24:6; 
2  Chr.  36:4-8;  Jer.  22;  26;  36. 

JEHO'RAM.     See  JORAM. 

JEHOSHAPHAT,  a  pious  king  of  Ju 
dah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Asa.  He 
began  to  reign  at  the  age  of  thirty-five, 
about  the  year  9X4  B.  c.,  and  reigned 
twenty-five  years.  His  history  is  found 
in  1  Kin.  15:24  ;  22  ;  2  Chr.  17-20.  He 
was  distinguished  by  his  zeal  for  true 
religion,  and  his  firm  trust  in  God.  He 
thoroughly  cleansed  the  land  from  idol 
atry,  restored  the  divine  ordinances,  and 
provided  for  the  religious  instruction  of 
the  people.  His  government  was  highly 
prospered  at  home  and  abroad.  The 
great  error  of  his  life  was,  an  entangling 
alliance  with  the  wicked  Ahab,  whose 
infamous  daughter  Athaliah  early  began 
to  afflict  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  of  which 
she  was  afterwards  the  queen.  Jehosha- 
phat  was  beguiled  by  Ahab  into  an  un 
successful  war  with  the  Syrians,  but  soon 
resumed  his  labors  in  behalf  of  religion 
and  justice.  Having  failed  in  a  commer- 
ial  enterprise  with  Ahaziah,  he  declined 
a  second  trial',  1  Kin.  22:48,  49,  but 


JEH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JEP 


united  with  Joram,  his  successor,  in  a 
war  with  Moab.  This  seems  to  have  led 
to  his  being  assailed  by  a  vast  host  of  Mo- 
abites,  Ammonites,  Edomites,  and  Syr 
ians  ;  but  again  he  was  victorious  through 
his  faith  in  God.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
sixty  years. 

JEIIOSHAPHAT,  VALLEY  OF,  or  valley  of 
the  judgment  of  God,  a  metaphorical  name 
of  some  place  where  God  would  judge 
the  foes  of  his  people,  Joel  3 :  2,  12. 
There  is  no  ground  for  applying  it  to 
any  known  locality,  or  for  connecting 
it,  unless  for  mere  illustration,  with  the 
great  battle  of  Jehoshaphat  described  in 
2  Chr.  20.  Since  the  third  century,  how 
ever,  the  name  has  been  appropriated  to 
the  deep  and  narrow  glen  east  of  Jeru 
salem,  running  north  and  south  between 
the  city  and  the  mount  of  Olives,  called 
in  the  Bible  the  brook  Kidron.  See  JE 
RUSALEM. 

JEHOSH'EBA,  the  aunt  of  Joash,  king 
of  Judah,  whose  life  in  infancy  and  child 
hood  she  saved,  in  spite  of  the  designs  of 
Athaliah,  2  Kin.  11:1-3. 

JEHO'VAH,  the  inenable  name  of  God 
among  the  Hebrews.  It  never  has  the 
article  before  it,  nor  is  it  found  in  the 
plural  form.  The  Jews  never  pronounc 
ed  this  name  ;  and  wherever  it  occurs  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  they  substituted 
for  it,  in  reading,  the  word  ADONAI,  Lord, 
or  ELOIIIM,  God.  See  GOD.  In  the  He 
brew  Bible,  it  is  always  written  with  the 
vowels  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  words. 
Its  ancient  pronunciation  is  by  many 
thought  to  have  been  Yahveh,  but  this  is 
not  certain.  Its  meaning  is  HE  is,  the 
same  as  I  AM,  the  person  only  being 
changed.  Thus  it  denotes  the  self-exist 
ence,  independence,  immutability,  and 
infinite  fulness  of  the  divine  Being,  Avhich 
is  a  pledge  that  he  will  fulfil  all  his 
promises.  Compare  Ex.  3:14,  I  AM  THAT 
I  AM,  the  meaning  of  which  see  under 
the  article  GOD.  In  Ex.  G:3,  God  says, 
"I  appeared  unto  Abraham,  unto  Isaac, 
and  unto  Jacob,  by  the  name  of  God 
Almighty  ;  but  by  my  name  Jehovah 
was  I  not  known  to  them;"  yet  the 
appellation  Jehovah  appears  to  have 
been  known  from  the  beginning,  Gen. 
4  :  2.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that 
God  himself,  who  named  man  Adam, 
named  himself  JEHOVAH  ;  but  in  his  rev 
elation  to  the  patriarchs  he  had  not  ap 
propriated  to  himself  this  name  in  a 
peculiar  way,  as  he  now  did,  nor  unfold- 
10 


ed  the  deep  meaning  contained  in  it. 
He  had  said  to  them,  "I  am  God  Al 
mighty,"  Gen.  17:1;  26:11;  or,  "lam 
Jehovah,  the  God  of  Abraham,"  etc. ', 
but  never  simply,  "  I  am  Jehovah."  It 
should  be  remembered  that  our  English 
version  translates  this  name  by  the  word 
LORD,  printed  in  small  capitals. 

JEIIOVAII-JIREII,  Jehovah  will  provide, 
the  name  given  by  Abraham  to  the  place 
where  he  had  been  on  the  point  of  slay 
ing  his  son  Isaac,  Gen.  22:14.  He  gave 
this  name  in  allusion  to  his  answer  to 
Isaac's  question  in  verse  8,  that  God 
would  provide  a  victim  for  the  sacrifice. 

JEIIOVAII-NIS'SI,  Jehovah  my  banner,  Ex. 
17:15. 

JEIIOVAII-SIIA'LOM,  Jehovah  of  peace  or 
prosperity,  the  name  given  by  Gideon  to 
an  altar  which  he  built  in  the  place 
where  the  Angel-Jehovah  had  appeared 
to  him,  and  saluted  him  by  saying, 
"Peace  be  unto  thee,"  Judg.  6:24. 

JEHOVAH-SIIAM'MAII,  Jehovah  is  there,  the 
name  given  by  Ezekiel,  48:35,  margin, 
to  a  future  holy  city. 

JEIIOVAII-TZIDKE'KU,  Jehovah  our  right 
eousness,  a  name  given  to  the  Saviour, 
and  through  him  to  his  church,  Jer. 
23:6;  33:16,  margin. 

JE'HU,  I. ,  the  son  of  Hanani,  a  proph 
et,  sent  with  messages  from  God  to  Baa- 
sha  king  of  Israel,  and  many  years  after 
wards,  to  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah, 
1  Kin.  16:1-7;  2  Chr.  19:1-3;  20:34. 

II.  The  "son"  of  Jehoshaphat  and 
grandson  of  Kimshi,  (compare  1  Kin. 
19:16,  and  2  Kin.  9:2,)  a  general  of  the 
army  of  Joram,  slew  his  master,  and 
usurped  the  throne  of  Israel,  B.  c.  884. 
He  reigned  twenty-eight  years.  See  his 
history  in  1  Kin.  19:16, 17  ;  2  Kin.  9 ;  10. 
He  fulfilled  the  divine  purpose  in  extir 
pating  the  family  of  the  impious  Ahab, 
and  zealously  destroyed  the  priests  of 
Baal  and  many  other  friends  of  Ahab. 
But  his  heart  was  not  right  \vith  God. 
The  Syrians  possessed  themselves  of  his 
eastern  frontier,  and  his  dynasty  was  cut 
short  in  the  fourth  generation. 

JEPH'THAH,  the  son  of  Gilead,  was 
a  judge  of  Israel,  and  successor  to  Jair. 
His  history  is  told  in  Judg.  11  ;  12.  A 
most  affecting  incident  in  it  is  his  devot 
ing  his  daughter  to  God  as  a  sacrifice,  in 
consequence  of  a  rash  vow. 

The  arguments  on  the  question  wheth 
er  Jephthah's  daughter  was  actually  sac 
rificed  or  not  cannot  here  be  cited.  The 
217 


JEIl 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JER 


natural  repugnance  we  feel  to  such  a  vow 
and  its  fulfilment  has  led  many  inter 
preters  to  adopt  the  less  obvious  theory 
that  she  was  only  condemned  to  live  and 
die  unmarried.  There  is  no  intimation 
in  Scripture  that  God  approved  of  his 
vow,  whatever  it  was.  Paul  numbers 
Jephthah  among  the  saints  of  the  Old 
Testament  distinguished  for  their  faith, 
Heb.  11:32. 

JEKEMI'AH,  one  of  the  chief  prophets 
of  the  Old  Testament,  prophesied  under 
Josiah;  Jehoiakim,  and  Zedekiah,  and 
also  after  the  captivity  of  the  latter.  He 
was  born  at  Anathoth,  of  the  race  of  the 
priests,  and  was  destined  of  God  to  be  a 
prophet,  and  consecrated  for  that  object 
before  his  birth,  Jer.  1:1,5.  At  an  early 
age  he  was  called  to  act  as  a  prophet, 
B.  c.  628,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  king 
Josiah.  This  good  king  no  doubt  coop 
erated  with  him  to  promote  the  reforma 
tion  of  the  people ;  but  the  subsequent 
life  of  the  prophet  was  full  of  afflictions 
and  persecutions.  Jehoiakim  threw  his 
prophetic  roll  into  the  fire,  and  sought 
his  life.  Zedekiah  was  kindly  instructed 
by  him,  and  warned  of  the  woes  impend 
ing  over  his  guilty  people,  and  of  their 
seventy  years'  captivity,  but  to  no  pur 
pose.  The  fidelity  of  the  prophet  often 
endangered  his  life,  and  he  was  in  prison 
when  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar.  That  monarch  released  him,  and 
offered  him  a  home  in  Babylon  ;  but  he 
chose  to  remain  with  the  remnant  of  the 
Jews,  and  was  carried  by  them  erelong 
into  Egypt,  B.  c.  586,  still  faithfully  ad 
vising  and  reproving  them  till  lie  died. 
For  forty-two  years  lie  steadfastly  main 
tained  the  cause  of  truth  and  of  God 
against  his4  rebellious  people.  Though 
naturally  mild,  sensitive,  and  retiring, 
he  shrank  from  no  danger  when  duty 
called ;  threats  could  not  silence  him, 
nor  ill-usage  alienate  him.  Tenderly 
compassionate  to  his  infatuated  coun 
trymen,  he  shared  with  them  the  woes 
which  he  could  not  induce  them  to  avert 
from  their  own  heads. 

The  BOOK  or  JEREMIAH,  in  the  chro 
nological  order  of  its  several  predictions 
and  divine  messages,  is  somewhat  diffi 
cult  of  arrangement ;  but  may  be  divid 
ed,  by  a  natural  and  sufficiently  accu 
rate  method,  into  four  general  sections, 
containing  severally  the  prophecies  ut 
tered  in  the  reigns  of  Josiah,  Jehoiakim, 
Zedekiah,  and  Gedaliah.  The  last  chap- 
218 


ter  of  the  book  appears  to  have  been 
added,  perhaps  by  Ezra ;  it  is  taken  al 
most  verbatim  from  2  Kin.  24  :  18-20, 
andch.  25.  See  Jer.  51:64. 

Jeremiah  wrote  also  the  book  of  LAM 
ENTATIONS,  in  which  he  utters  the  most 
plaintive  and  pathetic  sentiments  over 
the  calamities  of  his  people.  See  LAM 
ENTATIONS. 

JEE'ICHO,  a  city  of  Benjamin,  Josh. 
16:7  ;  18:21,  about  eighteen  miles  east- 
north-east  of  Jerusalem,  and  seven  miles 
from  the  Jordan.  It  was  the  first  city 
in  Canaan  taken  by  Joshua,  who  being 
miraculously  aided  by  the  downfall  of 
its  walls,  totally  destroyed  it,  sparing 
only  Bahab  and  her  household,  and  pro 
nounced  a  curse  upon  the  person  who 
should  ever  rebuild  it,  which  was  more 
than  five  hundred  years  afterwards  ful 
filled  on  Kiel,  Josh.  6:26  ;  1  Kin.  16:34. 
Meanwhile  a  new  Jericho  had  been  built 
on  some  neighboring  site,  Judg.  3:13; 
2  Sam.  10:5.  Jericho  was  also  called  the 
"city  of  palm-trees,"  Dent.  34:3,  Judg. 
1 : 16,  and  became  afterwards  flourishing 
and  second  in  importance  only  to  Jeru 
salem.  It  contained  a  school  of  the 
prophets,  and  was  the  residence  of  Eli- 
sha,  2  Kin.  2  :  4,  18.  Here  also  Christ 
healed  two  blind  men,  Matt.  20  :  29-34, 
and  forgave  Zaccheus,  Luke  19:1-10. 

The  site  of  Jericho  has  usually  been 
fixed  at  Eihah,  a  mean  and  foul  Arab 
hamlet  of  some  two  hundred  inhabit 
ants.  Becent  travellers,  however,  show 
that  the  probable  location  of  Jericho 
was  two  miles  west  of  Eihah,  at  the 
mouth  of  Wady  Kelt,  and  where  the  road 
from  Jerusalem  ccmes  into  the  plain. 
The  city  destroyed  by  Joshua  may  have 
been  nearer  to  the  fountain  of  Elisha, 
supposed  to  be  the  present  A  in  es- Sultan, 
two  miles  north- west  of  Eihah.  On  the 
west  and  north  of  Jericho  rise  high  lime 
stone  hills,  one  of  which,  the  dreary 
Quarantana,  1,200  or  1,500  feet  high, 
derives  its  name  from  the  modern  tra 
dition  that  it  was  the  scene  of  our  Lord's 
forty  days'  fast  and  temptation.  Between 
the  hills  and  the  Jordan  lies  "  the  plain 
of  Jericho,"  Josh.  4  :  13,  over  against 
"  the  plains  of  Moab  "  east  of  the  river. 
It  was  anciently  well  watered  and  amaz 
ingly  fruitful.  It  might  easily  be  made 
so  again,  but  now  lies  neglected,  and  the 
palm-trees,  balsam,  and  honey,  for  which 
it  was  once  famous,  have  disappeared. 
'  The  road  -from  Jericho  to  Jerusalem 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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THE   PLAIN  OF  JERICHO,   FKOM  THE   HH.LS  ON  THE  WEST. 


ascends  through  narrow  and  rocky  passes 
amid  ravines  and  precipices.  It  is  an  ex 
ceedingly  difficult  and  dangerous  route, 
and  is  still  infested  by  robbers,  as  in 
the  time  of  the  good  Samaritan,  Luke 
JO: 30-34. 

JEROBOAM,  I.,  the  first  king  of  Is 
rael,  an  Ephraimite,  the  son  of  Nebat. 
During  the  latter  part  of  Solomon's 
reign,  and  while  an  officer  under  him, 
he  plotted  against  him,  and  was  obliged 
to  flee  into  Egypt.  On  the  death  of 
Solomon,  he  was  summoned  by  the  ten 
tribes  to  return  and  present  their  de 
mands  to  Rehoboam ;  and  when  these 
were  refused,  he  was  chosen  king  of  the 
revolted  tribes,  B.  c.  975.  He  reigned 
twenty-two  years.  The  only  notable  act 
of  his  reign  marked  him  with  infamy,  as 
the  man  "  who  made  Israel  to  sin."  It 
was  the  idolatrous  establishment  of  gold 
en  calves  at  Bethel  and  Dan,  that  the 
people  might  worship  there  and  not  at 
Jerusalem.  He  also  superseded  the  sons 
of  Aaron  by  priests  chosen  from  "the 
lowest  of  the  people. ' '  This  unprincipled 
but  effective  measure,  in  Avhich  he  was 
followed  by  all  the  kings  of  Israel,  was  a 
confession  of  weakness  as  well  as  of  de 
pravity.  Neither  miracles  nor  warnings, 
nor  the  premature  death  of  Abijah  his 
son,  could  dissuade  him.  He  was  at  war 


with  Judah  all  his  days,  and  with  the 
brief  reign  of  Kadab  his  son  the  doomed 
family  became  extinct,  1  Kin.  12-14 : 20 ; 
2  Chr.  10  ;  13. 

II.  JEROBOAM  SECOND,  the  thirteenth 
king  of  Israel,  son  and  successor  of  Jo- 
ash,  B.  c.  825,  reigned  forty-one  years. 
He  followed  up  his  father's  successes 
over  the  Syrians,  took  Hamath  and  Da 
mascus,  and  all  the  region  east  of  the 
Jordan  down  to  the  Dead  sea,  and  ad 
vanced  to  its  highest  point  the  prosper 
ity  of  that  kingdom.  Yet  his  long  reign 
added  heavily  to  the  guilt  of  Israel,  by 
increased  luxury,  oppression,  and  vice. 
After  him,  the  kingdom  rapidly  declined, 
and  his  own  dynasty  perished  within  a 
year,  2  Kin.  14  :  23-29  ;  15  :  8-12.  Sea 
also  the  contemporary  prophets,  partic 
ularly  Amos  and  Hosea. 

JERUB'-BAAL,  let  Baal  plead,  Judg. 
6:31,32.  See  GIDEON. 

JERU'SALEM,  the  chief  city  of  the 
Holy  Land,  and  to  the  Christian  the 
most  illustrious  in  the  world.  It  is  sit 
uated  in  31°  46'  43"  N.  lat.,  and  35°  13' 
E.  long.,  on  elevated  ground  south  of 
the  centre  of  the  country,  about  thirty- 
seven  miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  and 
about  twenty-four  from  the  Jordan.  Its 
site  was  early  hallowed  by  God's  trial  of 
Abraham's  faith,  Gen.  22;  2  Chr.  3:1. 
219 


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It  was  on  the  border  of  the  tribes  of 
Benjamin  and  Judah,  mostly  within  the 
limits  of  the  former,  but  reckoned  as 
belonging  to  the  latter,  because  con 
quered  by  it,  Josh.  15  :8  ;  18  :  16,  28  ; 
Judg.  1:1-8.  The  most  ancient  name 
of  the  city  was  Salem,  Gen.  14: 18  ;  Psa. 
76:2;  and  it  afterwards  was  called  Je- 
bus,  as  belonging  to  the  Jcbusites,  Judg. 
19:10,  11.  Being  a  very  strong  position, 
it  resisted  the  attempts  of  the  Israelites 
to  become  the  sole  masters  of  it,  until  at 
length  its  fortress  was  stormed  by  David, 
2  Sam.  5:6,  9  ;  after  which  it  received  its 
present  name,  and  was  also  called  "the 
city  of  David. ' '  It  now  became  the  relig 
ious  and  political  centre  of  the  kingdom, 
and  was  greatly  enlarged,  adorned,  and 
fortified.  But  its  chief  glory  was,  that 
in  its  magnificent  temple  the  ONE  LIVING 
AND  TRUE  GOD  dwelt,  and  revealed  him 
self. 

After  the  division  of  the  tribes,  it  con 
tinued  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Ju 
dah,  was  several  times  taken  and  plun 
dered,  and  at  length  was  destroyed  at 
the  Babylonian  captivity,  2  Kin.  14:13  ; 
2 Chr.  12:9;  21: 16;  24:28;  25:23;  36:3, 
10,  17-20.  After  seventy  years,  it  was 
rebuilt  by  the  Jews  on  their  return  from 
captivity  about  536  B.  c. ,  who  did  much  to 
restore  it  to  its  former  splendor.  About 
332  B.  c.,  the  city  yielded  to  Alexander 
of  Macedon  ;  and  not  long  after  his  death, 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt  took  it  by  an  assault 
on  the  Sabbath,  when  it  is  said  the  Jews 
scrupled  to  fight.  In  170  B.  c.,  Jerusa 
lem  fell  under  the  tyranny  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  who  razed  its  walls,  set  up 
an  image  of  Jupiter  in  the  temple,  and 
used  every  means  to  force  the  people  into 
idolatry.  Under  the  Maccabees,  howev 
er,  the  Jews,  in  163  B.  c.,  recovered  their 
independence.  Just  a  century  later,  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans.  Herod 
the  Great  expended  vast  sums  in  its  em 
bellishment.  To  the  city  and  temple 
thus  renovated  the  ever-blessed  Messiah 
came,  in  the  fulness  of  time,  and  made 
the  place  of  his  feet  glorious.  By  his 
rejection  and  crucifixion  Jerusalem  filled 
up  the  cup  of  her  guilt ;  the  Jewish  na 
tion  perished  from  off  the  land  of  their 
fathers,  and  the  city  and  temple  were 
taken  by  Titus  and  totally  destroyed, 
A.  D.  70-71.  Of  all  the  structures  of 
Jerusalem,  only  three  towers  and  a  part 
of  the  western  wall  were  left  standing. 
Still,  as  the  Jews  began  to  return  thith- 
220 


er,  and  manifested  a  rebellious  spirit,  the 
emperor  Adrian  planted  a  Roman  colony 
there  in  A.  D.  1C5,  and  banished  the  Jews, 
prohibiting  their  return  on  pain  of  death. 
He  changed  the  name  of  the  city  to  JElia, 
Capitolina,  consecrated  it  to  heathen  de 
ities,  in  order  to  defile  it  as  much  as  pos 
sible,  and  did  what  he  could  to  obliterate 
all  traces  both  of  Judaism  and  Christian 
ity.  From  this  period  the  name  .Mia 
became  so  common,  that  the  name  Je 
rusalem  was  preserved  only  among  the 
Jews  and  better  informed  Christians.  In 
the  time  of  Constantino,  however,  it  re 
sumed  its  ancient  name,  which  it  has  re 
tained  to  the  present  day.  Helena,  the 
mother  of  Constantino,  built  two  church 
es  in  Bethlehem  and  on  mount  Olivet, 
about  A.  D.  326 ;  and  Julian,  who,  after 
his  father,  succeeded  to  the  empire  of  his 
uncle  Constantino,  endeavored  to  rebuild 
the  temple  ;  but  his  design,  and  that  of 
the  Jews,  whom  he  patronized,  was  frus 
trated,  as  contemporary  historians  relate, 
by  an  earthquake,  and  by  balls  of  fire 
bursting  forth  among  the  workmen,  A.  D. 
363. 

The  subsequent  history  of  Jerusalem 
may  be  told  in  a  few  words.  In  613,  it 
was  taken  by  Chosroes  king  of  Persia, 
who  slew,  it  is  said,  90,000  men,  and 
demolished,  to  the  utmost  of  his  power, 
whatever  the  Christians  had  venerated : 
in  627,  Heraclius  defeated  Chosroes,  and 
Jerusalem  was  recovered  by  the  Greeks. 
Soon  after  commenced  the  long  and 
wretched  era  of  Mohammedanism.  About 
637,  the  city  was  taken  from  the  Chris 
tians  by  the  caliph  Omar,  after  a  siege 
of  four  months,  and  continued  under  the 
caliphs  of  Bagdad  till  868,  when  it  was 
taken  by  Ahmed,  a  Turkish  sovereign  of 
Egypt.  During  the  space  of  220  years, 
it  was  subject  to  several  masters,  Turk 
ish  and  Saracenic,  and  in  1099  it  was 
taken  by  the  crusaders  under  Godfrey 
Bouillon,  who  was  elected  king.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Baldwin, 
who  died  in  1118.  In  1187,  Saladin,  sul 
tan  of  the  East,  captured  the  city,  as 
sisted  by  the  treachery  ©f  Raymond, 
count  of  Tripoli,  who  was  found  dead  in 
his  bed  on  the  morning  of  the  day  in 
which  he  was  to  have  delivered  up  the 
city.  It  was  restored,  in  1242,  to  the 
Latin  princes,  by  Saleh  Ismael,  emir  of 
Damascus ;  they  lost  it  in  1291  to  the 
sultans  of  Egypt,  who  held  it  till  1382, 
Selim,  the  Turkish  sultan,  reduced  Egypt 


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and  Syria,  including  Jerusalem,  in  1517, 
and  his  son  Solyman  built  or  reconstruct 
ed  the  present  walls  in  1534.  Since  then 
it  has  remained  under  the  dominion  of 
Turkey,  except  when  held  for  a  short 
time,  1832-4,  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  of  Egypt. 
At  present,  this  city  is  included  in  the 
pashalic  of  Damascus,  though  it  has  a 
resident  Turkish  governor. 

Jerusalem  is  situated  on  the  central 
table-land  of  Judea,  about  2,400  feet 
above  the  Mediterranean.  It  lies  on 
ground  which  slopes  gently  down  tow 
ards  the  east,  the  slope  being  terminated 
by  an  abrupt  declivity,  in  some  parts 
precipitous,  and  overhanging  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat  or  of  the  Kidron.  This 
sloping  ground  is  also  terminated  on  the 
south  by  the  deep  and  narrow  valley  of 
Hinnom,  which  constituted  the  ancient 
southern  boundary  of  the  city,  and  which 
also  ascends  on  its  west  side,  and  comes 
out  upon  the  high  ground  on  the  north 
west.  See  GIIION.  But  in  the  city  itself, 
there  were  also  two  ravines  or  smaller 
valleys,  dividing  the  land  covered  by 
buildings  into  three  principal  parts  or 
hills.  ZION,  the  highest  of  these,  was  in 
the  south-west  quarter  of  the  city,  skirt 
ed  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  deep 
valley  of  Hinnom.  On  its  north  and 
east  sides  lay  the  smaller  valley  ' '  of  the 
cheesemongers,"  or  Tyropceon,  opening 
on  the  south-east  into  the  valley  of  the 
Kidron.  The  Tyropceon  also  united, 
near  the  north-east  foot  of  Zion,  with 
a  valley  coming  down  from  the  north. 
Zion  was  also  called,  The  city  of  David  ; 
and  by  Josephus,  "the  upper  city." 
Surrounded  anciently  by  walls  as  well 
as  deep  valleys,  it  was  the  strongest  part 
of  the  city,  and  contained  the  citadel  and 
the  king's  palace.  The  Tyropceon  sepa 
rated  it  from  Acra  on  the  north,  and  Mo- 
riah  on  the  north-east.  ACRA.  was  less 
elevated  than  Zion,  or  than  the  ground 
to  the  north-west  beyond  the  walls.  It 
is  called  by  Josephus  ' '  the  lower  city. ' ' 
MORIAH,  the  sacred  hill,  lay  north-east 
of  Zion,  with  which  it  was  anciently  con 
nected  at  its  nearest  corner,  by  a  bridge 
over  the  Tyropceon,  some  remnants  of 
which  have  been  identified  by  Dr.  Rob 
inson.  Moriah  was  at  first  a  small  emi 
nence,  but  its  area  was  greatly  enlarged 
to  make  room  for  the  temple.  It  was 
but  a  part  of  the  continuous  ridge  on  the 
east  side  of  the  city,  overlooking  the  deep 
valley  of  the  Kidron  ;  rising  on  the 


north,  after  a  slight  depression,  into  the 
hill  Bezetha,  the  "new  city"  of  Jose 
phus,  and  sinking  away  on  the  south 
into  the  hill  Ophel.  On  the  east  of  Je 
rusalem,  and  stretching  from  north  to 
south,  lies  the  mount  of  Olives,  divided 
from  the  city  by  the  valley  of  the  Kid- 
ron,  and  commanding  a  noble  prospect 
of  the  city  and  surrounding  country. 
Over  against  Moriah,  or  a  little  further 
north,  lies  the  garden  of  Gethsemane, 
with  its  olive-trees,  at  the  foot  of  the 
mount  of  Olives.  Just  below  the  city, 
on  the  east  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Kid 
ron,  lies  the  miserable  village  of  Siloa; 
farther  down,  this  valley  unites  with 
that  of  Hinnom,  at  a  beautiful  spot  an 
ciently  "the  king's  gardens;"  still  be 
low,  is  the  well  of  Nehemiah,  anciently 
En-rogel ;  and  from  this  spot  the  united 
valley  winds  among  mountains  south 
ward  and  eastward  to  the  Dead  sea.  In 
the  mouth  of  the  Tyropceon,  between 
Ophel  and  Zion,  is  the  pool  of  Siloam. 
In  the  valley  west  and  north-west  of 
Zion  are  the  two  pools  of  Gihon,  the 
lower  being  now  broken  and  dry.  In 
the  rocks  around  Jerusalem,  and  chiefly 
in  the  sides  of  the  valleys  of  the  Kidron 
and  Hinnom  opposite  the  city,  are  many 
excavated  tombs  and  caves. 

Of  the  WALLS  of  ancient  Jerusalem,  the 
most  ancient,  that  of  David  and  Solo 
mon,  encircled  the  whole  of  mount  Zion, 
and  was  also  continued  around  Moriah 
and  Ophel.  The  depth  of  the  valleys 
south  and  east  of  Jerusalem,  rendered  it 
comparatively  easy  to  fortify  and  defend 
it  on  these  sides.  This  southern  wall,  in 
the  period  of  the  kings  and  of  Christ, 
traversed  the  outmost  verge  of  those 
hills,  inclosing  the  pool  of  Siloam,  Ophel, 
and  portions  apparently  of  the  valleys  of 
Hinnom  and  the  Kidron,  2  Chr.  33:14; 
Neh.  2:14;  3:15. 

A  second  wall,  built  by  Jotham,  Hez- 
ekiah,  and  Manasseh,  made  some  chang 
es  on  the  southern  line,  and  inclosed  a 
large  additional  space  on  the  north.  It 
commenced  somewhat  east  of  the  tower 
of  Hippicus,  on  the  north-west  border  of 
Zion,  included  Acra  and  part  of  Bezetha, 
and  united  with  the  old  wall  on  the  east. 
This  wall  was  destroyed,  as  well  as  the 
first,  at  the  captivity,  but  both  were 
afterwards  reerected,  it  is  believed,  on 
nearly  the  same  lines,  and  were  substan 
tially  the  same  at  the  time  of  Christ, 
The  precise  course  of  the  second  wall 
221 


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may  perhaps  be  ascertained  by  future 
excavations,  but  is  now  more  disputed 
than  any  other  point  of  the  topography 
of  Jerusalem.  To  ascertain  the  exact 
location  of  "  the  tower  Gennath,"  where 
this  wall  began,  and  trace  its  course  ' '  in 
a  circuit ' '  to  Antonia,  would  show  wheth 
er  the  traditional  site  of  Calvary,  now 
far  within  the  city  limits,  lay  within  or 
222 


without  the  ancient  wall.  The  argu 
ments  from  topography  are  strongly 
against  the  tradition;  and  it  would 
seem  that  this  whole  region,  if  not  ac 
tually  within  the  wall,  must  have  been 
at  least  occupied  by  the  city  suburbs  at 
that  time  ;  for 

The  third  wall,  commenced  by  Herod 
Agrippa  only  ten  years  after  the  cruci- 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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fixion  of  Christ,  ran  from  the  tower  Hip- 
picus  nearly  half  a  mile  north-west  to  the 
tower  of  Psephinos,  and  sweeping  round 
by  the  "tombs  of  the  kings,"  passed 
down  east  of  Bezetha,  and  joined  the  old 
eastern  wall.  The  whole  circumference 
of  the  city  at  that  time  was  a  little  over 
four  miles.  Now  it  is  only  two  and  three 
quarters  at  the  most ;  and  the  large 
space  on  the  north,  which  the  wall  of 
Agrippa  inclosed,  is  proved  to  have  been 
built  upon  by  the  numerous  cisterns 


which  yet  remain,  and  the  marble  frag, 
ments  which  the  plough  often  turns  up. 
The  preceding  plan  of  ancient  Jerusa 
lem  exhibits  the  walls,  gates,  towers,  and 
other  prominent  objects  in  and  around 
the  city,  with  as  much  accuracy  as  can  be 
secured,  now  that  it  has  borne  the  rava 
ges  of  so  many  centuries,  been  nearly  a 
score  of  times  captured,  and  often  razed 
to  the  ground.  Fuller  descriptions  of 
many  of  the  localities  referred  to  may  be 
found  under  their  respective  heads. 


JERUSALEM   FROM  M  HE   BETHANY  ROAD,   ON    THE    SOUTH   PART    OF  MOUNT   OLIVET. 


MODERN  JERUSALEM,  called  by  the 
Arabs  El-Kuds,  the  holy,  occupies  un 
questionably  the  site  of  the  Jerusalem 
of  the  Bible.  It  is  still  "beautiful  for 
situation,"  and  stands  forth  on  its  well- 
defined  hills  "as  a  city  that  is  compact 
together,"  Psa.  48  :  2,  12  ;  122  :  3,  4  ; 
125 : 1,  2.  The  distant  view  of  its  stately 
walls  and  numerous  domes  and  minarets 
is  highly  imposing.  But  its  old  glory 
has  departed  ;  its  thronging  myriads  are 
no  more ;  desolation  covers  the  barren 
mountains  around  it,  and  the  tribes  go 
up  to  the  house  of  the  Lord  no  longer. 
She  that  once  sat  as  a  queen  among 
them,  now  sitteth  solitary,  "  trodden 
down  of  the  Gentiles,"  "reft  of  her 
sons,  and  mid  her  foes  forlorn."  "Zion 
is  ploughed  as  a  field,"  and  the  soil  is 
mixed  with  the  rubbish  of  ages,  to  the 
depth  in  some  places  of  forty  feet. 


The  modern  wall,  built  in  1542,  varies 
from  twenty  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  and 
is  about  two  and  a  half  miles  in  circuit. 
On  the  eastern  and  shortest  side,  its 
course  is  nearly  straight ;  and  it  coin 
cides,  in  the  southern  half  on  this  side, 
with  the  wall  of  the  sacred  area  now 
called  El-Haram,  the  holy.  This  area, 
510  yards  long  from  north  to  south,  and 
310  to  350  yards  in  breadth,  is  inclosed 
by  high  walls,  the  lower  stones  of  which 
are  in  many  parts  very  large,  and  much 
more  ancient  than  the  superstructure. 
It  is  occupied  by  the  great  octagonal 
mosque  called  Kubbet  es-Sukhrah,  or 
Dome  of  the  Hock,  and  the  mosque  El- 
Aksa,  with  their  grounds.  It  covers  the 
site  of  the  ancient  temple  and  of  the 
great  tower  Antonia.  See  TEMPLE.  At 
its  south-east  corner,'  where  the  wall  is 
seventy-seven  feet  high,  the  ground  at 
223 


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its  base  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
above  the  dry  bed  of  the  Kidron.  From 
this  corner,  the  wall  runs  irregularly 
west  by  south,  crosses  mount  Zion,  leav 
ing  the  greater  part  of  it  uninclosed  on 
the  south,  and  at  its  western  verge  turns 
north  to  the  Jaffa  gate,  where  the  lower 
part  of  a  very  old  and  strong  tower  still 
remains.  The  upper  part  of  this  tower  is 
less  ancient  and  massive.  It  is  known  as 
' '  the  Tower  of  David, ' '  and  is  generally 
thought  to  have  been  the  Hippicus  of  Jo- 
sephus.  Thence  the  wall  sweeps  irregu 
larly  round  to  the  north-east  corner.  It 
is  flanked  at  unequal  distances  by  square 
towers,  and  has  battlements  running  all 
around  on  its  summit,  with  loop-holes  in 
them  for  arrows  or  muskets.  There  are 
now  in  use  only  four  gates :  the  Jaffa  or 
Bethlehem  gate  on  the  west,  the  Damas 
cus  gate  on  the  north,  St.  Stephen's  gate 
on  the  east,  and  Zion  gate  on  the  south. 
In  the  eastern  wall  of  El-Haram  is  the 
Golden  gate,  long  since  blocked  up,  and 
in  the  city  wall  two  smaller  gates,  more 
recently  closed,  namely,  Herod's  gate  on 
the  north-east,  and  Dung  gate  in  the 
Tyropceon  on  the  south. 

Within  the  city  walls  are  seen  narrow 
and  often  covered  streets,  ungraded,  ill- 
paved,  and  in  some  parts  filthy,  though 
less  so  than  in  most  oriental  cities.  The 
houses  are  of  hewn  stone,  with  few  win 
dows  towards  the  streets.  Their  flat  roofs 
are  strengthened  and  ornamented  by 
many  small  domes.  The  most  beautiful 
part  of  the  city  is  the  area  of  the  great 
mosque — from  which  until  recently  all 
Christians  have  been  rigorously  exclud 
ed  for  six  centuries — with  its  lawns  and 
cypress-trees,  and  the  noble  dome  rising 
high  above  the  wall.  On  mount  Zion, 
much  of  the  space  within  the  wall  is  oc 
cupied  by  the  huge  Armenian  convent, 
with  the  Syrian  convent,  and  the  church 
of  St.  James.  Beyond  the  wall  and  far 
to  the  south  is  a  Mohammedan  mosque, 
professedly  over  the  tomb  of  David.  This 
is  more  jealously  guarded  against  Chris 
tians  than  even  the  mosque  of  Omar. 
Near  it  is  the  small  cemetery  of  the  Amer 
ican  missionaries.  At  the  north-west  cor 
ner  of  Zion  rises  the  high  square  citadel 
i above  referred  to,  ancient  and  grand. 
Still  farther  north  is  the  Latin  convent, 
in  the  most  westerly  part  of  Jerusalem  ; 
and  between  it  and  the  centre  of  the  city 
stands  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
over  the  traditional  scenes  of  the  death 
224 


and  the  resurrection  of  our  Lord.  See 
CALVARY.  In  various  parts  of  the  city 
the  minarets  of  eight  or  ten  mosques 
arise,  amid  an  assemblage  of  about  two 
thousand  dwellings,  not  a  few  of  which 
are  much  dilapidated. 

The  present  population  of  Jerusalem 
may  be  about  12,000  souls,  of  whom 
about  two-fifths  are  Mohammedans,  and 
the  remainder  Jews  and  Christians  in 
nearly  equal  numbers.  There  is  also  a 
considerable  garrison,  800  to  1,000,  sta 
tioned  there  ;  and  in  April  of  each  year 
many  thousands  of  pilgrims  from  foreign 
lands  make  a  flying  visit  to  the  sacred 
places.  The  Moslemim  reside  in  the  cen 
tre  of  the  city,  and  towards  the  north 
and  east.  The  Jews'  quarter  is  on  the 
north-east  side  of  Zion.  The  Greek, 
Latin,  Armenian,  Syrian,  and  Coptic 
Christians  are  located  chiefly  around 
their  respective  convents,  and  their  bur 
ial-places  are  on  mount  Zion,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  American  Protestant  mission. 
The  Jews  bury  on  mount  Olivet,  and  the 
Mohammedans  in  several  places,  though 
preferring  the  eastern  brow  of  Moriah. 
Jerusalem  is  but  the  melancholy  shadow 
of  its  former  self.  The  nominal  Chris' 
tians  residing  there  are  in  a  state  of  de 
graded  and  ignorant  subjection  to  the 
Mohammedans,  and  their  petty  discords 
and  superstitions  are  a  reproach  to  the 
Christian  name.  The  Jews,  3,000  to 
5,000  in  number,  are  still  more  oppress 
ed  and  abject.  Most  of  them  were  born 
in  other  lands,  and  have  come  here  to 
die,  in  a  city  no  longer  their  own.  Dis 
couraged  by  endless  exactions,  they  sub 
sist  on  the  charities  of  their  brethren 
abroad.  It  is  only  as  a  purchased  privi 
lege  that  they  are  allowed  to  approach 
the  foundations  of  the  sacred  hill  where 
their  fathers  worshipped  the  only  true 
God.  Here,  in  a  small  area  near  some 
huge  and  ancient  stones  in  the  base  of 
the  western  wall  of  Moriah,  they  gather, 
especially  on  sacred  days,  to  sit  weeping 
and  wailing  on  the  ground,  taking  up 
the  heart-breaking  lamentations  of  Jer 
emiah—living  witnesses  of  the  truth  of 
God's  word  fulfilled  in  them.  See  WALL. 

THE  NEW  JERUSALEM  is  a  name  given 
to  the  church  of  Christ,  and  signifying 
its  firm  foundations  in  the  love,  choice, 
and  covenant  of  God;  its  strong  bul- 
Avarks,  living  fountains,  and  beautiful 
palaces  ;  its  thronging  thousands,  its  in 
dwelling  God,  and  its  consummated  glory 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JES 


In  heaven,  Gal.  4:26;  Heb.  12:22;  Rev. 
3:12;  21. 

JBSH'UA,  or  JOSHUA,  son  of  Josedech, 
was  high-priest  of  the  Jews  at  their  re 
turn  from  the  captivity,  and  acted  well 
his  part  in  the  restoration  of  the  city, 
the  temple,  and  the  divine  worship,  Ezra 
4:3  ;  5:2.  His  name  occurs  in  the  proph 
ecies  of  the  time,  Hag.  1:1 ;  2:2 ;  Zech. 
3;  6:11-15. 

JESH'URUN,  a  poetical  name  of  Is 
rael,  probably  derived  from  a  root  mean 
ing  to  be  upright,  and  applied  to  the  peo 
ple  of  God  as  the  objects  of  his  justifying 
love,  which  does  not  "behold  iniquity 
in  Jacob,"  Deut.  32:5;  33  :  5,  26 ;  Isa. 
44:2. 

JES'SE,  son  of  Obed  and  father  of  Da 
vid.  He  was  a  grandson  of  Ruth  the 
Moabitcss,  and  in  her  native  land  he 
found  an  asylum  while  David  was  most 
in  danger  from  the  jealous  pursuit  of 
Saul,  Kuth  4  :  17  ;  1  Sam.  ]6  ;  17  :  12  ; 
22:3;  Matt.  1:5. 

-  JE'SUS  CHRIST,  the  Son  of  God,  the 
Messiah  and  Saviour  of  the  world,  the 
first  and  principal  object  of  the  prophe 
cies  ;  who  was  prefigured  and  promised 
in  the  Old  Testament ;  was  expected  and 
desired  by  the  patriarchs  ;  the  hope  and 
salvation  of  the  Gentiles  ;  the  glory,  hap 
piness,  and  consolation  of  Christians. 
The  name  JESUS,  in  Hebrew  JEIIOSHUAII 
or  Joshua,  signifies  Saviour,  or  Jehovah 
saves.  No  one  ever  bore  this  name  with 
BO  much  justice,  nor  so  perfectly  fulfilled 
the  signification  of  it,  as  Jesus  Christ, 
who  saves  from  sin  and  hell,  and  has 
merited  heaven  for  us  by  the  price  of  his 
blood.  It  was  given  to  him  by  divine 
appointment,  Matt.  1  :  21,  as  the  proper 
name  for  the  Saviour  so  long  desired, 
and  whom  all  the  myriads  of  the  re 
deemed  in  heaven  will  for  ever  adore  as 
their  only  and  all-glorious  Redeemer. 

JESUS  was  the  common  name  of  the 
Saviour ;  while  the  name  CHRIST,  mean 
ing  The  Anointed  One,  The  Messiah,  was 
his  official  name.  Both  names  are  used 
separately,  in  the  gospels  and  also  in  the 
epistles ;  but  JESUS  generally  stands  by 
itself  in  the  gospels,  which  are  narra 
tives  of  his  life ;  while  in  the  epistles, 
which  treat  of  his  divine  nature  and  of 
his  redeeming  work,  he  is  called  CHRIST, 
CHRIST  JESUS,  or  THE  LORD  JESUS  CHRIST. 
See  CHRIST. 

Here,  under  the  Redeemer's  human 
name,  belong  the  facts  relating  to  his 


human  nature  and  the  history  of  his  life 
upon  earth.  His  true  and  complete  hu 
manity,  having  the  soul  as  well  as  the 
body  of  man,  is  everywhere  seen  in  the 
gospel  history.  He  who  is  "God  over 
all,  blessed  for  ever,"  was  an  Israelite 
"as  concerning  the  flesh,"  Rom.  9:5, 
and  took  upon  him  our  whole  nature,  in 
order  to  be  a  perfect  Saviour.  As  a  man, 
Jesus  was  the  King  of  men.  No  words 
can  describe  that  character  in  which  such 
firmness  and  gentleness,  such  dignity 
and  humility,  such  enthusiasm  and  calm 
ness,  such  wisdom  and  simplicity,  such 
holiness  and  charity,  such  justice  and 
mercy,  such  sympathy  with  heaven  and 
with,  earth,  such  love  to  God  and  love  to 
man  blended  in  perfect  harmony.  Noth 
ing  in  it  was  redundant,  and  nothing  was 
wanting.  The  world  had  never  pro 
duced,  nor  even  conceived  of  such  a 
character,  and  its  portraiture  in  the  gos 
pels  is  a  proof  of  their  divine  origin 
which  the  infidel  cannot  gainsay.  Could 
the  whole  human  race,  of  all  ages,  kin 
dreds,  and  tongues,  be  assembled  to  see 
the  crucified  Redeemer  as  he  is,  and 
compare  earth's  noblest  benefactors  with 
Him,  there  would  be  but  one  voice  among 
them.  Every  crown  of  glory  and  every 
meed  of  praise  would  be  given  to  Him 
who  alone  is  worthy — for  perfection  of 
character,  for  love  to  mankind,  for  sacri 
fices  endured,  and  for  benefits  bestowed. 
His  glory  will  for  ever  be  celebrated  as 
the  Friend  of  man,  the  Lamb  sacrificed 
for  us. 

The  visit  of  JESUS  CHRIST  to  the  earth 
has  made  it  for  ever  glorious  above  less 
favored  worlds,  and  forms  the  most  sig 
nal  event  in  its  annals.  The  time  of  his 
birth  is  commemorated  by  the  Christian 
era,  the  first  year  of  which  corresponds 
to  about  the  year  753  from  the  building 
of  Rome.  It  is  generally  conceded,  how 
ever,  that  the  Saviour  was  born  at  least 
four  years  before  A.  D.  1,  and  four  thou 
sand  years  after  the  creation  of  Adam. 
His  public  ministry  commenced  when  he 
was  thirty  years  of  age;  and  continued, 
according  to  the  received  opinion,  three 
and  a  half  years.  Respecting  his  ances 
tors,  see  GENEALOGY.  • 

The  life  of  the  Redeemer  must  be  stud 
ied  in  the  four  gospels,  where  it  was  re 
corded  under  the  guidance  of  supreme 
wisdom.  Many  efforts  have  been  made, 
with  valuable  results,  to  arrange  the 
narrations  of  the  evangelists  in  the  true 
225 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JES 


order  of  time.  But  as  neither  of  the 
gospels  follows  the  exact  course  of  events, 
many  incidents  are  very  indeterminate, 
and  are  variously  arranged  by  different 
harmonists.  No  one,  however,  has  been 
more  successful  than  Dr.  Robinson ;  and 
we  borrow  from  his  valuable  ' '  Harmony 
of  the  Gospels ' '  the  following  elaborate 
table,  presenting  in  a  condensed  form  the 
various  events  of  our  Saviour's  life,  with 
the  supposed  place  and  period  of  their 
occurrence : 

PART  I. 

EVENTS  CONNECTED  WITH  THE  BIRTH  AND   CHILDHOOD 
OF  OUR  LORD. 

TIME  :  About  thirteen  and  a  half  years. 

An  angel  appears  to  Zacharias — Jerusalem. 

An  angel  appears  to  Mary — Nazareth. 

Mary  visits  Elisabeth— Juttah. 

Birth  of  John  the  Baptist— Juttah. 

An  angel  appears  to  Joseph — Nazareth. 

The  birth  of  Jesus— Bethlehem. 

An  angel  appears  to  the  shepherds — Near 
Bethlehem. 

The  circumcision  of  Jesus,  and  his  presenta 
tion  in  the  temple — Bethlehem ;  Jerusalem. 

The  Magi — Jerusalem;  Bethlehem. 

The  flight  into  Egypt.  Herod's  cruelty.  The 
return — Bethlehem  ;  Egypt ;  Nazareth. 

At  twelve  years  of  age  Jesus  goes  to  the  Pass 
over — Jerusalem. 

PART  II. 

ANNOUNCEMENT  AND  INTRODUCTION  OF  OUR  LORD'S 
PUBLIC   MINISTRY. 

TIME  :  About  one  year. 

The  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist — The  Desert; 
The  Jordan. 

The  baptism  of  Jesus — The  Jordan. 

The  temptation — Desert  of  Judea. 

Preface  to  John's  gospel. 

Testimony  of  John  the  Baptist  to  Jesus— Beth 
any  beyond  Jordan. 

Jesus  gains  disciples — The  Jordan  ;  Galilee  ? 

The  marriage  at  Cana  of  Galilee. 

PART  III. 

OUR  LORD'S  FIRST  PASSOVER,  AND  THE  SUBSEQUENT 
TRANSACTIONS  UNTIL  THE  SECOND. 

TIME  :  One  year. 

At  the  Passover  Jesus  drives  the  traders  out 
of  the  temple — Jerusalem. 

Our  Lord's  discourse  with  Nicodemus — Jeru 
salem. 

Jesus  remains  in  Judea  and  baptizes.  Fur 
ther  testimony  of  John  the  Baptist. 

Jesus  departs  into  Galilee  after  John's  im 
prisonment. 

Our  Lord's  discourse  with  the  Samaritan 
woman.  Many  of  the  Samaritans  believe 
on  him — Sheehem  or  Neapolis. 

Jesus  teaches  publicly  in  Galilee. 

Jesus  again  at  Cana,  where  he  heals  the  son 
of  a  nobleman  lying  ill  at  Capernaum— 
Cana  of  Galilee. 

Jesus  at  Nazareth  ;  he  is  there  rejected,  and 
fixes  his  abode  at  Capernaum. 
226 


The  call  of  Simon  Peter  and  Andrew,  and 
of  James  and  John,  with  the  miraculous 
draught  of  fishes — Near  Capernaum. 

The  healing  of  a  demoniac  in  the  synago"gue — 
Capernaum. 

The  healing  of  Peter's  wife's  mother,  and 
many  others — Capernaum. 

Jesus  with  his  disciples  goes  from  Capernaum 
throughout  Galilee. 

The  healing  of  a  leper — Galilee. 

The  healing  of  a  paralytic — Capernaum. 

The  call  of  Matthew — Capernaum. 


PART  IV. 

OUR  LORD'S  SECOND  PASSOVER,  AND  THE  SUBSEQUENT 

TRANSACTIONS  UNTIL  TUB  THIRD. 

TIME  :  One  year. 

The  pool  of  Bethesda  ;  the  healing  of  the  in 
firm  man ;  and  our  Lord's  subsequent  dis 
course — Jerusalem.. 

The  disciples  pluck  ears  of  grain  on  the  Sab 
bath — On  the  way  to  Galilee. 

The  healing  of  the  withered  hand  on  the  Sab 
bath — Galilee. 

Jesus  arrives  at  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  and  is  fol 
lowed  by  multitudes — Lake  of  Galilee. 

Jesus  withdraws  to  a  mountain,  and  chooses 
the  twelve ;  the  multitudes  follow  him — 
Near  Capernaum. 

The  sermon  on  the  mount — Near  Capernaum. 

The  healing  of  the  centurion's  servant— Caper 
naum. 

The  raising  of  the  widow's  son— Nain. 

John  the  Baptist  in  prison  sends  disciples  to 
Jesus — Galilee ;  Capernaum  ? 

Reflections  of  Jesus  on  appealing  to  his 
mighty  works — Capernaum  ? 

While  sitting  at  meat  with  a  Pharisee,  Jesus 
is  anointed  by  a  woman  who  had  been  a 
sinner — Capernaum  ? 

Jesus,  with  the  twelve,  makes  a  second  circuit 
in  Galilee. 

The  healing  of  a  demoniac.  The  scribes  and 
Pharisees  blaspheme — Galilee. 

The  scribes  and  Pharisees  seek  a  sign.  Our 
Lord's  reflections — Galilee. 

The  true  disciples  of  Christ  his  nearest  rela 
tives — Galilee. 

At  a  Pharisee's  table,  Jesus  denounces  woes 
against  the  Pharisees  and  others— Galilee. 

Jesus  discourses  to  his  disciples  and  the  mul 
titude—  Galilee. 

The  slaughter  of  certain  Galileans.  Parable 
of  the  barren  fig  tree — Galilee. 

Parable  of  the  sower — Lake  of  Galilee;  Near 
Capernaum  ? 

Parable  of  the  tares.  Other  Parables — Near 
Capernaum  ? 

Jesus  directs  to  cross  the  lake.  Incidents. 
The  tempest  stilled— Lake  of  Galilee. 

The  two  demoniacs  of  Gadara — South-east  coast 
of  the  lake  of  Galilee. 

Le'vi's  feast — Capernaum. 

The  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter.  The  wom 
an  with  a  bloody  flux — Capernaum. 

Two  blind  men  healed,  and  a  dumb  spirit 
cast  out — Capernaum  ? 

Jesus  again  at  Nazareth,  and  again  rejected. 

A  third  circuit  in  Galilee.  The  twelve  in 
structed  and  sent  forth — Galilee. 

Herod  holds  Jesus  to  be  John  the  Baptist, 
whom  he  had  just  before  beheaded — Galilee  ? 
Perm. 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JES 


The  twelve  return,  and  Jesus  retires  with 
them  across  the  lake.  Five  thousand  are 
led — Capernaum  ;  North-east  coast  of  the  lake  of 
Galilee. 

Jesus  walks  upon  the  water — Lake  of  Galilee; 
Gennesaret. 

Our  Lord's  discourse  to  the  multitude  in  the 
synagogue — At  Capernaum. 

PART  V. 

FROM  OUR  LORD'S  THIRD  PASSOVER  UNTIL  HIS  FINAL 
DEPARTURE  FROM  GALILEE  AT  THE  FESTIVAL  OF  TAB 
ERNACLES. 

TIME  :  Six  months. 

Our  Lord  justifies  his  disciples  for  eating  with 
unwashed  hands.  Pharisaic  traditions — 
Capernaum. 

The  daughter  of  a  Syro  Phoenician  woman  is 
healed — Region  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

A  deaf  and  dumb  man  healed  ;  also  many 
others.  Four  thousand  are  fed — The  Decap- 
olis. 

The  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  again  require  a 
sign — Near  Magdala,  on  the  uxst  side  of  the  lake. 

The  disciples  cautioned  against  the  leaven  of 
the  Pharisees,  etc.— North-east  coast  of  the  lake 
of  Galilee. 

A  blind  man  healed — Bethsaida  (Julias.) 

Peter  and  the  rest  again  profess  their  faith  in 
Christ — Region  of  Cesarea  Philippi. 

Our  Lord  foretells  his  own  death  and  resur 
rection,  and  the  trials  of  his  followers — Re 
gion  of  Cesarea  Philippi. 

The  transfiguration.  Our  Lord's  subsequent 
discourse  with  the  three  disciples— Region  of 
Cesarea  Philifypi. 

The  healing  of  a  demoniac,  whom  the  disciples 
could  not  heal — Region  of  Cesarea  Philippi. 

Jesus  again  foretells  his  own  death  and  res 
urrection — Galilee. 

The  tribute  money  miraculously  provided— 
Capernaum. 

The  disciples  contend  who  should  be  greatest. 
Jesus  exhorts  to  humility,  forbearance,  and 
brotherly  love — Capernaum. 

The  seventy  instructed  and  sent  out— Caper 
naum. 

Jesus  goes  up  to  the  festival  of  Tabernacles. 
His  final  departure  from  Galilee.  Incidents 
in  Samaria. 

Ten  lepers  cleansed— Samaria. 

PART  VI. 

THE  FESTIVAL  OF  TABERNACLES,  AND  THE  SUBSEQUENT 
TRANSACTIONS  UNTIL  OUR  LORD'S  ARRIVAL  AT  I5ETH- 
ANY,  SIX  DAYS  BEFORE  THE  FOURTH  PASSOVER. 

TIME  :  Six  months,  less  one  week. 

Jesus  at  the  festival  of  Tabernacles.  His  pub 
lic  teaching — Jerusalem. 

The  woman  taken  in  adultery — Jerusalem. 

Further  public  teaching  of  our  Lord.  He 
reproves  the  unbelieving  Jews,  and  escapes 
from  their  hands — Jerusalem. 

A  lawyer  instructed.  Love  to  our  neighbor 
denned.  Parable  of  the  good  Samaritan— 
Near  Jerusalem. 

Jesus  in  the  house  of  Martha  and  Mary — Beth 
any. 

The  disciples  again  taught  how  to  pray — Near 
Jerusalem. 

The  seventy  return — Jerusalem  ? 

A  man  born  blind  is  healed  on  the  Sabbath. 
Our  Lord's  subsequent  discourses — Jerusa 
lem. 


Jesus  in  Jerusalem  at  the  festival  of  Dedlca< 
tion.  He  retires  beyond  Jordau — Jerusa 
lem;  Bethany  Ueyvnd  Jordan. 

The  raising  of  Lazarus — Bethany. 

The  counsel  of  Caiaphas  against  Jesus.  He  re- 
tires  from  Jerusalem — Jerusalem  ;  Ephraim. 

Jesus  beyond  Jordan  is  followed  by  multi 
tudes.  The  healing  of  the  infirm  woman  on 
the  Sabbath—  Valley  of  Jordan  ;  Perea. 

Our  Lord  goes  teaching  and  journeying  tow 
ards  Jerusalem,  lie  is  warned  against 
Herod — Perea. 

Our  Lord  dines  with  a  chief  Pharisee  on  the 
Sabbath.  Incidents— Perea. 

What  is  required  of  true  disciples— Perea. 

Parable  of  the  lost  sheep,  etc.  Parable  of  the 
prodigal  son— Perea. 

Parable  of  the  unjust  steward — Perea. 

The  Pharisees  reproved.  Parable  of  the  rich 
man  and  Lazarus — Perea. 

Jesus  inculcates  forbearance,  faith,  humili 
ty— Perea. 

Christ's  coming  will  be  sudden-^Perea. 

Parables :  The  importunate  widow.  The 
Pharisee  and  publican — Perea. 

Precepts  respecting  divorce — Perea. 

Jesus  receives  and  blesses  little  children — Pe 
rea. 

The  rich  young  man.  Parable  of  the  laborers 
in  the  vineyard— Perea. 

Jesus  a  third  time  foretells  his  death  and  res 
urrection — Perea. 

James  and  John  prefer  their  ambitious  re 
quest — Perea. 

The  healing  of  two  blind  men  near  Jericho. 

The  visit  to  Zaccheus.  Parable  of  the  ten 
minae — Jericho. 

Jesus  arrives  at  Bethany  six  days  before  the 
Passover — Bethany. 

PART  VII. 

OUR  LORD'S  PUBLIC  ENTRY  INTO  JERUSALEM,  AXD 
THE  SUBSEQUENT  TRANSACTIONS  BEFORE  THE  FOURTH 
PASSOVER. 

TIME  .  Five  days. 

Our  Lord's  public    entry  into  Jerusalem— 

Bethany,  Jerusalem. 
The  barren  fig  tree.     The  cleansing  of  the 

temple — Bethany  ;  Jerusalem 
The  barren   fig  tree  withers    away — Between 

Bethany  and  Jerusalem. 
Christ's  authority   questioned.      Parable  of 

the  two  sons — Jerusalem. 

Parable  of  the  wicked  fiusbandmen-Jeri/saZpni. 
Parable  of  the  marriage  of  the  k4ng's  son — 

Jerusalem. 
Insidious  question  of  the  Pharisees  :  Tribute 

to  Caesar — Jerusalem. 

Insidious  question  of  the  Sadducees  :  The  res 
urrection — Jerusalem.    • 
A  lawyer  questions  Jesus.     The  two  great 

commandments — Jerusalem. 
How  is  Christ  the  son  of  David  ? — Jerusalem. 
Warnings   against  the  evil  example  of  the 

scribes  and  Pharisees — Jerusalem. 
Woes  against  the  scribes  and  Pharisees.   Lam 

entations  over  Jerusalem — Jerusalem. 
The  widow's  mite — Jerusalem. 
Certain  Greeks  desire  to  see  Jesus — Jerusalem 
Reflections  upon  the  unbelief  of  the  Jews-^ 

Jerusalem. 
Jesus,  on  taking  leave  of  the  temple,  foretells 

its  destruction  and  the  persecution  of  his 

disciples— Jerusalem;  Mount  of  Olives. 
227 


JES 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JEW 


Ihs  signs  of  Christ's  coming  to  destroy  Jeru 
salem,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Jewish  state 
and  dispensation — Mount  of  Olives. 

Transition  to  Christ's  final  coining  at  the  day 
of  judgment.  Exhortation  to  watchful 
ness.  Parables  :  The  ten  virgins.  The  five 
talents— Mount  of  Olives. 

Scenes  of  the  judgment-day — Mount  of  Olives. 

The  rulers  conspire.  The  supper  at  Bethany. 
Treachery  of  Judas — Jerusalem;  Bethany. 

Preparation  for  the  Passover — Bethany ;  Jeru 
salem. 

PART  VIII. 

THE  FOURTH  PASSOVER  ;  OUR  LORD'S  PASSION  ;  AND 
THE  ACCOMPANYING  EVENTS  UNTIL  THE  END  OF  THE 
JEWISH  SABBATH. 

TIME;  Two  days. 

The  Passover  meal.  Contention  among  the 
twelve — Jerusalem. 

Jesus  washes  the  feet  of  his  disciples — Jerusa 
lem. 

Jesus  points  out  the  traitor.  Judas  with 
draws — Jerusalem 

Jesus  foretells  the  fall  of  Peter,  and  the  dis 
persion  of  the  twelve — Jerusalem. 

The  Lord's  supper — Jerusalem. 

Jesus  comforts  his  disciples.  The  Holy  Spirit 
promised — Jerusalem. 

Christ  the  true  Vine.  His  disciples  hated  by 
the  world — Jerusalem. 

Persecution  foretold.  Further  promise  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  Prayer  in  the  name  of  Christ — 
Jerusalem. 

Christ's  last  prayer  with  his  disciples— Jerusa 
lem. 

The  agony  in  Gethsemane— Mount  of  Olives. 

Jesus  Detrayed,  and  made  prisoner — Mount  of 
Olives. 

Jesus  before  Caiaphas.  Peter  thrice  denies 
him — Jerusalem. 

Jesus  before  Caiaphas  and  the  Sanhedrim. 
He  declares  himself  to  be  the  Christ ;  is  con 
demned  and  mocked — Jerusalem. 

The  Sanhedrim  lead  Jesus  away  to  Pilate— 
Jerusalem. 

Jesus  before  Herod — Jerusalem. 

Pilate  seeks  to  release  Jesus.  The  Jews  de 
mand  Barabbas — Jerusalem. 

Pilate  delivers  up  Jesus  to  death.  He  is* 
scourged  and  mocked — Jerusalem. 

Pilate  again  seeks  to  release  Jesus — Jerusalem. 

Judas  repents  and  hangs  himself—  Jerusalem. 

Jesus  is  led  away  to  be  crucified— Jerusalem. 

The  crucifixion — Jerusalem. 

The  Jews  mock  at  Jesus  on  the  cross.  He 
forgives  the  penitent  thief.  He  commends 
his  mother  to  John — Jerusalem. 

Darkness  prevails.  Christ  expires  on  the 
cross — Jerusalem. 

The  veil  of  the  temple  rent,  and  graves  open 
ed.  Judgment  of  the  centurion.  The  wom 
en  at  the  cross — Jerusalem. 

The  taking  down  from  the  cross.  The  buri 
al — Jerusalem. 

The  watch  at  the  sepulchre— Jerusalem. 

PART  IX. 

OUR  LORD'S  RESURRECTION,  HIS  SUBSEQUENT  APPEAR 
ANCES,  AND  HIS  ASCENSION. 

TIME  :  Forty  days. 

The  morning  of  the  resurrection — Jerusalem. 
Visit  of  the  women  to  the  sepulchre.    Mary 
Magdalene  returns—  Jerusalem. 
228 


Vision  of  angels  in  the  sepulchre — Jerusalem. 

The  women  return  to  the  city.  Jesus  meets 
them — Jerusalem. 

Peter  and  John  run  to  the  sepulchre — Jerusa 
lem. 

Our  Lord  is  seen  by  Mary  Magdalene  at  the 
sepulchre— Jerusalem. 

Report  of  the  watch — Jerusalem. 

Our  Lord  is  seen  of  Peter.  1  hen  by  two  dis 
ciples  on  the  way  to  Emmaus— Jerusalem ; 
Emmaus. 

Jesus  appears  in  the  midst  of  the  apostles, 
Thomas  being  absent — Jerusalem. 

Jesus  appears  in  the  midst  of  the  apostles, 
Thomas  being  present — Jerusalem. 

The  apostles  go  away  into  Galilee.  Jesus 
shows  himself  to  seven  of  them  at  the  sea  of 
Tiberias — Galilee. 

Jesus  meets  the  apostles  and  above  five  hun 
dred  brethren  on  a  mountain  in  Galilee— 
Galilee. 

Our  Lord  is  seen  of  James ;  then  of  all  the 
apostles — Jerusalem. 

The  ascension — Near  Bethany. 

The  divine  wisdom  is  conspicuous  not 
only  in  what  is  taught  us  respecting  the 
life  of  Jesus,  but  in  what  is  withheld. 
Curiosity,  and  the  higher  motives  of 
warm  affection,  raise  numerous  questions 
to  which  the  gospels  give  no  reply  ;  and 
in  proportion  as  men  resort  to  dubious 
traditions,  they  lose  the  power  of  a  pure 
and  spiritual  gospel.  See  further,  con 
cerning  Christ,  MESSIAH,  REDEEMER,  etc. 

JESUS  was  not  an  uncommon  name 
among  the  Jews.  It  was  the  name  of 
the  father  of  Elymas  the  sorcerer,  Acts 
13:6  ;  and  of  Justus,  a  fellow-laborer  and 
friend  of  Paul,  Col.  4: 11.  It  is  the  Greek 
form  of  the  Hebrew  name  Joshua,  or 
Jeshua,  borne  by  the  high-priest  in 
Ezra's  time,  and  by  the  well-known 
leader  of  the  Jews  into  the  promised 
land.  See  also  1  Sam.  6 : 14  ;  2  Kin.  23 : 8. 
The  Greek  form  of  the  word,  Jesus,  is 
tAvice  used  in  the  New  Testament  when 
Joshua  the  son  of  Nun  is  intended,  Acts 
7:45;  Heb.  4:8. 

JETH'RO,  "Moses'  father-in-law,"  a 
shepherd-prince  or  priest  of  Midian,  Ex. 
3:1;  4  : 18  ;  18.  When  the  Hebrews 
were  at  mount  Sinai,  he  visited  Moses, 
gave  him  some  wise  counsel  as  to  the 
government  of  the  tribes,  and  then  re 
turned  to  his  own  people.  See  HOBAB 
and  RAGUEL.  Jethro  was  a  worshipper 
of  God,  Ex.  18:10,  11,  and  some  infer 
that  he  was  a  descendant  of  Abraham, 
through  Midian,  Gen.  25:2. 

JEWS,  the  name  borne  by  the  He 
brews  among  foreign  nations,  especially 
after  the  return  from  Babylon  ;  from  Ju- 
dah  their  ancestor.  See  HEBREWS. 


JEZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOA 


JEZ'EBEL,  daughter  of  Ethbaal  king 
of  Tyre  and  Zidon,  and  wife  of  Ahab 
king  of  Israel,  1  Kin.  10:31.  She  spent 
herself  in  efforts  to  establish  idolatry  in 
Samaria,  and  exterminate  the  worship  ol 
God  and  the  lives  of  his  servants.  Oba- 
diah  saved  a  hundred  of  them,  at  the 
risk  of  his  own  life.  Jezebel  herseli 
maintained  four  hundred  priests  of  As- 
tarte.  When  the  prophets  of  Baal  per 
ished  at  Carmel,  at  the  word  of  Elijah, 
she  sought  to  avenge  herself  on  him. 
Afterwards,  she  secured  the  vineyard  of 
Naboth  for  her  husband  by  perjuries  and 
murder ;  and  her  tragical  death,  the  fit 
ting  close  of  a  bloody  life,  took  place, 
according  to  the  prediction  of  Elijah, 
near  the  scene  of  this  crime,  1  Kin.  18 ; 
19 ;  21 ;  2  Kin.  9.  Her  name  has  be 
come  a  proverb,  and  is  given  by  John, 
probably  as  a  descriptive  epithet,  to  a 
certain  female  at  Thyatira  in  his  day 
holding  a  like  bad  preeminence  in  station 
and  profligacy,  in  malice  and  in  ruin, 
Luke  20: 18;  Rev.  2:20. 

JEZ'REEL,  I.,  a  celebrated  city  of 
Issachar,  Josh.  19:18,  lying  westward  of 
Bethshean,  2  Sam.  4:4.  Ahab  had  here 
a  palace ;  and  this  city  became  famous 
on  account  of  his  seizure  of  Naboth' s 
vineyard,  1  Kin.  21 ;  and  the  vengeance 
executed  on  Ahab,  2  Kin.  9:10,  14-37; 
10  : 1-11.  Jezreel  was  called  Esdraela 
in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  is  now 
replaced  by  a  small  and  ruinous  Arab 
village,  called  Zerin,  at  the  north-west 
point  of  mount  Gilboa.  Its  elevated  site 
gives  one  a  fine  view  of  the  great  plain 
of  Esdraelon  on  the  west,  and  the  hills 
that  border  it;  and  towards  the  east  it 
overhangs  the  wide  and  fertile  ' '  valley 
of  Jezreel,"  Josh.  17:10,  Judg.  6:33, 
Hos.  1:5,  which  runs  down  east-south 
east  from  the  great  plain  to  the  Jordan, 
between  Gilboa  and  little  Herrnon.  In 
this  valley,  below  and  east  of  Zerin,  is 
the  copious  "  fountain  of  Jezreel,"  near 
which  Saul  perished,  1  Sam.  29:1 ;  81:1. 
II.  The  great  plain  lying  between  Jez 
reel  and  Acre,  called  from  two  cities  on 
its  border  in  one  part,  "the  valley  of 
Megiddo,"  2  Chr.  35:22,  and  in  its  west 
ern  part  or  branch  the  "plain  or  valley 
otJezrcd,"  afterwards  Esdraelon,  Judith 
1 : 8.  The  body  of  this  beautiful  plain 
forms  a  triangle,  rising  gradually  from 
the  Mediterranean  four  hundred  feet,  and 
being  about  thirteen  or  fourteen  miles 
long  on  the  north  side,  seventeen  on  the 


east,  and  twenty  on  the  south-west. 
The  western  part  is  level ;  on  the  east  it 
is  more  undulating,  and  is  at  length  bro 
ken  by  mount  Gilboa  and  "little  Her- 
mon"  into  three  valleys  two  or  three 
miles  wide,  which  sink  down  into  the  val 
ley  of  the  Jordan.  Of  these,  the  middle 
valley,  described  above,  is  the  proper 
"  valley  of  Jezreel."  The  river  Kishon 
traverses  this  plain.  It  was  formerly 
well  watered  and  astonishingly  fertile, 
but  is  now  under  the  blight  of  tyranny 
and  insecurity,  comparatively  unculti 
vated  and  deserted.  The  highways  are 
unoccupied,  the  villages  have  ceased  in 
Israel,  Judg.  5  :  6.  There  are  a  few 
small  hamlets,  particularly  on  the  higher 
grounds  that  border  it ;  and  the  abun 
dant  crops  which  it  yields,  even  with 
poor  cultivation,  show  that  it  might 
again  be  made  the  granary  of  Syria. 
Across  this  plain,  from  Carmel  to  Jez 
reel,  Elijah  ran  before  the  chariot  of 
Ahab,  1  Kin.  18  :  40.  It  has  been  the 
chosen  battle-ground  of  many  armies. 
Here  the  hosts  of  Sisera  were  swept 
away,  Judg.  4;  and  here  Josiah  fell, 
fighting  against  Pharaoh-necho,  2  Kin. 
23:29.  Battles  were  fought  here  in  the 
later  periods  of  the  Romans,  and  of  the 
Crusaders ;  and  in  our  own  century,  near 
mount  Tabor,  fifteen  hundred  French 
under  General  Kleber  sustained  the  as 
sault  of  twenty-live  thousand  Turks  for 
half  a  day,  and  were  succored  by  Napo 
leon. 

JOAB,  son  of  Zeruiah,  David's  sister, 
and  brother  of  Abishai  and  Asahel,  was 
the  commander  of  David's  army  during 
almost  the  whole  of  his  reign,  2  Sam. 
5:0-10.  He  was  a  valiant  warrior,  and 
an  able  general ;  and  his  great  influence 
on  public  affairs  was  often  exerted  for 
good,  as  in  the  rebellion  of  Absalom,  and 
the  numbering  of  Israel,  2  Sam.  18  ;  19 ; 
24.  But  as  a  man  he  was  imperious, 
revengeful,  and  unscrupulous:  witness 
his  treacherous  assassination  of  Abner, 
and  of  his  cousin  \masa,  2  Sam.  3  :  27  ; 
20  :  9,  10 ;  his  bearing  towards  David, 
2  Sam.  3:39  ;  19:5,  and  connivance  with 
iim  in  the  matter  of  Uriah  ;  his  slaying 
Absalom,  and  conspiring  with  Adonijah 
against  the  divinely  appointed  heir  to 
the  throne;  for  all  which  he  was  at 
ength  put  to  death  by  order  of  Solomon. 
1  Kin.  2. 

JOAN'NA,  one  of  the  faithful  women 
who  ministered  to  Christ  while  living, 
229 


JOA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOB 


and  brought  spices  to  his  tomh.  Her 
husband  Chuza  was  a  steward  of  Herod 
Antipas,  Luke  8: 3;  24:1-10. 

JO  ASH,  or  JEHO'ASH,  I.,  the  father  of 
Gideon,  of  the  family  of  Abiezer,  in  Ma- 
nasseh.  For  a  long  time  he  was  a  wor 
shipper  of  Baal ;  but  when  his  son  boldly 
attacked  idolatry,  he  also  came  out  oil 
the  Lord's  side,  Judg.  6:11,  25-32. 

II.  An  officer,  appointed  as  keeper  of 
the  prophet  Micaiah,  during  Ahab's  dis 
astrous  war  with  Syria,  1  Kin.  22  :  26  ; 
2  Chr.  18. 

III.  The  eighth  king  of  Judah,  B.  c. 
878-838.     He  was  the  only  son  of  Aha- 
ziah  who  was  not  slain  by  the  usurping 
Athaliah,  his  grandmother.     Being  res 
cued  by  Jehoshebah  his  aunt,  and  seclud 
ed  six  years  in  the  temple,  he  was  raised 
to  the  throne  when  seven  years  of  age 
through  the  faithful  care  of  Jehoiada ; 
and  while  this  venerable  man  survived, 
Joash  served  God  and  prospered.     Idols 
were  banished,  and  the  temple  was  re 
paired.     But  afterwards  he  followed  less 
wholesome  counsels ;   idolatry  revived  ; 
and  when  Zechariah  the  high-priest  re 
buked  the  guilty  people,  the  ungrateful 
king  caused  this  servant  of  God,  the  son 
of  his  benefactor,  to  be  stoned  to  death. 
Misfortunes  soon  multiplied  on  his  head  ; 
he  was  repeatedly  humbled  by  the  Syri 
ans,  and  gave  them  the  temple  treasures 
as  a  ransom  ;  a  loathsome  disease  imbit- 
tered  his  life,  which  was  very  soon  cut 
short  by  a  conspiracy  of  his  servants, 
and  he  was  not  buried  in  the  sepulchre 
of  the  kings,  2  Kin.  11 ;  12  ;  2  Chr.  23  ; 
24.    The  prophet  Joel  was  contemporary 
with  him. 

IV.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jehoa- 
haz,  king  of  Israel,  B.  c.  840-825.    There 
was  much  in  his  conduct  to  commend. 
He  had  a  great  regard  for  the  prophet 
Elisha,   and  visited  him  on  his  death 
bed,  where  by  a  divine  oracle  he  was  as 
sured  of  three  victories  over  the  Syrians. 
He  was  also  victorious  when  forced  to 
give  battle  to  Amaziah  king  of  Judah, 
and  was  one  of  the  best  of  the  kings  of 
Israel.     The  worship  of  the  golden  calf, 
however,  still  continued  during  his  reign, 
2  Kin.  13:9-25;  14:1-8;  2  Chr.  25. 

JOB,  a  patriarch  distinguished  for  his 
integrity  and  piety,  his  wealth,  honors, 
and  domestic  happiness,  whom  God  per 
mitted,  for  the  trial  of  his  faith,  to  be 
deprived  of  friends,  property,  and  health, 
and  at  once  plunged  into  deep  affliction. 
230 


He  lived  in  the  land  of  Uz,  lying,  it  is 
generally  thought,  in  Eastern  Edom, 
probably  not  far  from  Bozran. 

The  BOOK  OF  JOB  has  originated  much 
criticism,  and  on  many  points  a  consid 
erable  diversity  of  opinion  still  exists. 
Sceptics  have  denied  its  inspiration,  and 
called  it  a  mere  philosophical  romance  ; 
but  no  one  who  respects  revelation  can 
entertain  this  notion,  or  doubt  that  Job 
was  a  real  person.  Inspired  writers  tes 
tify  to  both.  See  Ezek.  14  : 14,  James 
5:11 ;  and  compare  1  Cor.  3:19  with  Job 
5:13.  The  book  itself  specifies  persons, 
places,  and  circumstances  in  the  manner 
of  true  history.  Moreover,  the  name 
and  history  of  Job  are  spread  through 
out  the  East ;  Arabian  writers  mention 
him,  and  many  Mohammedan  families 
perpetuate  his  name.  Five  different 
places  claim  the  possession  of  his  tomb. 

The  precise  period  of  his  life  cannot 
be  ascertained,  yet  no  doubt  can  exist 
as  to  its  patriarchal  antiquity.  The 
book  seems  to  allude  to  the  flood,  Job 
22:15-17,  but  not  to  the  destruction  of 
Sodom,  to  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  or 
the  giving  of  the  Law.  No  reference  is 
made  to  any  order  of  priesthood,  Job 
himself  being  the  priest  of  his  house 
hold,  like  Noah  and  Abraham.  There 
is  allusion  to  the  most  ancient  form  of 
idolatry,  star- worship,  and  to  the  earli 
est  mode  of  writing,  19:24.  The  lon 
gevity  of  Job  also  places  him  among  the 
patriarchs.  He  survived  his  trial  one 
hundred  and  forty  yaars,  and  was  an  old 
man  before  his  trial  began-,  for  his  chil 
dren  were  established  each  at  the  head  of 
his  own  household,  Job  1 :4  ;  42: 16.  The 
period  of  long  lives  had  not  wholly  pass 
ed  away,  15:10.  Hales  places  the  trial 
of  Job  before  the  birth  of  Abraham,  and 
Usher,  about  thirty  years  before  the  ex 
odus,  B.  c.  1521. 

As  to  the  authorship  of  the  book, 
many  opinions  have  been  held.  It  has 
all  the  freedom  of  an  original  composi 
tion,  bearing  no  marks  of  its  being  a 
translation ;  and  if  so,  it  would  appear 
that  its  author  must  have  been  a  He 
brew,  since  it  is  written  in  the  purest 
Hebrew.  It  exhibits,  moreover,  the 
most  intimate  acquaintance  with  both 
Egyptian  and  Arabian  scenery,  and  is  in 
the  loftiest  style  of  oriental  poetry.  All 
these  circumstances  are  consistent  with 
the  views  of  those  who  regard  Moses  as 
its  probable  author.  It  has,  however, 


JOB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOfl 


been  ascribed  to  various  other  persons.  It 
presents  a  beautiful  exhibition  of  patri 
archal  religion.  It  teaches  the  being 
and  perfections  of  God,  his  creation  of 
all  things,  and  his  universal  providence ; 
the  apostasy  and  guilt  of  evil  spirits  and 
of  mankind;  the  mercy  of  God,  on  the 
basis  of  a  sacrifice,  and  on  condition  of 
repentance  and  faith,  33  :  27-30 ;  42  :  G, 
8  ;  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the 
resurrection  of  the  body,  14  :  7  - 15  ; 
19:25-27. 

The  main  problem  discussed  in  Job  is, 
the  justice  of  God  in  suffering  the  right 
eous  to  be  afflicted,  -while  the  wicked 
prosper.  It  is  settled,  by  showing  that, 
while  the  hand  of  a  just  God  is  manifest 
in  his  providential  government  of  hu 
man  affairs,  it  is  his  sovereign  right  to 
choose  his  own  time  and  mode  of  retri 
bution  both  to  the  evil  and  the  good, 
and  to  subject  the  graces  of  his  people 
to  whatever  trials  he  deems  best. 

The  conference  of  Job  and  his  friends 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts.  In  the 
first,  Eliphaz  addresses  Job,  and  Job  re 
plies  ;  then  Bildad  and  Job,  and  Zophar 
and  Job,  speak  in  turn.  In  the  second 
part,  the  same  order  is  observed  ;  and  in 
the  third  also,  except  that  after  Job's 
reply  to  Bildad,  the  three  friends  have 
no  more  to  urge,  and  instead  of  Zophar, 
a  fourth  friend  named  Elihu  takes  up 
the  word ;  and  the  whole  is  concluded 
by  the  decision  of  Jehovah  himself.  The 
friends  of  Job  argue  that  his  remarkable 
afflictions  must  have  been  sent  in  pun 
ishment  of  highly  aggravated  transgres 
sions,  and  urge  him  to  confession  and 
repentance.  The  pious  patriarch,  con 
scious  of  his  own  integrity  and  love  to 
God,  cast  down  and  bewildered  by  his 
sore  chastisements,  and  pained  by  the 
suspicions  of  his  friends,  warmly  vindi 
cates  his  innocence,  and  shows  that  the 
best  of  men  are  sometimes  the  most  af 
flicted  ;  but  forgets  that  his  inward  sins 
merit  far  heavier  punishment,  and 
though  he  still  maintains  faith  in  God, 
yet  he  charges  Him  foolishly.  After 
wards  he  humbly  confesses  his  wrong, 
and  is  cheered  by  the  returning  smile  of 
God,  while  his  uncharitable  friends  are 
reproved.  The  whole  book  is  written  in 
the  highest  style  of  Hebrew  poetry,  ex 
cept  the  two  introductory  chapters  and 
part  of  the  last,  which  are  prose.  As  a 
poem,  it  is  full  of  sublime  sentiments 
and  bold  and  striking  images. 


The  DISEASE  of  Job  is  generally  sup 
posed  to  have  been  the  elephantiasis, 
or  black  leprosy.  The  word  rendered 
"boils"  does  not  necessarily  mean  ab 
scesses,  but  burning  and  inflammation  ; 
and  no  known  disease  better  answers  to 
the  description  given,  Job  2:7,  8;  7:5, 
13,  14;  19:17;  30:17,  than  the  leprosy 
referred  to  above.  See  LEPER. 

JOCH'EBED,  wife  of  Amram,  and 
mother  of  Moses,  Aaron,  and  Miriam, 
Num.  26 :  59.  She  was  a  daughter  of 
Levi,  and  her  husband's  aunt,  Ex.  G:20, 
though  such  marriages  were  afterwards 
prohibited,  Lev.  18:12. 

JO'EL,  one  of  the  minor  prophets,  of 
whom  nothing  is  known  beyond  the  few 
hints  furnished  in  his  brief  but  valuable 
prophecy.  He  lived  in  the  kingdom  of 
Judah,  and  at  a  time  when  the  temple 
and  temple-worship  still  existed,  Joel 
1 :  14  ;  2  :  1,  15,  32  ;  3  :  1.  Different  au 
thors  assign  to  his  prophecy  different 
dates,  but  the  prevailing  opinion  is  that 
he  prophesied  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah, 
nearly  800  B.  c. 

The  BOOK  OF  JOEL  opens  with  a  most 
graphic  and  powerful  description  of  the 
devastation  caused  by  swarms  of  divers 
kinds  of  locusts,  accompanied  by  a  terri 
ble  drought.  The  plague  of  locusts,  one 
of  the  most  dreadful  scourges  of  the 
East,  (see  LOCUSTS.)  is  highly  suggestive 
of  an  invasion  of  hostile  legions  such  as 
have  often  ravaged  Judea ;  and  many 
have  understood,  by  the  locusts  of  Joel, 
the  Chaldeans,  Persians,  Greeks,  or  Ro 
mans.  The  prophet,  however,  adheres 
to  his  figure,  if  it  be  one ;  depicts  the 
land  as  stripped  of  its  verdure  and  parch 
ed  with  drought,  summons  the  stricken 
people  to  fasting  and  penitence,  and  en 
courages  them  by  promising  the  removal 
of  the  divine  judgments  and  the  return  of 
fertility.  While  describing  this  return 
ing  plenty  and  prosperity,  the  prophet 
casts  his  view  forward  on  a  future  still 
more  remote,  and  predicts  the  outpour 
ing  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the^signs  and 
wonders  and  spiritual  prosperity  of  the 
Messiah's  reign,  Joel  2: 28.  This  passage 
is  quoted  by  the  apostle  Peter,  in  Acts 
2:16.  The  style  of  Joel  is  exceedingly 
poetical  and  elegant ;  his  descriptions 
are  vivid  and  sublime,  and  his  prophecy 
ranks  among  the  gems  of  Hebrew  poetry. 
It  is  well  fitted  to  cheer  the  church  mil 
itant  in  all  ages. 

JOHANAN,  son  of  Kareah,  a  leading 
231 


JOH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOH 


captain  of  the  Jews  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  B.  c.  588,  who  recognized 
the  authority  of  Gedaliah,  warned  him 
in  vain  of  the  plot  of  Ishmael,  and 
avenged  his  murder  ;  but  afterwards 
carried  the  remnant  of  the  people  to 
Egypt  against  the  remonstrances  of  Jer 
emiah,  who,  unable  to  check  his  rebel 
lious  and  idolatrous  course,  foretold  di 
vine  judgments,  which  in  due  time  were 
fulfilled,  2  Kin.  25:23-26  ;  Jer.  40-44. 

JOHN",  I.,  THE  BAPTIST,  the  forerunner 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  was  the  son  of 
Zacharias  and  Elisabeth,  and  was  born 
about  six  months  before  Christ,  as  Re- 
land  and  Robinson  suppose  at  Juttah, 
Josh.  21  :  16,  Luke  1  :  39,  a  town  some 
five  miles  south  of  Hebron,  but  accord 
ing  to  tradition  at  a  place  about  four 
miles  west  of  Jerusalem.  Several  Old 
Testament  predictions  found  their  fulfil 
ment  in  him.  See  Isa.  40:3,  and  Matt. 
3:3;  also  Mai.  3:1;  4:5,  and  Matt. 
11:14.  His  birth,  name,  and  office  were 
also  foretold  by  the  angel  Gabriel  to  his 
father  Zacharias  while  ministering  at  the 
temple  altar.  Several  other  supernatu 
ral  incidents  attended  the  visit  of  Mary 
to  Elisabeth,  and  the  birth  and  naming 
of  John,  Luke  1.  He  passed  his  early 
life  among  the  crags  of  Eastern  Judea, 
and  when  not  far  from  thirty  years  of 
age,  appeared  as  a  prophet  of  the  Lord,  j 
Being  also  a  priest  by  birth,  and  an  aus-  | 
tere  Nazarite  in  appearance  and  mode  of 
life,  he  was  like  a  reproduction  of  Elijah 
of  old.  Crowds  nocked  from  all  quar 
ters  to  hear  the  word  of  God  from  his 
lips  boldly  denouncing  their  sins,  and  to 
receive  the  baptism  of  repentance  pre 
paratory  to  the  full  revelation  of  grace  j 
in  Chi'ist.  Among  others,  the  Saviour  \ 
at  length  came,  and  was  baptized  as  an 
example  of  obedience  to  all  divine  en- 
joinments.  John  was  at  once  satisfied 
that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah,  but  "knew 
him  not"  by  any  divine  intimation  till 
he  saw  the  appointed  sign,  the  descend 
ing  Spirit.  He  then  stood  forth  as  the 
representative  of  "all  the  law  and  the 
prophets,"  pointing  the  world  to  Christ 
as  an  atoning  Saviour,  and  thus  intro 
duced  Him  to  His  public  ministry :  ' '  Be 
hold  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  taketh 
away  the  sin  of  the  world, ' '  John  1 : 29  ; 
GaL  3:24. 

John  enjoyed  at  this  time  a  high  de 
gree  of  popular  veneration,  Luke  3:15; 
the  Sanhedrim  sent  a  deputation  to  ques- 
232 


tion  him,  John  1 : 19-28  ;  king  Herod 
' '  did  many  things,  and  heard  him  glad 
ly.  ' '  But  he  laid  all  he  had  at  the  Sav 
iour's  feet,  John  1:27  ;  3:33.  We  read 
several  times  of  his  "disciples,"  Matt. 
9:14;  Luke  5:33;  John  3:23-15;  4:1; 
and  meet  with  subsequent  traces  of  the 
wide  extent  of  his  inriuence,  Acts  18:25  ; 
19:3.  We  know  not  why  he  continued 
for  a  time  his  separate  ministry,  instead 
of  attending  Christ.  He  persevered,  how« 
ever,  in  his  faithful  labors  for  reforma 
tion;  and  these,  in  the  second  year  after 
wards,  led  to  his  imprisonment  by  Herod 
Antipas.  See  HEROD  III.  It  was  while 
in  prison  that  he  sent  two  of  his  disciples 
to  Christ  to  inquire,  "Art  thou  he  that 
should  come,  or  do  we  look  for  another  ?' ' 
Matt.  11:3.  He  may  have  been  moved 
to  send  this  message  by  some  lingering 
Jewish  views  as  to  a  temporal  Messiah, 
who  would  right  all  their  national 
wrongs,  or  by  some  temporary  unbeliev 
ing  haste  to  have  Christ  publicly  an 
nounce  his  Messiahship.  It  was  on  this 
occasion  that  Christ  calls  him  greater 
than  any  other  prophet ;  because,  of  all 
the  prophets  of  the  Messiah,  he  alone 
saw  Him  entering  on  his  work  whom  all 
"  desired  to  see  ;"  yet  he  was  less  than 
the  "least  in  the  kingdom  of  God,"  in 
asmuch  as  he  died  without  seeing  that 
kingdom  established  in  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  his  Lord.  But  his  earth 
ly  work  was  soon  done.  Herod,  accord 
ing  to  Josephus,  feared  his  great  influ 
ence  over  the  people,  and  Herodias 
dreaded  his  bold  fidelity  to  her  husband. 
The  dancing  of  her  datighter  Salome, 
and  the  vow  of  the  besotted  king,  fur 
nished  a  pretext.  John  was  beheaded 
in  prison ;  his  disciples  buried  his  re 
mains  with  honor,  and  ' '  went  and  told 
Jesus,"  Matt.  14:3-12. 

II.  THE  APOSTLE  AND  EVANGELIST,  son 
of  Zebedee  and  Salome,  was  a  native  of 
Bethsaida  in  Galilee.  Zebedee  and  his 
sons  were  fishermen,  and  appear  to  have 
been  in  easy  circumstances,  Mark  1 : 20  ; 
15:40;  John  18:15;  19:27.  In  John's 
character  there  was  an  admirable  mix 
ture  of  gentleness  and  force.  The  pic 
ture  the  Bible  gives  of  him  has  a  pecul 
iar  charm,  so  much  peace,  humility,  char 
ity,  and  brotherly  love  glow  in  it.  Hig 
affectionate,  meditative,  spiritual  charac 
ter  had  also  the  elements  of  vigor  and 
decision,  Luke  9  :  54.  Though  amiable, 
he  was  firm  and  fearless.  He  was  pres* 


JOH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JON 


ent  at  the  scene  of  the  Saviour's  cruci 
fixion,  which  he  describes  as  an  eye-wit 
ness,  John  19:35.  He  was  early  at  the 
tomb  of  the  Redeemer,  and  after  his  as 
cension,  boldly  proclaimed  the  gospel  at 
Jerusalem,  Acts  4:13,  though  imprison 
ed,  scourged,  and  threatened  with  death. 
He  was  remarkable  for  devotion  to  Christ ; 
and  it  was  this,  perhaps,  as  much  as  am 
bition,  or  false  views  of  Christ's  king 
dom,  that  led  him  to  request  a  place  at 
His  right  hand,  Matt.  20:20-24.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  youngest  of 
the  apostles.  He  had  been  a  disciple  of 
John  the  Baptist ;  but  on  being  directed 
to  Christ,  at  once  attached  himself  to 
him.  For  a  time  he  returned  to  his  em 
ployment  by  the  sea  of  Galilee,  but  was 
soon  called  to  leave  all  and  attend  the 
Saviour,  Luke  5 : 5-10.  Christ  had  a  par 
ticular  friendship  for  this  lovely  and  zeal 
ous  disciple,  John  13: 23;  19:26;  20:2; 
21:7.  At  the  last  supper,  he  reclined 
next  to  the  Saviour,  and  to  his  care  the 
dying  Redeemer  committed  his  mother. 
Together  with  Peter  and  James  he  wit 
nessed  the  transfiguration,  and  the  ago 
ny  in  the  garden.  See  JAMES.  After  the 
ascension  of  our  Lord,  John  continued  to 
reside  at  Jerusalem,  where  he  was  one  of 
the  chief  pillars  of  the  church,  Gal.  2:9. 
About  A.  D.  65,  it  is  thought,  he  removed 
to  Ephesus,  and  labored  to  diffuse  the 
gospel  in  Asia  Minor,  where  for  many 
years  after  the  death  of  Paul  his  great 
personal  and  apostolic  influence  was 
widely  exerted.  About  A.  D.  95,  he  was 
banished,  probably  by  Domitian,  to  the 
isle  of  Patmos,  where  he  had  the  visions 
described  in  the  Apocalypse.  He  after 
wards  returned  to  Ephesus,  where  he 
lived  to  a  very  great  age,  so  that  he 
could  scarcely  go  to  the  assembly  of  the 
church  without  being  carried  by  his  dis 
ciples.  Being  now  unable  to  make  long 
discourses,  his  custom  was  to  say  in  all 
assemblies,  "Little  children,  love  one 
another;"  and  when  they  wondered  at 
his  frequent  repetition  of  this  concise 
exhortation,  his  answer  was,  "This  is 
what  the  Lord  commands  you  ;  and  this, 
if  you  do  it,  is  sufficient."  Chrysostom, 
Clement,  and  Eusebius  relate  that  on  his 
return  from  Patmos  he  found  that  a 
young  man  of  promise  under  his  charge 
had  been  misled,  and  had  joined  a  band 
of  robbers;  and  that  the  aged  apostle 
sought  him  out  in  his  mountain  haunts, 
and  by  the  blessing  of  God  on  his  fear 


less  and  faithful  love,  reclaimed  his  soul 
from  death.  He  died  at  Ephesus,  in  the 
third  year  of  Trajan,  A.  D.  100,  being 
then,  according  to  Epiphanius,  ninety- 
four  years  of  age.  He  was  buried  near 
that  city,  and  several  of  the  fathers  men 
tion  his  sepulchre  as  being  there. 

Besides  the  invaluable  gospel  and  the 
Apocalypse,  which  bear  his  name,  we 
have  three  EPISTLES  OF  JOHN.  The  first 
is  a  catholic  or  general  letter,  designed 
apparently  to  go  with  his  gospel,  and 
refute  certain  Gnostic  errors  as  to  the 
person  of  Christ ;  but  also  and  chiefly  to 
build  up  the  church  universal  in  truth 
and  grace,  and  especially  in  holy  love. 
The  second  epistle  is  addressed  ' '  to  the 
elect  lady,"  or  the  excellent  Kuria,  who 
was  probably  some  Christian  woman  em 
inent  for  piety  and  usefulness.  The  third 
is  directed  to  Gaius,  the  Latin  Caius, 
whom  John  praises  for  his  fidelity  and 
hospitality,  and  exhorts  to  persevere  in 
every  good  work.  The  Revelation  and 
epistles  of  John,  it  is  generally  believed, 
were  written  about  96-98  A.  D.  They 
are  the  latest  books  of  the  New  Testa 
ment  canon,  which,  as  the  last  surviving 
apostle,  he  must  have  greatly  aided  in 
settling. 

III.  Surnamed  MARK.     See  MARK. 

JOK'SHAN,  the  second  son  of  Abra 
ham  and  Keturah,  ancestor  of  the  Sabe- 
ans  and  Dedanites  of  Southern  Arabia, 
Gen.  25:1-3. 

JOK'TAN,  son  of  Eber,  and  by  him 
connected  with  the  Hebrews  and  other 
Shemite  families,  Gen.  10.25-30  ;  1  Chr. 
1 : 19-23.  He  is  believed  to  be  the  Kah- 
tan,  or  Yektan,  to  whom  Arabian  writers 
trace  their  purest  and  most  ancient  gen 
ealogies. 

JOK'-THEEL,  I. ,  a  city  of  Judah,  Josh. 
15:38. 

II.  The  name  given  by  Amaziah  to  the 
capital  of  Arabia  Petraa,  2  Kin.  14  :  7. 
See  SELA. 

JON'ADAB,  I.,  a  son  of  Shimeah,  the 
cunning  and  unprincipled  nephew  of 
David,  and  friend  of  Amnon,  2  Sam. 
13:3-5.  Yet  he  seems  to  have  been 
long  aware  of  the  purpose  of  Absalom  to 
avenge  his  sister's  dishonor  upon  Am 
non,  and  very  coolly  excused  the  assas 
sination  of  his  friend,  ver.  32-35. 

II.  A  son  of  Rechab,  a  Kenite,  de 
scended  from  Hobab  the  brother  of  Mo 
ses.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the  Rechab- 
ites  in  the  time  of  Jehu,  and  seems  to 
233 


JON 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOP 


have  given  them  a  command  to  abstain 
from  wine,  2  Kin.  10:15;  1  Chr.  2:55; 
Jer.  35:6-10.  See  RECHABITES. 

JO'NAH,  one  of  the  minor  prophets, 
was  a  native  of  Gath-hepher,  in  Zebu- 
lun,  2  Kin.  14  :  25.  Being  ordered  of 
God  to  prophesy  against  Nineveh,  prob 
ably  in  or  before  the  reign  of  Jeroboam 
II.,  which  begun  825  B.  c.,  he  endeav 
ored  to  avoid  the  command  by  embark 
ing  at  Joppa  for  Tarshish,  in  order  to  fly 
as  far  as  possible  in  the  opposite  direction. 
But  being  overtaken  by  a  storm,  he  was 
thrown  overboard  at  his  own  request, 
and  miraculously  preserved  by  being 
swallowed  by  a  large  fish.  See  WHALE. 
Several  Greek  and  Roman  legends  seem 
to  have  been  borrowed  from  this  source. 
After  three  days,  typical  of  our  Saviour's 
stay  in  the  tomb,  the  lish  cast  Jonah  out 
upon  the  shore  ;  the  word  of  the  Lord  a 
second  time  directed  him  to  go  to  Nine 
veh,  and  he  obeyed.  The  allusions  of 
the  narrative  to  the  vast  extent  and 
population  of  this  city,  are  confirmed  by 
other  ancient  accounts  and  by  modern 
investigations.  See  NINEVEH.  At  the 
warning  word  of  the  prophet,  the  Nin- 
evites  repented,  and  the  destruction 
threatened  was  postponed  ;  but  the  feel 
ings  of  Jonah  at  seeing  his  predictions 
unfulfilled  and  the  enemies  of  God's  peo 
ple  spared,  rendered  necessary  a  further 
exercise  of  the  forbearance  of  God.  See 
GOURD. 

The  literal  truth  of  the  narrative  is 
established  by  our  Saviour's  repeated 
quotations,  Matt.  12:39-41;  16:4;  Luke 
11:29-32.  It  is  highly  instructive,  as 
showing  that  the  providential  govern 
ment  of  God  extends  to  all  heathen  na 
tions,  and  that  his  grace  has  never  been 
confined  to  his  covenant  people. 

JON'ATHAN,  I.,  a  Levite,  son  of  Ger- 
shom,  and  grandson  of  Moses,  who  after 
the  death  of  Joshua  impiously  served  as 
a  priest,  first  to  Micah,  and  then  to  the 
Danites  in  Laish  or  Dan,  where  his  pos 
terity  succeeded  him  until  the  captivity, 
Judg.  17 ;  18. 

II.  The  eldest  son  of  Saul,  and  one  of 
the  loveliest  characters  in  Old  Testament 
history.  The  narrative  of  his  brilliant 
exploit  in  Michmash,  1  Sam.  13  and  14, 
illustrates  his  pious  faith,  his  bravery, 
(see  also  1  Sam.  13  :  3,)  and  the  favor 
home  him  by  the  people,  who  would 
not  suffer  him  to  be  put  to  death  in  con 
sequence  of  Saul's  foolish  vow.  This  val- 
234 


iant  and  generous  prince  loved  David  as 
his  own  soul,  1  Sam.  18:1-4  ;  19:2  ;  20  ; 
and  though  convinced  that  his  friend 
was  chosen  of  God  for  the  throne,  nobly 
yielded  his  own  pretensions,  and  recon 
ciled  fidelity  to  his  father  with  the  most 
pure  and  disinterested  friendship  for 
David.  He  perished  with  his  father,  in 
battle  with  the  Philistines  at  mount 
Gil  boa  ;  and  nothing  can  surpass  the 
beauty  and  pathos  of  the  elegy  in  which 
David  laments  his  friend,  2  Sam.  1,  whose 
son  Mephibosheth  he  afterwards  sought 
out  and  befriended,  2  Sam.  9. 

JOPPA,  Hebrew  JAPHO,  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  seaports  in  the  world.  It 
was  a  border  town  of  the  tribe  of  Dan, 
Josh.  19:46,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter 
ranean  sea,  thirty  miles  south  of  C«sarea, 
and  about  thirty-five  north-west  of  Jeru 
salem.  Its  harbor  is  shoal  and  unpro 
tected  from  the  winds ;  but  on  account 
of  its  convenience  to  Jerusalem,  it  be 
came  the  principal  port  of  Judea,  and  is 
still  the  great  landing-place  of  pilgrims. 
Here  the  materials  for  building  both  the 
first  and  the  second  temple,  sent  from 
Lebanon  and  Tyre,  were  landed,  2  Chr. 
3:16  ;  Ezra  3:7.  Here  Jonah  embarked 
for  Tarshish.  Here,  too,  Peter  raised 
Dorcas  from  the  dead  ;  and  in  the  house 
of  Simon  the  tanner,  by  the  seaside,  was 
taught  by  a  heavenly  vision  that  salva- 
vation  was  for  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews, 
Acts  9-11.  Joppa  was  twice  destroyed 
by  the  Romans.  It  was  the  seat  of  a 
Christian  church  for  some  centuries  after 
Constantine.  During  the  crusades  it 
several  times  changed  hands ;  and  in 
modern  times,  1799,  it  was  stormed  and 
sacked  by  the  French,  and  twelve  hun 
dred  Turkish  prisoners,  said  to  have 
broken  their  parole,  were  put  to  death. 

The  present  town  of  Jaffa,  or  Yafa,  is 
situated  on  a  promontory  jutting  out 
into  the  sea,  rising  to  the  height  of 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  crown 
ed  with  a  fortress,  and  offering  on  all 
sides  picturesque  and  varied  prospects. 
Towards  the  west  is  extended  the  open 
sea;  towards  the  south  are  spread  the 
fertile  plains  of  Philistia,  reaching  as  far 
as  Gaza;  towards  the. north,  as  far  as 
Carmel,  the  flowery  meads  of  Sharon 
present  themselves  ;  and  to  the  east,  the 
hills  of  Ephraim  and  Judah  raise  their 
towering  heads.  The  town  is  walled 
round  on  the  south  and  east,  towards 
the  land,  and  partially  so  on  the  north 


Juh 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


7AFA,  THE  MODEH.N  JOPPA,  FROM  THE  NORTH. 


and  west,  towards  the  sea.  Its  environs, 
away  from  the  sand-hills  of  the  shore, 
are  full  of  gardens  and  orchards.  From 
the  sea,  the  town  looks  like  a  heap  of 
buildings,  crowded  as  closely  as  possible 
into  a  given  space ;  and  from  the  steep 
ness  of  its  site,  they  appear  in  some 
places  to  stand  one  on  the  other.  The 
streets  are  very  narrow,  uneven,  and 
dirty,  and  might  rather  be  called  alleys. 
The  inhabitants  are  estimated  at  about 
fifteen  thousand,  of  who  in  more  than  half 
are  Turks  and  Arabs.  There  are  several 
mosques ;  and  the  Latins,  Greeks,  and  Ar 
menians  have  each  a  church,  and  a  small 
convent  for  the  reception  of  pilgrims. 

JO'RAM,  or  JEIIO'RAM,  I. ,  son  of  Ahab 
king  of  Israel,  succeeded  his  older  broth 
er  Ahaziah  in  the  throne,  B.  c.  896,  and 
reigned  twelve  years.  He  discontinued 
the  worship  of  Baal,  but  followed  the 
"sin  of  Jeroboam."  During  his  reign, 
the  Moabites  revolted.  Joram  secured 
the  aid  of  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah, 
and  after  receiving  for  his  allies'  sake  a 
miraculous  deliverance  from  drought, 
defeated  the  Moabites  with  great  slaugh 
ter.  Not  long  after  he  was  involved  in 
war  with  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria,  and 
Hazael  his  successor ;  and  in  this  time 
occurred  the  miraculous  deliverance  of 


Samaria  from  siege  and  famine,  and  also 
various  miracles  of  Elisha,  including  the 
healing  of  Naaman.  Joram  was  wound 
ed  in  a  battle  with  Hazael,  and  met  his 
death,  in  the  suburbs  of  Ramoth-gilead, 
by  the  hand  of  Jehu  his  general.  His 
body  was  thrown  into  the  field  of  Na- 
both  at  Jezreel,  and  with  him  perished 
the  race  of  Ahab,  1  Kin.  21 : 18-29 ;  2  Kin. 
1:17;  3:1;  6:9 

II.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jehosha 
phat  king  of  Judah.  He  reigned  with 
his  father,  from  B,  c.  889,  four  years, 
and  four  years  alone  ;  in  all  eight  years. 
Unhappily  he  was  married  to  Athaliah, 
daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  whose 
evil  influence  did  much  to  render  his 
reign  a  curse  to  the  land.  He  slew  his 
own  brothers,  five  in  number,  and  seized 
their  possessions.  He  also  introduced 
Phoenician  idols  and  their  worship  into 
Judah.  The  divine  wrath  was  shown  in 
leaving  him  unaided  under  a  successful 
revolt  of  the  Edomites,  and  repeated  in 
vasions  of  the  Philistines  and  Arabians. . 
His  country,  the  city,  and  his  own  house-' 
hold  were  ravaged,  his  body  was  afflicted 
with  a  frightful  dysenteric  illness,  and 
after  death  a  burial  in  the  royal  sepul 
chres  was  denied  him,  2  Kin.  8:16-24; 
2  Chr.  21. 

235 


JOR  BIBLE  DICTIONARY.  JOR 


JOK'DAN,  the  chief  river  of  Palestine, 
running  from  north  to  south,  and  divid 
ing  the  Holy  Land  into  two  parts,  of 
which  the  larger  and  more  important 
lay  on  the  west.  There  are  two  small 
streams,  each  of  which  claims  to  be  its 
source.  One  of  these,  near  Banias,  an 
ciently  Cassarea  Philippi,  issues  from  a 
large  cave  in  a  rocky  mountain  side,  and 
flows  several  miles  towards  the  south 
west,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  second 
and  larger  stream,  which  originates  in 
a  fountain  at  Tell-el-Kady,  three  miles 
west  of  Banias.  But  besides  these,  there 
is  a  third  and  longer  stream,  which  rises 
beyond  the  northern  limit  of  Palestine, 
near  Hasbeia  on  the  west  side  of  mount 
Hermon,  flows  twenty-four  miles  to  the 
south,  and  unites  with  the  other  streams 
before  they  enter  the  "waters  of  Mc- 
rom,"  now  lake  Huleh.  This  marshy 
lake,  when  full,  is  about  seven  miles 
long,  and  receives  several  other  but 
smaller  streams,  chiefly  from  the  west. 
See  MEROM.  Issuing  from  lake  Huleh, 
the  Jordan  flows  about  nine  miles  south 
ward  to  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  through 
which  its  clear  and  smooth  course  may 
be  traced  twelve  miles  to  the  lower  end. 
Hence  it  pursues  its  sinuous  way  to  the 
south,  till  its  pure  waters  are  lost  in  the 
bitter  sea  of  Sodom. 

Between  these  two  seas,  that  of  Tibe 
rias  and  the  Dead  sea,  lies  the  great  val- 
236 


ley  or  plain  of  the  Jordan,  2  Kin.  25;  4; 
2  Chr.  4:17.  It  is  called  by  the  Arabs 
El-Ghor.  Its  average  width  is  about 
five  miles,  but  near  Jericho  it  is  twelve 
or  fifteen  miles,  It  is  terminated  o;i 
both  sides,  through  its  whole  length,  by 
hills,  which  rise  abruptly  on  the  western 
border  1,000  or  1,200  feet  high,  and  more 
gradually  on  the  east,  but  twice  as  high. 
This  valley  is  excessively  hot,  and  except 
where  watered  by  fountains  or  rivulets, 
is  sandy  and  destitute  of  foliage.  It  is 
covered  in  many  parts  with  innumerable 
cone-like  mounds,  and  sometimes  con 
tains  a  lower  and  narrow  terrace  of  sim 
ilar  character,  perhaps  an  eighth  of  a 
mile  wide.  Through  this  valley  the 
river  takes  its  serpentine  course  in  a 
channel  from  fifteen  to  fifty  feet  below 
the  general  level.  Its  immediate  banks 
are  thickly  covered  with  trees  and 
shrubs,  such  as  the  willow,  tamarisk, 
and  oleander  ;  and  often  recede,  and 
leave  a  larger  space  for  vegetation.  In 
the  lower  Jordan,  the  stream  is  bordered 
by  numerous  canebrakes.  The  thickets 
adjoining  the  river  were  formerly  the 
retreat  of  wild  beasts,  which  of  course 
would  be  driven  out  by  a  freshet ;  hence 
the  figure,  "He  shall  come  up  like  a 
lion  from  the  swelling  of  Jordan,"  Jer. 
49 : 19  ;  50 : 44.  The  channel  of  the  river 
may  be  deeper  sunk  than  of  old,  but 
even  now  not  only  the  intervales  within 


JOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


JOR 


the  banks  are  overflowed  in  spring,  but 
in  many  places  the  banks  themselves, 

1  Chr.  12 : 15.    Lieut.  Lynch  of  the  Unit 
ed  States  navy,  who  traversed  the  Jor 
dan  in  1848,  ascertained  that,  although 
the  distance  from  the  sea  of  Galilee  to 
the  Dead  sea  is  but  sixty  miles  in  a 
straight  line,  it  is  two  hundred  miles  by 
the  course  of  the  river,  which  has  innu 
merable  curves.    Its  width  varies  at  dif 
ferent  points  from  seventy-five  to  two 
hundred  feet,  and  its  depth  from  three 
to  twelve  feet.     Its  volume  of  water  dif 
fers  exceedingly  at  different  seasons  and 
from  year  to  year.     The  current  is  usu 
ally  swift  and  strong  ;  and  there  are  nu 
merous  rapids  and  falls,  of  which  no  less 
than  twenty-seven  are  specified  by  Lieut. 
Lynch  as  dangerous  even  to  his.mctallic 
boats.     The  sea  of  Tiberias  ILs  312  (ac 
cording  to  Lynch,  653)  feet  below  the 
level    of   the   Mediterranean,   and    the 
Dead  sea  1,316  feet ;   hence  the  fall  of 
the  Jordan  between  the  two  seas  is  1,000 
feet.     The  waters  of  the  Jordan  are  cool 
and  soft,  and  like  the  sea  of  Galilee,  it 
abounds  in  fish.     It  is  crossed  by  a  stone 
bridge,  below  lake  Hulch,  (see  GKSIIUR  ;) 
and  the  fragments  of  another,  just  south 
of  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  still  remain.    Sev 
eral  fords,  available  in  ordinary  seasons, 
are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  Judg.  3:28  ; 
12  :  5 ;  2  Sam.  17  :  22-24.     Ferry-boats 
were  also  used,  2  Sam    19  :  17,  18,  39. 
See  SEA  IV. 

It  was  during  the  annual  "swelling  of 
the  Jordan  "  that  Joshua  and  the  Israel 
ites  crossed  it,  Josh.  3:15.  Yet  the  swift 
and  swollen  current  was  arrested  in  its 
course,  opposite  to  Jericho ;  and  while 
the  waters  below  the  city  rolled  on  to 
the  sea,  those  above  it  were  miracu 
lously  stayed,  and  left  in  the  river  bed 
a  wide  passage  for  the  hosts  of  Israel. 
Twice  afterwards  the  Jordan  was  mirac 
ulously  crossed,  by  Elijah  and  Elisha, 

2  Kin.  2  :  8,  14.     In  its  waters  the  lep 
rosy  of  Namaan  was  healed,  and  the  lost 
axe-head  floated,  at  the  word  of  Elisha, 
2  Kin.  5:14;  6:6.     Here,  too,  our  Sav 
iour  was  baptized,  Matt.  3:13  ;  and  this 
event  is  commemorated,  in  the  middle  of 
April  of  each  year,  by  thousands  of  pil 
grims  of  various  sects  of  nominal  Chris 
tians,  who  on  a  given  day,  and  under 
the  protection  of  a  strong  Turkish  escort, 
visit  the  sacred  river,  drink  and  bathe  in 
its  waters,  and  after  an  hour  or  two  re 
turn  to  Jerusalem. 


The  principal  branches  of  the  Jordan 
are  the  Yermak,  anciently  Hieromax,  a 
large  stream,  and  the  Jabbok,  both  on 
the  east.  There  are  several  gmall  rivu 
lets  and  many  mountain  brooks,  .which 
dry  up  more  or  less  early  in  the  sum 
mer.  The  phrase,  "  beyond  Jordan," 
usually  indicates  the  east  side  of  the 
river,  but  before  the  conquest  by  Joshua 
it  meant  the  west  side. 

At  the  present  day,  ihe  Jordan  is  lost 
in  the  Dead  sea ;  but  many  have  sup 
posed  that  in  very  ancient  times,  before 
the  destruction  of  the  cities  in  the  vale 
of  Sodom,  the  Jordan  passed  through 
the  Dead  sea  and  the  vale  of  Siddim, 
and  continued  its  course  southward  to 
the  Elanitlc  gulf  of  the  Eed  sea.  The 
southern  end  of  the  Dead  sea  is  found  to 
be  connected  with  the  Elanitic  gulf,  or 
gulf  of  Akaba,  by  the  great  valley,  called 
El-Arabah,  forming  a  prolongation  of  El- 
Ghor,  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  See  map 
in  EXODUS.  Ihe  course  of  this  valley 
is  between  south  and  south-south-west. 
Its  length,  from  the  Dead  sea  to  Akaba, 
is  about  one  hundred  miles  in  a  direct 
line.  From  the  extremity  of  the  Dead 
sea,  a  sandy  plain  extends  southward  be 
tween  hills,  and  on  a  level  with  the  sea, 
for  the  distance  of  eight  or  ten  miles, 
where  it  is  interrupted  by  a  chalky  cliff, 
from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  high,  which 
runs  nearly  across  the  valley,  but  leaves 
at  its  western  end  the  opening  of  a  val 
ley  nearly  half  a  mile  wide,  which  runs 
up  for  many  miles  to  the  south  within 
the  broad  and  desert  valley  El-Arabah, 
upon  which  it  at  length  emerges,  and 
the  water  of  which  it  conveys  to  the 
Dead  sea.  The  cliff  above  referred  to, 
probably  the  Akrabbim  of  the  Bible, 
marks  the  termination  of  El-Ghor  and 
the  commencement  of  El-Arabah,  which 
is  thence  prolonged  without  interruption 
to  Akaba.  It  is  skirted  on  each  side  by 
a  chain  of  mountains ;  but  the  streams 
which  descend  from  these,  are  in  sum 
mer  lost  in  their  gravelly  beds  before 
they  reach  the  valley  below ;  so  that 
this  lower  plain  is  in  summer  entirely 
without  water,  which  alone  can  produce 
verdure  in  the  Arabian  deserts  and  ren 
der  them  habitable.  There  is  not  the 
slightest  appearance  of  a  road,  or  of  any 
other  work  of  human  art,  in  any  part  of 
the  valley.  The  opinion  that  the  Jor 
dan  formerly  traversed  this  great  valle,y 
is  rendered  untenable  by  the  fact  that 
237 


JOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JOS 


the  Dead  sea  lies  nearly  1,300  feet  lower 
than  the  gulf  of  Akaba,  and  that  most 
of  the  intervening  region  now  pours  its 
streams  north  into  the  Dead  sea.  Of 
course  the  Jordan  must  also  have  stop 
ped  there  of  old,  as  it  does  now,  unless, 
according  to  the  somewhat  startling  the 
ory  of  Lieut.  Lynch  and  others,  the  Dead 
sea — and  with  it,  though  less  deeply,  the 
whole  valley  to  the  north  and  south — 
sunk  down  from  a  higher  level  into  its 
present  deep  chasm,  perhaps  long  before 
that  appalling  catastrophe  from  which 
Lot  found  refuge  in  "the  mountain," 
Gen.  19:17-28,  30.  See  SEA  III. 

JO'SEPPI,  I.,  the  son  of  Jacob  and  his 
beloved  Rachel,  born  in  Mesopotamia, 
Gen.  30:22-24,  B.  c.  1747,  He  is  mem 
orable  for  the  wonderful  providence  of 
God  which  raised  him  from  a  prison  to 
be  the  grand-vizier  of  Egypt,  and  made 
him  the  honored  means  of  saving  count 
less  human  lives.  His  history  is  one  of 
the  most  pleasing  and  instructive  in  the 
Bible ;  and  is  related  in  language  inim 
itably  natural,  simple,  and  touching.  It 
is  too  beautiful  for  abridgment,  and  too 
familiar  to  need  rehearsal.  It  throws 
much  light  on  the  superintending  provi 
dence  of  God,  as  embracing  all  things, 
great  and  small,  in  the  perpetual  un 
folding  of  his  universal  plan.  No  narra 
tive  in  the  Bible  more  strikingly  illus 
trates  the  protective  and  elevating  power 
of  the  fear  of  God,  and  its  especial  value 
for  the  young.  To  behold  this  lovely 
image  of  filial  piety  and  unwavering 
faith,  of  self-control  in  youth  and  pa 
tience  in  adversity,  of  discretion  and 
fidelity  in  all  stations  of  life,  serenely 
walking  with  (rod  through  all,  and  at 
death  intrusting  soul  and  body  alike 
into  his  hands,  Heb.  11  :  22,  may  well 
lead  the  young  reader  to  cry,  Oh  that 
the  God  of  Joseph  were  my  God,  Gen. 
37  and  39-50.  Joseph  died,  aged  one 
hundred  and  ten,  B.  c.  1637  ;  and  when 
the  Israelites,  a  century  and  a  half  later, 
went  up  from  Egypt,  they  took  his  bones, 
and  at  length  buried  them  in  Shechem, 
Ex.  13:19;  Josh.  24:32.  A  Mohamme 
dan  wely  or  tomb  covers  the  spot  regard 
ed  generally,  and  it  may  be  correctly,  as 
the  place  of  his  burial.  It  is  a  low  stone 
enclosure,  and  stands  in  quiet  seclusion 
among  high  trees,  at  the  western  entrance 
of  the  valley  of  Shechem,  at  the  right  of 
the  traveller's  path  and  nearer  mount 
Ebal  than  mount  Gerizim. 
238 


II.  The   husband   of  Mary,    Christ'f 
mother.      His   genealogy   is    traced   in 
Matt.    1 : 1-15,    to   David,  Judah,   and 
Abraham.      See  GENEALOGY.      His  resi 
dence  was  at  Nazareth  in  Galilee,  where 
he  followed  the  occupation  of  a  carpen 
ter,   to  which  Christ  also  was  trained, 
Mark  6  ;  3.      He  was  a  pious  and  hon 
orable  man,  as  appears  from  his  whole 
course  towards  Mary  and  her  son.    They 
both  attended  the  Passover  at  Jerusalem 
when  Christ  was  twelve  years  of  age, 
Luke  2 : 41-51 ;  and  as  no  more  is  said  of 
him  in  the  sacred  narrative,  and  Christ 
committed  Mary  to  the  care  of  one  of  his 
disciples,    he   is  generally    supposed  to 
have  died  before  Christ  began  his  public 
ministry.     He  seems  to  have  been  well 
known  among  the  Jews,  Mark  6:3  ;  John 
6:42. 

III.  A  native  of  Arimathea,  but  at  the 
time  of  Christ's  crucifixion  a  resident  at 
Jerusalem.     He  was  doubtless  a  believer 
in    the   Messiah,    and  •' waited  for  the 
kingdom  of  God."    He  was  a  member  of 
the  Jewish  Sanhedrim,  and  opposed  in 
vain  their  action  in  condemning  the  Sav 
iour,  Luke  23:51.     When  all  was  over, 
he   "went  in   boldly  unto  Pilate,   and 
craved  the  body  of  Jesus."     It  was  now 
night,  and  the  Jewish  Sabbath  was  at 
hand.     He   therefore,   with  the  aid  of 
Nicodemus,  wrapped  the  body  in  spices, 
for  the  time,  and  laid  it  in  his  own  tomb, 
Mark  15:43-46;  John  19:38-42. 

IV.  A  disciple  of  Christ,  also  named 
Justus,  and  Barsabas.     See  BARSABAS. 

JO'SES,  I.,  one  of  the  brethren  of  our 
Lord,  Matt.  13  :  55  ;  Mark  6  :  3  His 
brethren  did  not  at  first  believe  on  him, 
but  after  his  resurrection  they  are  found 
among  his  disciples,  John  2:12;  7:6; 
Acts  1:14. 

II.  A  son  of  Cleophas  and  Mary,  iden 
tified  by  some   with   the  above,   Matt. 
27:56.     See  JAMES  III. 

III.  See  BARNABAS. 

JOSH'UA,  I.,  the  son  of  Nun,  a  dis 
tinguished  leader  of  the  Hebrews,  and 
the  successor  of  Moses.  His  name  at 
first  was  Oshea,  Num.  13:8,  16 ;  and  in 
the  New  Testament  he  is  called  Jesus, 
Acts  7: 45;  Heb.  4:8.  Both  the  names, 
Joshua  and  Jesus,  signify  saviour,  deliverer. 
See  JESUS.  Joshua  led  Israel  over  the 
Jordan,  and  took  possession  of  the  prom 
ised  land  ;  he  conquered  the  Canaanites, 
and  then  distributed  the  country  among 
the  tribes.  He  is  first  mentioned  as  the 


JOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JUB 


leader  of  Israel  against  the  Amalekites 
at  Rephidim,  Ex.  17  :  8-16.  See  also 
Num.  14:6.  At  the  passage  over  Jordan 
he  was  eighty-four  years  of  age ;  and 
after  about  twenty-six  years  employed 
in  his  appointed  work,  and  then  judging 
Israel  at  his  possession  atTimnath-serah, 
he  died,  u.  c.  1426.  His  last  grand  convo 
cation  of  all  Israel,  at  Shechem,  and  his 
solemn  address  to  them  and  renewal  of 
their  covenant  with  God,  form  the  wor 
thy  close  of  a  life  on  which  in  the  sacred 
records  no  blot  rests.  He  seems  to  have 
served  the  Lord  with  singular  fidelity. 
No  man  witnessed  more  or  greater  mir 
acles  than  he  ;  and  in  his  life  may  be 
found  many  points  of  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  greater  ' '  Captain  of  the 
Lord's  host,"  who  establishes  his  people 
in  the  true  promised  land. 

The  BOOK  OF  JOSHUA  contains  the  nar 
rative  of  all  these  transactions,  and  was 
written  by  Joshua  himself,  or  under  his 
direction,  B.  c.  1427.  From  chap.  24:27 
on,  was  of  course  added  by  a  later  hand  ; 
but  all  was  done  under  the  inspiration  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  2  Tim.  3:16. 

II.  The  son  of  Josedech.     See  JESIIUA. 

JOSI'AH,  son  of  Amon  and  great- 
grandson  of  Hezekiah,  a  pious  king  of 
Judah,  who  introduced  great  reforms  in 
the  temple  worship,  and  in  the  religious 
character  of  the  nation  in  general.  No 
king  set  himself  more  earnestly  to  de 
stroy  every  vestige  of  idolatry  out  of  the 
land.  Among  other  things,  he  defiled 
the  altars  of  the  idols  at  Bethel  by  burn 
ing  upon  them  the  bones  from  the  tombs 
of  their  deceased  priests ;  as  had  been 
foretold  more  than  three  centuries  be 
fore,  1  Kin.  13:2.  While  cleansing  and 
repairing  the  temple  at  his  command, 
the  priests  found  the  temple  copy  of  the 
five  books  of  the  law,  perhaps  the  origi 
nal  copy  from  Moses'  own  hand.  The 
sacred  book  was  too  much  neglected  in 
those  days  of  declension ;  and  even  the 
pious  Josiah  seems  to  have  been  impress 
ed  by  the  closing  chapters  of  Deuterono 
my  as  though  he  had  never  read  them  ! 
before.  To  avert  the  judgments  there 
threatened,  he  humbled  himself  before 
God,  and  sought  to  bring  the  people  to 
repentance.  He  caused  them  to  renew 
their  covenant  with  Jehovah,  and  cele 
brated  the  Passover  with  a  solemnity 
like  that  of  its  first  institution.  The 
repentance  of  the  people  was  heartless, 
and  did  not  avert  the  divine  judgments. 


Josiah,  however,  was  taken  away  from 
the  evil  to  come.  He  met  death  in  bat 
tle  with  Pharaoh-necho,  whose  passage 
across  his  territory  to  attack  the  king  of 
Assyria,  Josiah  felt  obliged  to  resist.  The 
death  of  this  wise  and  pious  king  was 
deeply  lamented,  by  the  prophet  Jere 
miah  and  all  the  people,  Zech.  12:11. 
He  began  to  reign  B.  c.  641,  at  the  age 
of  eight  years,  and  reigned  thirty-one 
years,  2  Kin.  22  ;  23  ;  2  Chr.  34  ;  36. 

JOT,  a  word  which  comes  from  the 
name  of  the  Greek  letter  iota  ( i )  and  the 
Hebrew  yod  ( i) .  It  is  the  smallest  let 
ter  of  these  alphabets ;  and  is  therefore 
put  for  the  smallest  thing  or  particle ; 
which  is  also  its  meaning  in  English, 
Matt.  5:18.  See  TITTLE. 

JO'THAM,  I  ,  the  youngest  son  of 
Gideon,  who  escaped  the  massacre  of  his 
brethren  by  Abimelech,  and  afterwards 
boldly  and  prophetically  denounced  the 
Shechemites  in  the  beautiful  parable  of 
the  bramble  and  the  other  trees.  He 
escaped  to  Beer,  and  probably  lived  to 
see  his  threatenings  fulfilled,  Judg.  9. 
See  ABIMELECH  III. 

II.  The  son  and  successor  of  Uzziah, 
or  Azariah,  king  of  Judah,  B.  c.  758. 
He  appears  to  have  been  for  some  years 
regent  before  the  death  of  Uzziah  his 
leprous  father,  but  ascended  the  throne 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and 
reigned  sixteen  years  in  the  fear  of  God. 
The  history  of  his  wise  and  prosperous 
reign,  and  of  his  useful  public  works,  is 
found  in  2  Kin.  15 :  5,  32-38 ;  2  Chr. 
26:21;  27:9. 

JOUR'NEY.  A  "sabbath-day's  jour 
ney,"  among  the  Jews,  seems  to  have 
been  reckoned  at  about  seven  furlongs, 
or  nearly  one  mile,  Matt.  24:20;  Acts 
1  :  12.  An  ordinary  day's  journey  is 
about  twenty  miles.  Persons  starting  on 
a  journey  in  the  East  frequently  make 
their  first  stage  a  short  one,  that  they 
may  the  more  easily  send  back  for  any 
forgotten  articles  or  necessary  supplies. 
This  may  perhaps  apply  to  the  "day's 
journey"  of  the  parents  of  Jesus,  men 
tioned  in  Luke  2 : 44. 

For  the  journeyings  of  the  Israelites, 
see  EXODUS,  and  WANDERINGS. 

JU'BAL,  music,  son  of  Lamech  and 
Adah,  and  a  descendant  of  Cain.  He 
invented  the  lyre,  and  the  shepherd 's- 
pipe,  Gen.  4:21. 

JU'BILEE,  a  Hebrew  festival,  cele: 
brated  in  every  fiftieth  year,  which  of 
239 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JUD 


course  occurred  after  seven  weeks  of 
years,  or  seven  times  seven  years,  Lev. 
25 :  10.  Its  name  Jubilee,  sounding  or 
flowing,  was  significant  of  the  joyful 
trumpet-peals  that  announced  its  arri 
val.  During  this  year  no  one  sowed  or 
reaped ;  but  all  were  satisfied  with  what 
the  earth  and  the  trees  produced  spon 
taneously.  Each  resumed  possession  of 
his  inheritance,  whether  it  were  sold, 
mortgaged,  or  otherwise  alienated  ;  and 
Hebrew  servants  of  every  description 
were  set  free,  with  their  wives  and  chil 
dren,  Lev.  25.  The  first  nine  days  were 
spent  in  festivities,  during  which  no  one 
worked,  and  every  one  wore  a  crown  on 
his  head.  On  the  tenth  day,  which  was 
the  day  of  solemn  expiation,  the  sanhe 
drim  ordered  the  trumpets  to  sound,  and 
instantly  the  slaves  were  declared  free, 
and  the  lands  returned  to  their  heredi 
tary  owners.  This  law  was  mercifully 
designed  to  prevent  the  rich  from  op 
pressing  the  poor,  and  getting  possession 
of  all  the  lands  by  purchase,  mortgage, 
or  usurpation  ;  to  cause  that  debts  should 
not  be  multiplied  too  much,  and  that 
slaves  should  not  continue,  with  their 
wives  and  children,  in  perpetual  bond 
age.  It  served  to  maintain  a  degree  of 
equality  among  the  Hebrew  families ;  to 
perpetuate  the  division  of  lands  and 
households  according  to  the  original 
tribes,  and  secure  a  careful  registry  of 
the  genealogy  of  every  family.  They 
were  also  thus  reminded  that  Jehovah 
was  the  great  Proprietor  and  Disposer  of 
all  things,  and  they  but  his  tenants. 
"The  land  is  mine  ;  for  ye  are  strangers 
and  sojourners  with  me,"  Lev.  25:28. 
And  this  memento  met  them  constantly 
and  pointedly ;  for  every  transfer  of 
land  was  valuable  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  years  remaining  before  the 
jubilee.  Isaiah  clearly  refers  to  this 
peculiar  and  important  festival,  as  fore 
shadowing  the  glorious  dispensation  of 
gospel  grace,  Isa.  61  "1,  2  ;  Luke  4: 17-21. 

See  also  the  notice  of  a  similar  institu 
tion  under  SABBATICAL  YEAR. 

JU'DAH,  the  fourth  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah,  born  in  Mesopotamia,  B.  c.  1755, 
Gen.  29:35.  His  name  appears  honora 
bly  in  the  history  of  Joseph,  Gen.  37:26, 
27  ;  44:16-34;  but  disgracefully  in  that 
of  Tamar  his  daughter-in-law,  Gen.  38. 
The  dying  benediction  of  Jacob  foretells 
the  superior  power  and  prosperity  of  the 
family  of  Judah,  and  their  continuance 
240 


as  chief  of  the  Jewish  race  until  the  time 
of  Christ,  Gen.  49:8-12.  Though  not  the 
iirst-born,  Judah  soon  came  to  be  consid 
ered  as  the  chief  of  Jacob's  children,  and 
his  tribe  was  the  most  powerful  and  nu 
merous.  The  south-eastern  part  of  Pal 
estine  fell  to  their  lot.  See  JUDEA.  On 
the  border  of  their  territory  was  Jeru 
salem,  the  seat  of  the  Jewish  worship ; 
and  from  Judah  sprung  David  and  his 
royal  race,  from  which  descended  the 
Saviour  of  the  world. 

After  the  return  from  the  captivity, 
this  tribe  in  some  sort  united  in  itself 
the  whole  HebreAv  nation,  who  from  that 
time  were  known  only  as  Judfei,  Jews, 
descendants  of  Judah.  Judah — when 
named  in  contradistinction  to  Israel, 
Ephraim,  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes, 
or  Samaria — denotes  the  kingdom  of  Ju 
dah,  and  of  David's  descendants.  See 
HEBREWS  and  KIKGS.  One  of  the  princi 
pal  distinctions  of  this  tribe  is,  that  it 
preserved  the  true  religion,  and  the  pub 
lic  exercise  of  the  priesthood,  with  the 
legal  ceremonies  in  the  temple  at  Jeru 
salem  ;  while  the  ten  tribes  gave  them 
selves  up  to  idolatry  and  the  worship  of 
the  golden  calves. 

JU'DAS,  I.,  ISCARIOT,  that  is,  man  of 
Carioth  or  Kerioth,  a  city  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15  :  25.  Being  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles  of  our  Lord,  Judas  seems  to 
have  possessed  the  full  confidence  of  his 
fellow-apostles,  and  was  entrusted  by 
them  with  all  the  presents  which  were 
made  them,  and  all  their  means  of  sub 
sistence  ;  and  when  the  twelve  were  sent 
out  to  preach  and  to  work  miracles,  Ju 
das  appears  to  have  been  among  them, 
and  to  have  received  the  same  powers. 
He  was  accustomed,  however,  even  at 
this  time,  to  appropriate  part  of  their 
common  stock  to  his  own  use,  John 
12  :  6  ;  and  at  length  sealed  his  infamy 
by  betraying  his  Lord  to  the  Jews  for 
money.  For  the  paltry  sum  of  about 
$15,  he  engaged  with  the  Jewish  Sanhe 
drim  to  guide  them  to  a  place  where 
they  could  seize  him  by  night  without 
danger  of  a  tumult.  But  when  he  learn 
ed  the  result,  a  terrible  remorse  took 
possession  of  him ;  not  succeeding  in  un 
doing  his  fatal  work  with  the  priests,  he 
cast  down  before  them  the  price  of  blood, 
crossed  the  gloomy  valley  of  Hinnom, 
and  hung  himself,  Matt.  27 : 3-10.  Luke, 
in  Acts  1 : 18,  adds  that  he  fell  headlong 
and  burst  asunder,  probably  by  the 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JUD 


breaking  of  the  rope  or  branch.  The 
steep  hill-side  south  of  the  valley  of  Hin- 
nom  might  well  be  the  scene  of  such  a 
twofold  death.  See  ACELDAMA.  The 
remorseful  confession  of  Judas  was  a  sig 
nal  testimony  to  the  spotless  innocence 
of  Christ,  Matt.  27 : 4  ;  and  his  awful  end 
is  a  solemn  warning  against  avarice, 
hypocrisy,  and  all  unfaithfulness,  Matt. 
26:34;  John  17:12;  Acts  1:25. 

II.  One  of  the  apostles,    called  also 
Jude,    Lebbeus,    and    Thaddeus,    Matt. 
10  :  3,  Mark  3:18,  Jude  1,  the  son  of 
Alpheus  and  Mary,  and  brother  of  James 
the  Less.      See  JAMES  II.  and  III.     He 
was  the  author  of  the  epistle  which  bears 
his  name,  Mark  6:3;  Luke  6:16;  Acts 
1:13. 

III.  The  brother  of  our  Lord,  Matt. 
27:56.    Supposed  by  many  to  have  been 
only  a  cousin,  and  the  same  as  Judas  II. 
the  apostle.     But  his   "brethren"    did 
not  believe  in  him  until  near  the  close 
of  his  ministry.     See  JAMES  III. 

IV.  A  Christian   teacher,   called   also 
Barsabas,  sent  from  Jerusalem  to  Anti- 
och  with  Paul  and  Barnabas,  Acts  15:22, 
27,  32. 

V.  Surnamed  "the  Galilean,"  called 
also,  by  Josephus,   the  GaulonHe.     He 
was  born  at  Gamala,  a  city  of  Gaulonitis 
near  the  south-eastern  shore  of  the  lake 
of  Tiberias.      In  company  with  one  Sa- 
doc,  he  attempted  to  excite  a  sedition 
among  the  Jews,  but  was  destroyed  by 
Quirinus,  or  Cyrenius,  at  that  time  gov 
ernor  of  Syria  and  Judea,  Acts  5:37. 

VI.  A  Jew  at  Damascus,  with  whom 
Paul  lodged,  Acts  9:11. 

JUDE.     See  JUDAS  II. 

THE  EPISTLE  OF  JUDE,  assigned  conjec- 
turally  to  the  year  66  A.  D.,  is  a  fervid 
and  vehement  voice  of  warning  against 
following  certain  false  teachers  in  their 
errors  and  corruptions,  and  so  sharing 
their  awful  doom.  It  resembles  the  sec 
ond  epistle  of  Peter.  As  to  the  quota 
tion  in  ver.  14,  15,  see  ENOCH  II. 

JUDE'A,  or  land  of  the  Jews,  a  name 
sometimes  given  to  the  southern  part  of 
the  Holy  Land  ;  and  sometimes,  especial 
ly  by  foreigners,  to  the  whole  country. 
In  the  general  division  of  Canaan  among 
the  tribes,  the  south-east  part  fell  to  the 
lot  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  With  the  in 
creasing  ascendency  of  that  tribe  the 
name  of  Judah  covered  a  more  extended 
territory,  2  Sam.  5:5;  and  after  the 
secession  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  kingdom 
11 


of  Judah  included  the  territory  of  the 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  with  a 
part  of  that  of  Simeon  and  Dan.     Judah 
thus  occupied  all  the  southern  portion  of 
Palestine,  while  the  northern  part  was 
called  Galilee,  and  the  middle  Samaria. 
After  the   captivity,  as  most  of  those 
who  returned  were  of  the  kingdom  of 
Judah,  the  name  Judah,  or  Judea,  was 
applied  generally  to  the  whole  of  Pales 
tine,  Hag.  1:1,  14  ;  2:2  ;  and  this  use  of 
the  word  has  never  wholly  ceased.  When 
the  whole  country  fell  into  the  power  of 
the  Romans',  the  former  division  into 
Galilee,    Samaria,  and  Judea  seems  to 
have  again  become  current,  Luke  2:4; 
John  4:3,  4.     Jcsephus  describes  Judea 
in  his  day  as  bounded  north  by  Sarnaria, 
east  by  the  Jordan,  west  by  the  Mediter 
ranean,  and  south  by  the  territory  of  the 
j  Arabs.     These  boundaries  seem  to  in 
clude  a  part  of  Idumaja.     Judea  in  this 
'  extent  constituted  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Herod  the  Great,  and  afterwards  be 
longed  to  his  son  Archelaus.     When  the 
latter  was  banished  for  his  cruelties,  Ju- 
.dea  was  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman 
province,  annexed  to  the  proconsulate  of 
Syria,  and  governed  by  procurators,  un 
til  it  was  at  length  given  as  part  of  his 
kingdom  to  Herod  Agrippa  II.     During 
all  this  time,  the  boundaries  of  the  prov 
ince  were  often  varied,  by  the  addition  or 
abstraction  of  different  towns  and  cities. 
The  original  territory  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah  was  an  elevated  plain,  much  bro 
ken  by  frequent  hills,  ravines,  and  val 
leys,  and  sinking  into  fine  plains  and 
pasture-grounds  on  the  west  and  south, 
Zech.  7:7.     It  was  a  healthy,  pleasant, 
and  fruitful  land.     The  valleys  yielded 
large  crops  of  grain  ;  and  the  hills  were 
terraced,   watered,  covered  with  vines, 
Gen.  49  :  11,  12,  and  rich  in  olives,  figs, 
and  many  other  fruits.     See   CANAAN. 
The  ' '  hill-country ' '  of  Judah  lay  south 
and  south-east  of  Jerusalem,  Luke  1:39, 
65,  including  Bethlehem,   Hebron,  etc. 
"The  plain"  refers  usually  to  the  low 
ground  near  the  Jordan,  2  Sam.  2  :  29 ; 
2  Kin.  25:4,  5. 

The  "wilderness  of  Judea,"  in  which 
John  began  to  preach,  and  where  Christ 
was  tempted,  seems  to  have  been  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Judah,  adjacent  to  the 
Dead  sea,  and  stretching  towards  Jeri 
cho,  2  Sam.  15 : 28.  It  is  still  one  of  the 
most  dreary  and  desolate  regions  of  the 
whole  country.  Matt.  3:1 ;  4:1. 
241 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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JUDG'ES,  in  Hebrew  Shophetim,  were 
the  rulers,  chiefs,  or  leaders  of  Israel, 
from  Joshua  to  Saul.  They  were  very 
different  from  the  ordinary  administra 
tors  of  justice  among  the  Hebrews,  re 
specting  whom,  see  JUSTICE.  The  Cartha 
ginians,  a  colony  of  the  Tyrians,  had 
likewise  governors,  whom  they  called 
Suffetes,  or  Sophetim,  with  authority 
almost  equal  to  that  of  kings. 

The  dignity  of  judge  was  for  life  ;  but 
the  succession  was  not  always  constant. 
There  w«re  anarchies,  or  intervals,  dur 
ing  which  the  commonwealth  was  with 
out  rulers.  There  were  likewise  long 
intervals  of  foreign  servitude  and  op 
pression,  under  which  the  Hebrews 
groaned  without  deliverers.  Although 
God  alone  regularly  appointed  the  judges, 
yet  the  people,  on  some  occasions,  chose 
that  individual  who  appeared  to  them 
most  proper  to  deliver  them  from  oppres 
sion  ;  and  as  it  often  happened  that  the 
oppressions  which  occasioned  recourse  to 
the  election  of  a  judge  were  not  felt  over 
all  Israel,  the  power  of  such  judge  ex 
tended  only  over-  that  province  which  he 
had  delivered.  Thus  it  was  chiefly  the 
land  east  of  the  Jordan  that  Ehud,  Jeph- 
thah,  Elon,  and  Jair  delivered  and  gov 
erned  ;  Barak  and  Tola  governed  the 
northern  tribes  ;  Abdon  the  central ;  and 
Ibzan  and  Samson  the  southern.  The 
authority  of  judges  was  little  inferior  to 
that  of  kings :  it  extended  to  peace  and 
war ;  they  decided  causes  with  absolute 
authority ;  but  had  no  power  to  make 
new  laws,  or  to  impose  new  burdens  on 
the  people.  They  were  protectors  of  the 
laws,  defenders  of  religion,  and  aven 
gers  of  crimes,  particularly  of  idolatry ; 
they  were  without  salary,  pomp,  or  splen 
dor  ;  and  without  guards,  train,  or  equi 
page,  other  than  that  their  own  wealth 
afforded. 

The  command  of  Jehovah  to  expel  or 
destroy  all  the  Canaanites,  was  but  im 
perfectly  executed  ;  and  those  who  were 
spared  infected  the  Hebrews  with  the 
poison  of  their  idolatry  and  vice.  The 
affair  of  Micah  and  the  Levite,  and  the 
«rime  at  Gibeah  which  led  to  the  ruin 
ous  war  against  the  Benjamites,  though 
recorded  at  the  close  of  the  book  of 
Judges,  chap.  17-21,  occurred  not  long 
after  the  death  of  Joshua,  and  show  how 
soon  Israel  began  to  depart  from  God. 
To  chastise  them,  he  suffered  the  people 
of  Mesopotamia  and  of  Moab,  the  Ca- 
242 


naanites,  Midianites,  Ammonites,  and 
Philistines,  in  turn  to  oppress  by  their 
exactions  a  part  of  the  tribes,  and  some 
times  the  whole  nation.  But  erelong, 
in  pity  for  their  sufferings,  he  would 
raise  up  one  of  the  military  and  civil 
dictators  above  described.  Fifteen  judges 
are  named  in  the  Bible,  beginning  with 
Othniel,  some  twenty  years  after  Joshua, 
and  continuing  till  the  coronation  of 
Saul.  The  recorded  succession  of  the 
judges,  and  of  the  periods  of  oppression, 
is  the  following : 

YEARS. 

Othniel,  about  B.  c.  1405 40 

Under  Eglon 18 

Ehud, etc. 80 

Under  the  Philistines unknown 

Shamgar unknown 

Under  Jabin 20 

Deborah  and  Barak 40 

Under  Midian 7 

Gideon - 40 

Abimelech T-  3 

Tola 23 

Jair 22 

Under  the  Ammonites 18 

Jephthah  -- 6 

Ibzan 7 

Elon 10 

Abdon- 8 

Under  the  Philistines 40 

Samson  )  - - 20 

Eli  }-- 40 

Under  the  Philistines  - - 20 

Samuel,  about 12 

Saul,  the  first  king,  B.  c.  1095. 

The  time  from  Othniel  to  Saul,  accord 
ing  to  the  above  table,  would  be  some 
500  years  ;  according  to  the  received 
chronology,  it  is  about  310  years.  It  is 
supposed  that  some  of  the  above  periods 
overlap  each  other ;  but  chronologists 
are  not  agreed  as  to  the  mode  of  recon 
ciling  the  accounts  in  Judges  with  other 
known  dates,  and  with  1  Kin.  6:1,  and 
Acts  13  :  20,  though  several  practicable 
methods  are  proposed,  the  examination 
of  which  would  exceed  the  limits  of  this 
work. 

The  BOOK  OF  JUDGES  contains  the  an 
nals  of  the  times  in  which  Israel  was 
ruled  by  judges,  and  is  often  referred  to 
in  the  New  Testament  and  other  parts 
of  the  Bible.  It  appears  to  have  been 
written  before  David  captured Zion,  1:21, 
and  yet  after  a  regal  government  was 
introduced,  17  :  6  ;  18  :  1 ;  21:25.  Who 
was  its  author  is  unknown ;  the  major 
ity  of  critics  ascribe  it  to  Samuel,  B.  c. 
1403,  but  many  regard  it  as  a  compila 
tion  by  Ezra.  It  illustrates  God's  care 
over  his  people,  mingling  his  long-suf 
fering  with  timely  chastisements.  The 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JUS 


period  of  the  judges  was,  on  the  whole, 
one  of  prosperity  ;  and  while  the  provi 
dence  of  God  confirmed  his  word,  "If 
ye  refuse  and  rebel,  ye  shall  be  devoured 
by  the  sword,"  it  no  less  faithfully  as 
sured  them,  "If  ye  be  willing  and  obe 
dient,  ye  shall  eat  of  the  good  of  the 
land. ' ' 

JUDG'MENT  is  put,  in  Matt.  5  :  21, 
22,  for  a  court  of  judgment,  a  tribunal, 
namely,  the  tribunal  of  seven  judges, 
which  Josephus  mentions  as  existing  in 
every  city,  and  which  decided  causes  of 
minor  importance.  See  under  SYNA 
GOGUE. 

For  the  expression,  "judgment-hall," 
see  PRETOKIUM. 

The  DAY  OF  JUDGMENT,  for  which  the 
word  "judgment"  alone  is  sometimes 
used,  is  that  great  day,  at  the  end  of  the 
world  and  of  time,  when  Christ  shall  sit 
as  judge  over  all  the  universe,  and  when 
every  individual  of  the  human  race  will 
be  judged  and  recompensed  according  to 
his  works,  whether  they  be  good  or  evil. 
The  time  of  its  coming  and  its  duration 
are  known  only  to  God.  It  will  break 
upon  the  world  suddenly,  and  with  a 
glorious  but  awful  majesty.  It  will  wit 
ness  the  perfect  vindication  of  all  the 
ways  of  God.  The  revelation  of  his  jus 
tice,  appalling  but  unstained,  will  fill 
the  universe  with  approving  wonder ; 
but  the  revelation  of  his  yet  more  amaz 
ing  goodness  will  crown  him  with  unut 
terable  glory.  The  Redeemer  especially 
will  then  receive  his  reward,  and  be  glo 
rified  in  his  saints,  who  shall  be  raised 
from  the  dead  in  his  likeness.  He  will 
divide  all  mankind  into  two  classes  :  aJl 
the  righteous  will  be  in  one,  and  all  the 
wicked  in  the  other  ;  all  that  love  God 
in  the  one,  and  all  that  hate  him  in  the 
other;  all  that  penitently  believed  in 
Christ  while  they  lived  in  the  one,  and 
all  that  died  impenitent  and  unbelieving 
in  the  other.  And  this  judgment  and 
separation  will  be  eternal ;  the  former 
will  rise  in  holiness  and  joy,  and  the  lat 
ter  sink  in  sin  and  woe  for  ever,  Eccl. 
11:9;  Dan.  12:2;  Matt.  10:15;  12:36; 
25  :  31-46  ;  26  :  64 ;  John  5  :  22  ;  Acts 
17  :  31 ;  Rom.  14  :  10-12  ;  2  Thess.  1 : 7- 
10;  2  Pet.  2:9;  3:7  ;  1  John  4:17  ;  Rev. 
20:12-15. 

JU'LIUS,  a  centurion  of  the  cohort  of 
Augustus,  to  whom  Festus,  governor  of 
Judea,  committed  Paul  to  be  conveyed 
to  Rome.  Julius  had  great  regard  for 


Paul.  He  suffered  him  to  land  at  Sidon, 
and  to  visit  his  friends  there ;  and  in  a 
subsequent  part  of  the  voyage  he  op 
posed  the  violence  of  the  soldiers,  direct 
ed  against  the  prisoners  generally,  in  or 
der  to  save  the  apostle,  Acts  27. 

JU'NIPER  is  found  in  the  English  Bi 
ble,  1  Kin.  1(J:4,  5  ;  Job  30: 4  ;  Psa.  120:4. 
The  Hebrew  word,  however,  signifies  the 


plant  Genista,  or  Spanish  broom,  which 
is  common  in  the  desert  regions  of  Ara 
bia,  and  has  yellowish  blossoms  and  a 
bitter  root. 

JU'PITER,  the  supreme  god  of  the 
heathen  Greeks  and  Romans.  He  was 
called  the  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  and 
was  said  to  have  been  born  in  Crete. 
The  character  attributed  to  him  in  pa 
gan  mythology  was  a  compound  of  all 
that  is  wicked,  obscene,  and  beastly  in 
the  catalogue  of  human  crime.  Still  he 
was  ever  described  as  of  noble  and  dig 
nified  appearance  and  bearing.  Barna 
bas  was  supposed  by  the  people  of  Lys- 
tra  to  represent  him,  Acts  14  :  12,  13 ; 
19:35. 

JUS'TICE,  a  principle  of  righteousness 
and  equity,  controlling  our  conduct,  and 
securing  a  due  regard  to  all  the  rights 
of  others— their  persons,  property,  char 
acter,  and  interests.  It  has  to  do,  not 
with  pecuniary  transactions  alone,  but 
with  all  our  intercourse  with  society.  It 
forms  a  chief  element  of  the  character 
243 


JITS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


JUS 


approved  in  God's  word;  and  a  truly 
just  man  has  but  to  "love  mercy,  and 
walk  humbly  with  God,"  to  fullil  all 
righteousness.  Justice  in  magistrates, 
rulers,  and  judges,  must  be  fearless  and 
impartial,  and  all  its  decisions  such  as 
will  bear  revision  before  the  court  of 
heaven,  Deut.  1 :  16-17  ;  2  Sam.  23  :  3  ; 
2  Chr.  19:6-10.  Judgment  is  peculiarly 
the  prerogative  of  God,  and  every  earth 
ly  tribunal  lies  under  the  shadow  of  the 
"great  white  throne."  A  just  judg 
ment  is  the  voice  of  God ;  and  hence 
an  unjust  one  is  doubly  hateful  in  his 
sight. 

THE  JUSTICE  OP  GOD  is  that  essential 
and  infinite  attribute  which  makes  his 
nature  and  his  ways  the  perfect  embod 
iment  of  equity,  and  constitutes  him 
the  model  and  the  guardian  of  equity 
throughout  the  universe,  Deut.  32  :  4  ; 
Psa.  89  :  14.  The  justice  of  God  could 
not  leave  the  world  without  laws,  and 
cannot  fail  to  vindicate  them  by  exe 
cuting  their  penalties ;  and  as  all  man 
kind  perpetually  break  them,  every  hu 
man  soul  is  under  condemnation, '  and 
must  perish,  unless  spared  through  the 
accepted  ransom,  the  blood  of  Christ. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE,  among 
the  Hebrews,  was  characterized  by  sim 
plicity  and  promptitude.  In  early  times 
the  patriarch  of  each  family  was  its 
judge,  Gen.  38  :  24.  Afterwards,  in  the 
absence  of  more  formal  courts,  the  elders 
of  a  hpusehold,  tribe,  or  city,  were  its 
judges  by  natural  right.  In  the  wilder 
ness,  Moses  organized  for  the  Jews  a  reg 
ular  system  of  judges,  some  having  ju 
risdiction  over  ten  families,  others  over 
fifty,  one  hundred,  or  one  thousand. 
The  difficult  cases  were  referred  to  Mo 
ses,  and  he  often  sought  divine  direction 
concerning  them,  Ex.  18  :  21-26  ;  Lev. 
24:12.  These  judges  were  perhaps  the 
"princes  of  the  congregation,"  and  the 
chiefs  of  the  families  and  tribes  of  whom 
we  afterwards  read,  Num.  27:3.  In  the 
land  of  Canaan,  local  magistrates  were 
appointed  for  every  city  and  village  ;  and 
these  were  instructed  to  cooperate  with 
the  priests,  as  being  all  together  under 
the  theocracy,  the  actual  government  of 
Jehovah,  the  supreme  Judge  of  Israel, 
Deut.  16:18;  17:8-10;  19:17  ;  21:1-6. 
Their  informal  courts  were  held  in  the 
gate  of  the  city,  as  the  most  public  and 
convenient  place,  Deut.  21  :  9  ;  22  :  15  ; 
25  :  7  ;  and  in  the  same  place  contracts 
214 


were  ratified,  Ruth  4:1,  9 ;  Jer.  82:7-15. 
Deborah  the  prophetess  judged  Israel 
beneath  a  palm-tree,  Judg.  4:5.  Sam 
uel  established  virtually  a  circuit  court, 

1  Sam.  7 : 16  ;  8: 1  ;  and  among  the  kings, 
Jehoshaphat  made  special  provision  for 
the   faithful    administration    of  justice, 

2  Chr.  19.     The  kings  themselves  were 
supreme  judges,  with  almost  unlimited 
powers,  1  Sam.  22:16;   2  Sam.  4:9,  10; 
1  Kin.  22:26.   They  were  expected,  how 
ever,  to  see  that  justice  was  everywhere 
done,  and  seem  to  have  been  accessible  to 
all  who  were  wronged.     Frequent  com 
plaints  are  on  record  in  the  sacred  books 
of  the  maladministration  of  judges,  of 
bribery  and  perjury,  1  Sam.  8:3  ;  1  Kin. 
21 :  8-14  ;  Isa.  1:  23  ;  10  :  1 ;  Mic.  3:11 ; 
7:3. 

There  was  no  class  among  the  Jews 
exactly  corresponding  to  our  lawyers. 
The  accuser  and  the  accused  stood  side 
by  side  before  the  judge,  with  their  wit 
nesses,  and  pleaded  their  own  cause. 
The  accuser  is  named  in  several  places, 
Satan,  that  is,  the  adversary,  Psa.  109:6 ; 
Zech.  3  :  1-3.  No  one  could  be  con 
demned  without  the  concurring  testi 
mony  of  at  least  two  witnesses,  Num. 
35 : 30  ;  and  these  failing,  he  was  obliged 
to  make  oath  of  his  innocence,  Ex.  22 : 11 ; 
Heb.  6  :  16.  The  sentence  of  the  judge 
was  instantly  executed ;  and  in  certain 
cases  the  witnesses  cast  the  first  stone, 
Deut.  17:5,  7  ;  25:2  ;  Josh.  7:24  ;  ISam. 
22:18;  1  Kin.  2:24;  Prov.  16:14.  The 
same  frightful  celerity  still  marks  the 
administration  of  justice  in  the  East. 
The  application  of  torture  to  extract  ev 
idence  is  only  once  mentioned,  and  that 
under  the  authority  of  Kome,  Acts  22:24. 
See  SANHEDRIM  and  SYNAGOGUE. 

JUSTIFICATION,  the  being  regarded 
and  treated  as  if  innocent ;  or  acquittal 
from  the  consequences  of  guilt  before 
the  tribunal  of  God.  "Justification  by 
faith"  means  that  a  person,  on  account 
of  true  and  living  faith  in  Christ  as  man 
ifested  by  good  works,  will  be  delivered 
from  condemnation  on  account  of  his 
sins ;  that  is,  his  sins  will  be  forgiven, 
and  he  be  regarded  and  treated  as  if 
innocent  and  holy.  Thus,  besides  the 
remission  of  sins  and  their  penalty,  it 
includes  the  restoration  and  everlasting 
enjoyment  of  the  favor  of  God. 

We  obtain  justification  by  faith  in 
Christ.  Yet  neither  this  nor  any  other 
act  of  ours,  as  a  work,  is  any  ground  of 


KAD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KEI 


our  justification.  In  acquitting  us  be 
fore  his  bar,  God  regards  not  our  works, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  but  the  atoning 
work  and  merits  of  Christ.  He  was 
treated  as  a  sinner,  that  we  might  be 
treated  as  righteous.  "There  is  there 
fore  now  no  condemnation  to  them  which 
are  in  Christ  Jesus;"  the  moment  we 
believe,  our  justification  is  as  perfect  as 
the  infinite  worthiness  of  our  Redeemer. 
Its  validity  does  not  depend  on  the  meas 
ure  of  our  assurance  of  hope,  nor  on  spot 
less  holiness  of  life.  Saiictification,  in 
deed,  or  progressive  growth  in  holiness, 
commences  simultaneously  with  justifi 
cation,  and  must  in  the  end  reach  the 
same  perfectness.  Yet  it  is  important 
to  distinguish  between  the  two,  and  to 
observe  that,  could  the  believer's  holi 
ness  become  as  perfect  as  an  angel's,  it 
could  not  share  with  the  atoning  merits 
of  Christ  in  entitling  him  to  admission 
to  heaven. 

"  The  best  obedience  of  my  hands 

Dares  not  appear  before  thy  throne  ; 
But  faith  can  answer  thy  demands, 
By  pleading  what  my  Lord  hath  done." 

True  justification,  by  the  gratuitous 
gift  of  the  Saviour,  furnishes  the  most 
powerful  motive  to  a  holy  life.  It  is 
followed  by  adoption,  peace  of  con 
science,  and  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit  in 
this  life  ;  and  by  final  sanctification,  ac 
quittal  in  the  day  of  judgment,  and  ad 
mittance  to  heaven,  Rom.  3  :  20-31 ;  5  ; 
8:1-4;  10  :  4-10  ;  Gal.  2  :  16-21  ;  Eph. 
2:4-10. 


K. 


KA'DESH,  or  KA'DESII-BAR'NEA,  called 
also  En-Mishpat,  Gen.  14:7,  the  name  of 
a  fountain,  a  city,  and  the  desert  around, 
Psa.  29:3,  in  the  southern  border  of  the 
promised  land.  It  is  said,  in  Num.  20 : 16, 
to  lie  in  the  ' '  uttermost  border  of  Edom, ' ' 
and  was  probably  situated  very  near  the 
great  valley  El-Arabah,  south  of  the  Dead 
sea.  Dr.  Robinson  found  a  watering- 
place  answering  well  to  the  indications 
in  Scripture,  on  the  western  border  of 
El-Arabah,  about  twenty-seven  miles 
from  the  Dead  sea.  Kadesh  was  twice 
visited  by  the  Israelites  in  their  wander 
ings  ;  once  soon  after  they  left  mount 
Sinai,  and  again  thirty-eight  years  after. 
At  the  first  visit  the  mission  and  return 
of  the  twelve  spies  took  place,  the  rebel 


lion  of  the  people,  and  their  presumptu 
ous  effort  to  enter  Canaan  by  the  pass 
Zephath,  immediately  north  of  Kadesh, 
Num.  13  and  14.  At  their  second  visit 
occurred  the  death  of  Miriam,  the  mur 
muring  of  the  people  for  water,  the  mi 
raculous  supply,  the  sin  of  Aaron  and 
Moses  in  smiting  the  rock,  and  the  fruit 
less  request  for  a  passage  through  Edom, 
Num.  20:1-22.  The  southern  herder  of 
Judah  reached  to  Kadesh-barnea,  Josh, 
12:22;  15:3. 

KAD'MONITES,  Gen.  15 : 19,  a  tribe 
of  Canaanites  who  inhabited  the  prom 
ised  land  east  of  the  Jordan,  about  mount 
Hermon.  Some  have  fancied  that  Cad 
mus,  the  supposed  inventor  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  and  who  came  from  the  East, 
i  was  a  Kadmonite.  If  so,  he  only  intro- 
'  duced  into  Greece  the  alphabet  of  his 
own  country,  since  the  Greek  letters  are 
obviously  derived  from  the  Phoenician  or 
ancient  Hebrew  letters. 

KA'NAH,  I.,  a  brook  which  separated 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  and  fell  into  the 
Mediterranean  north  of  Joppa,  Josh.  16:8; 
17:9. 

II.  A  town  in  the  tribe  of  Asher,  Josh. 
19:24,  28.  See  CANA. 

KE'DAR,  a  son  of  Ishmael,  Gen.  25: 13, 
the  father  of  the  Kedarcnians  or  Cedrei, 
mentioned  by  Pliny,  who  dwelt  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Nabatheans,  in  Ara 
bia  Deserta.  They  were  a  numerous  and 
powerful  tribe,  not  of  the  best  reputa 
tion,  Psa.  120:5,  and  their  name  is  some 
times  put  for  the  whole  of  Arabia  Deserta 
audits  wandering  inhabitants,  Isa.  21 :16, 
17  ;  42  : 11.  Their  black  camel' s-hair 
tents  are  a  picturesque  feature  in  a  land 
scape,  Song  1:5. 

KEDE'MOTH,  a  city  in  the  border  of 
Sihon  king  of  Heshbon,  whence  Moses 
sent  him  an  embassage  of  peace.  A  des 
ert  lay  near  it,  Deut.  2:26.  It  was  after 
wards  a  Levitical  city  of  Reuben,  Josh. 
13:18;  21:37. 

KE'DESH,  I. ,  a  city  of  refuge,  in  Naph- 
tali ;  now  Kedis,  three  miles  north-west 
of  lake  Merom,  Josh.  19:37  ;  20:7.  Ba 
rak  the  judge  of  Israel  was  born  there, 
Judg.  4:6. 

II.  A  city  in  the  south  of  Judah,  Josh 
15:23. 

III.  A  city  in  Issachar,  1  Chr.  6:72. 

KE'DRON.     See  KIDRON. 

KEI'LAH,  a  city  in  the  plains  of  Ju 
dah,  which  David  once  relieved  from  a 
siege  by  the  Philistines,  but  which  after- 

245 


KEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KID 


wards  sought  to  deliver  him  up  to  Saul, 
ISam.  23.1-13;  Neh.  3:17. 

KEN'ITES,  a  people  who  dwelt  west 
of  the  Dead  sea,  and  extended  them 
selves  far  into  Arabia  Petra^a.  Jethro, 
the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  was  a  Kenite, 
and  his  family  accompanied  the  Israel 
ites,  and  settled  with  other  Kenites  in 
various  parts  of  the  Holy  Land,  Judg. 
1.16;  4:11;  1  Sam.  30.29;  1  Chr.  2:55. 
Heber  and  the  Rechabites  were  their  de 
scendants.  The  Kenites  of  whom  we  read 
appear  to  have  known  and  served  Jeho 
vah,  and  the  whole  tribe  were  friendly 
to  the  Hebrews.  Saul  spared  them, 
when  sent  to  destroy  the  Amalekites 
among  whom  they  dwelt,  Num.  24.20, 
21;  ISam.  15:6. 

KEN'IZZITES,  an  ancient  people  of 
Canaan,  whose  land  God  promised  to  the 
descendants  of  Abraham,  Gen.  15  •  19. 
They  appear  to  have  mingled  with  other 
Canaanites,  and  lost  their  distinctive 
name  before  the  time  of  Joshua.  They 
should  be  distinguished  from  the  Kenez- 


ites,  the  children  of  Kenaz.  Two  men 
so  named  are  mentioned  in  Bible  history, 
both  subsequent  to  the  Kenizzites,  Gen. 
36:15,  42;  Josh.  14:6;  15:17. 

KETU'RAH,  the  wife  of  Abraham, 
after  the  death  of  Sarah,  Gen.  25  •  1-6. 
Though  she  is  called  a  ''concubine," 
this  may  have  been  to  distinguish  her 
sons  as  well  as  Ishmael  from  Isaac  the 
son  of  promise,  Gen.  25 -6  ;  1  Chr.  1:32 ; 
Gal.  4:22,  30.  Her  sons  were  the  anoes° 
tors  of  many  Arabian  tribes. 

KIB'ROTH-HATTAA'VAH,  the  graves 
of  lust,  one  of  the  encampments  of  Israel 
in  the  wilderness,  where  they  desired  of 
God  flesh  for  their  sustenance,  declaring 
they  were  tired  of  manna,  Num.  11:34, 
35  ;  33  .  16.  Quails  were  sent  in  great 
quantities ;  but  while  the  meat  was  in 
their  mouths,  God  smote  so  great  a  num 
ber  of  them,  that  the  place  was  called 
•''the  graves  of  those  who  lusted,"  Psa. 
78  .  30,  31,  a  monument  to  warn  man 
kind  against  the  sin  of  discontent  1  Cor. 
10:6. 


JERUSALEM  AND  ITS  VALLEYS,   FROM  THE    SOUTH',   THE   KJDRON  VALLEY  OPENING  ON   THE   RIGHT,  AJfE 

IHNXOM  ON   THE   LEFT. 


KID'RON,  or  CE'DRON,  a  winter  tor 
rent,  and  the  valley  in  which  it  flowed, 
east  of  Jerusalem.  This  valley  begins  a 
little  north-west  of  the  city,  passes  some 
two  hundred  rods  north  of  the  present 
wall,  and  turns  to  the  south.  Here  it  is 
246 


wide  and  open  ;  but  as  it  runs  south 
between  the  city  and  mount  Olivet,  it 
becomes  narrow  and  deep.  Opposite 
mount  Moriah,  it  is  a  mere  torrent's  bed, 
one  hun-dred  and  fifty  feet  below  the  city 
wall.  It  sinks  still  deeper  as  it  passes 


KIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KIN 


Siloam,  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  and  the 
well  of  Nehemiah,  and  then  winds  south 
east,  in  a  narrow  and  precipitous  gorge, 
through  the  horrid  wilderness  of  St.  Sa- 
ba,  to  the  Dead  sea.  The  bed  of  the 
Kidron  is  now  dry  most  of  the  year ; 
even  in  the  rainy  season  it  has  no  con 
stant  stream,  though  heavy  and  contin 
ued  rains  may  create  an  impetuous  but 
short-lived  torrent.  It  is  crossed  by  a 
causeway  and  a  bridge  of  a  single  arch, 
between  St,  Stephen's  gate  and  the  gar 
den  of  Gethsemane.  By  this  route  prco- 
ably  David  fled  from  Absalom,  2  Sam. 
15 : 23 ;  and  the  Saviour  often  passed  this 
way  in  going  to  Bethany,  mount  Olivet, 
and  Gethsemane,  John  18:1,  2.  In  this 
valley  and  in  that  of  Hinnom,  at  their 
confluence,  kings  Asa,  Josiah,  and  Heze- 
kiah  destroyed  the  idols  and  abomina 
tions  by  which  Jerusalem  was  denied, 
1  Kin.  15:13;  2  Kin.  23  •  4,  6,  12  ;  2  Chr. 
29:16.  See  HINNOM,  and  JERUSALEM.  A 
part  of  the  waters  of  the  ancient  Kidron 
were  derived  from  the  temple  itself,  flow 
ing  down  by  several  channels  to  the 
deep  bed  of  the  brook.  The  prophet 
Ezekiel  makes  use  of  this  fact  in  a  beau 
tiful  and  cheering  allegory,  foretelling 
the  river  of  divine  grace  that  shall  yet 
renovate  the  world.  The  stream  he 
describes  issues  from  the  temple,  beside 
the  altar  of  God;  it  flows  with  an  ever 
increasing  volume ;  it  carries  with  it 
into  the  dreary  wilderness  verdure,  fruit- 
fulness,  and  melody ;  and  even  heals  the 
bitter  waters  of  the  Dead  sea  itself,  Ezek. 
47:1-12. 

KING,  KINGS.  In  Scripture,  the 
word  king  does  not  always  imply  either 
a  high  degree  of  power  or  great  extent  of 
territory.  Many  single  towns,  or  towns 
with  their  adjacent  villages,  are  said  to 
have  had  kings ;  and  many  persons  are 
called  kings  in  Scripture,  whom  we 
should  rather  denominate  chiefs  or  lead 
ers.  Somewhat  in  this  sense,  Moses  is 
said  to  have  been  "king  in  Jeshurun," 
or  Israel,  Deut.  33:5 ;  he  was  the  chief, 
the  leader,  the  guide  of  his  people, 
though  not  king  in  the  same  sense  as 
pavid  or  Solomon.  These  remarks  will 
remove  the  surprise  which  some  persons 
have  felt  at  seeing  that  so  small  a  coun 
try  as  Canaan  contained  thirty-one  kings 
who  were  conquered,  Josh.  12:9-24,  be 
sides  many  who  no  doubt  escaped  the 
arms  of  Joshua.  Adonizedek,  himself 
no  very  powerful  king,  mentions  seventy 


kings  whom  he  had  subdued  and  muti 
lated.  See  also  1  Kin.  4.21.  These  kings, 
in  many  cases,  were  no  doubt  like  the 
sheikhs  of  Arab  tribes  at  the  present  day. 
The  Israelites  had  no  kings  till  Saul: 
having  been  governed,  first  by  elders,  as 
in  Egypt ;  then  by  rulers  of  God's  ap 
pointment,  as  Moses  and  Joshua ;  then 
by  judges,  as  Othniel,  Ehud,  Gideon, 
Samuel ;  and  lastly  by  kings,  as  Saul, 
David,  Solomon.  Being  peculiarly  the 
people  of  God,  their  form  of  government 
was  essentially  a  theocracy.  God  pre 
scribed  for  them  a  code  of  laws ;  he  des 
ignated  their  rulers;  these  laws  and 
rulers  the  people  were  to  obey  "in  the 
Lord  ;"  and  in  all  cases  of  doubt,  he,  as 
the  actual  head  of  the  government,  was 
to  be  consulted,  in  the  spirit  of  the 
words,  "The  Lord  is  our  Judge,  the 
Lord  is  our  Lawgiver,  the  Lord  is  our 
King."  Their  demand  for  a  king  was 
offensive  to  him,  as  an  unbelieving  and 
rebellious  departure  from  the  more  imme 
diate  headship  of  Jehovah,  1  Sam.  8:7. 
Yet  even  under  the  regal  government, 
they  were  still  to  regard  him  as  their 
king.  Idolatry  was  treason  against  the 
throne.  Their  code  of  laws  was  still  his 
holy  book.  It  was  a  prophet  or  high- 
priest  of  Jehovah  who  anointed  the  king, 
and  placed  the  crown  upon  his  head  and 
the  sceptre  in  his  hand,  Deut.  17  :  15, 
18-20;  ISam.  10:1;  12:12-15;  2  Sam. 

I  :  14,  21 ;  1  Kin.  1 :  39  ;  2  Kin.  9  :  1-6  ; 

II  -.  12  ;  Psa.  21  :  3.     By  the  instrumen 
tality  of  his  sacred  ministers,  God  gave 
such  directions  concerning  public  affairs 
as  were   needed  and  sought  for ;   and 
these  agents  of  God,  with  their  instruc 
tions  and  warnings,  performed  a  most 
important  part  in  the  national  history. 
So  far  as  people  and  kings  looked  to  God 
as  their  Head,  they  prospered ;    and  it 
was  for  lack  of  this,  that  they  were  ru 
ined.     Of  the  two  kingdoms,  Judah  and 
Israel,  the  latter  most  rapidly  and  fully 
threw  off  its  allegiance,  2  Chr.  13:4-12  ; 
and  therefore  it  was  the  first  to  per 
ish,  having  continued  two  hundred  and 
fifty-four  years  from  the  death  of  Solo 
mon,  B.  c.  975-721,  with  nineteen  kings 
of  nine  different  dynasties.     The  king 
dom  of  Judah  continued  three  hundred 
and  eighty-seven  years  after  the  separa 
tion,  B.  c.  975-588,  having  been  held  by 
nineteen  successive  kings  of  the  line  of 
David. 

The  following  table  presents  in  one 
247 


KIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


view  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel,  as 
given  in  the  Bible,  with  the  year  when 
each  one  began  to  reign,  and  the  length 
of  his  reign.  The  chronology  is  that  of 
Usher  and  Winer,  who  nearly  coincide. 

KINGS  OF  THE  ENTIRE  NATION. 

Saul B.  c  1095 reigned  40  years. 

David "    1055----      "       40      " 

Solomon "•    1015---.       "       40      " 


OF  JTJDAH. 

Rehoboam-- 

Abijah 

Asa 


OF  ISRAEL.                   B   C. 
975- 

Jeroboam- 975- 

958- 

955- 

-954- 
-C53- 


-Xadab- 

-Baasha 

-Elah 

-Zimri 

-Omri -- 

-Ahab 


Jehoshaphat-- 


Jehoram 

Ahaziah 

(Athaliah,    ) 

usurper )  j 

Joash 


Ahaziah 

Joram 


-929- 
-929- 
-918- 
-914- 
-897- 
-896- 
-892- 
-885- 

-884- 
-878- 


•  -17  years. 
.-22      " 

-  3      " 
-41      « 

-  2      « 
-23      « 

-  1      " 

-  7  days. 
-12  years. 
-22      « 
-25      " 

-  2      " 
-12      " 


Amaziah  — 
Uzz'iah--- 


-Jchoahaz 

-Joash 


Jotham 

Ahaz  - 


Jeroboam  II. 

-  (Interregnum.)  -784-  -  - 

-Zachariah 772--- 

-Shallum 

-Mcnahcm 

-Pekahiah 

-Pekah 


840- 
838- 
825- 
810- 
784- 
772- 
772- 
771- 
760- 
768- 
768- 
741- 


Hezekiah 


-(Interregnum.)  -738-  - 


(Samaria  cap 
tured.)  


7;;s- 

29- 
-726- 

•721- 

-697- 
-642- 


-40  " 
-17  " 
-16  « 
-29  « 
-41  « 
-52  « 
-12  •  " 
6  mos 

-  1  mo. 
-10  years. 

-  2      " 
-20      " 
-16      " 
-16      " 
-10      " 
-19      " 
-29      " 


-C40- 
-609- 
-609- 
-598- 
-598- 

-588- 


-55  years. 

-  2      « 
-31      " 

-  3  mos. 
-11  years. 

-  3  mos. 
-11  years. 


Manasseh 

Ampn 

Josiah 

Jehoahaz 

Jehoiakim   -  - 
Jehoiachin  -- 

Zedekiah 

(Jerusalem  ) 
captured) j 

The  two  BOOKS  OF  KINGS  contain  a  his 
tory  of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  in 
termingled,  commencing  with  Solomon 
and  ending  with  Zedekiah ;  unlike  the 
books  of  Chronicles,  which  give  an  ac 
count  only  of  the  kings  of  Judah.  In 
the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate,  our  two 
books  of  Samuel  are  also  called  books  of 
Kings.  The  various  histories  comprising 
the  two  books  of  Kings  were  evidently 
the  work  of  a  single  inspired  writer,  and 
not  a  mere  collection.  They  are  belie v- 
248 


ed  to  have  been  written  before  the  books 
of  Chronicles,  and  Jewish  tradition  makes 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  their  author,  B.  c. 
G20.  The  writer  probably  drew  a  part  of 
his  materials  from  the  records  of  each 
reign  left  by  contemporary  prophets  and 
priests,  1  Kin.  11:  41.  See  CHRONICLES. 
All  these  sacred  annals  are  highly  in 
structive.  They  show  us  the  perfect  ful 
filment  of  the  divine  promises  and  warn 
ings  by  Moses  ;  and  every  page  confirms 
the  inspired  declaration,  ' '  The  fear  of  the 
Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom." 

KINGDOM  OF  HEAVEN  is  an  expres 
sion  used  in  the  New  Testament  to  sig 
nify  the  reign,  dispensation,  or  adminis 
tration  of  Jesus  Christ.      The  ancient 
prophets,  when  describing  the  character 
of  the  Messiah,  Dan.  2  :  44 ;  7  : 13,  14  ; 
Mic.  4  :  1-7,  and  even  when  speaking  of 
his    humiliation    and    sufferings,    were 
wont  to  intersperse  hints  of  his  power, 
his  reign,  and  his  divinity.     The  Jews, 
overlooking  the  spiritual  import  of  this 
language,  expected  the  Messiah  to  appear 
as  a  temporal  king,  exercising  power  over 
his  enemies,  restoring  the  throne  of  Da 
vid  to  all  its  splendor,   subduing  the 
nations,  and  rewarding  his  friends  and 
faithful  servants  in  proportion  to  their 
fidelity  and  services.    Hence  the  contests 
among  his  disciples,  ere  they  had  fully 
learned  Christ,  about  precedency  in  his 
kingdom ;  and  hence  probably  the  sons  of 
Zebedee  desired  the  two  chief  places  in  it, 
or  those  nearest  to  their  endeared  Master 
and  Lord.    They  afterwards  learned  that 
his  kingdom  was  not  of  this  world,  John 
18:36,  37  ;  that  its  origin,  spirit,  means, 
and  ends  were  spiritual  and  heavenly. 
It  has  indeed  its  outward  form,  the  visi 
ble  church,  Matt.  13:47,  and  bestows  on 
the  world  the  richest  of  temporal  bless 
ings  ;   but  its  true  dominion  is  in  the 
souls  of  men.     It  embraces  all  who  by 
the  Spirit  of  Christ  are  united  to  him  as 
their  divine  Head  and  King,  to  love, 
serve,  and  enjoy  him  for  ever.    His  work 
on  earth  was  to  establish  it,  Matt.  3:2. 
He  introduced  his  disciples  into  it  while 
on  earth,  and  more  fully  after  his  resur 
rection  and  ascension,  John  20:22  ;  Acts 
2:32-36;  is  "head  over  all  things,"  iij 
order  to  make  it  triumphant  and  su 
preme  even  on  earth,  Dan.  7  :  27  ;  Eph. 
1 : 20-22.     It  will  be  perfected  in  heaven, 
Matt.  8: 11,  and  will  never  cease,  Luke 
1:33,  even  when  the  mediatorial  reign  of 
the  Saviour  is  accomplished,  1  Cor.  15 : 28- 


KIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KOR 


KIR,  I. ,  a  strong  city  of  Moab  ;  called 
also  Kir-hareseth,  Kir-haresh,  and  Kir- 
heres,  Isa.  15  :  I ;  16  ;  7,  11 ;  Jer.  48 :  31. 
It  was  once  nearly  destroyed  by  Joram 
king  of  Israel,  2  Kin.  3  :  25.  It  is  now 
called  Kerak,  and  is  a  town  of  three  hun 
dred  families,  on  a  steep  hill  at  the  head 
of  a  ravine  running  up  fifteen  miles  into 
the  mountains  of  Moab.  Three-fourths 
of  its  present  inhabitants  are  nominal 
Christians,  greatly  oppressed  by  the  Mo 
hammedan  Arabs  around  them. 

II.  A  region  to  which  Tiglath-pileser 
transported  the  captive  people  of  Damas 
cus,  2  Kin.  16:9  ;  believed  to  have  been 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  river  Kur  or  Cyrus, 
on  the  north-east  of  Armenia.  The  Kur 
flows  south-east,  unites  with  the  Araxes, 
and  empties  into  the  Caspian  sea. 

KIRJATHA'IM,  I.,  the  dual  form  of 
Kirjath,  a  city.  It  was  an  ancient  city  of 
the  Emim,  east  of  the  Jordan ;  after 
wards  inhabited  by  the  Moabites,  Amo- 
rites,  and  Israelites  in  turn,  Gen.  14:5; 
Deut.  2:9-11;  Ezek.  25:9.  It  fell  with 
in  the  limits  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben, 
Num.  32:37;  Josh.  13:19. 

II.  A  Levitical  city  in  Naphtali,  1  Chr. 
6:76  ;  called  Kartan,  in  Josh.  21:32. 

KIR'JATH-AR'BA.     See  HEBRON. 

KIR'JATH-JEA'RIM,  or  KIRJATII-BA- 
AL,  Josh.  15:9,  60;  a  city  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites,  afterwards  given  to  Judah.  It  was 
on  the  confines  of  Benjamin,  Josh.  18: 14, 
15,  about  nine  miles  from  Jerusalem  in 
the  way  to  Lydda.  Here  the  ark  was 
lodged  for  many  years,  in  the  house  of 
Abinadab,  till  David  removed  it  to  Jeru 
salem,  1  Sam.  7:2;  2  Sam.  6:2;  1  Chr. 
13. 

KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH,  and  KIR'JATII- 
SEPII'ER.  See  DEBIR. 

KI'SHON,  now  the  Mukutta,  a  brook 
which  rises  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
near  the  foot  of  mount  Tabor.  After 
passing  through  the  great  plain  and  re 
ceiving  the  waters  of  various  smaller 
streams,  it  flows  along  the  foot  of  mount 
Carmel,  and  discharges  itself  into  the 
Mediterranean,  a  short  distance  south  of 
Acre.  The  supplies  it  receives  from  the 
Carmel  ridge,  see  CARMEL  II.,  make  it  a 
perennial  stream  for  about  seven  miles 
from  its  mouth.  But  all  the  eastern 
part  of  its  channel,  now  that  the  great 
plain  through  which  it  flows  is  unwood- 
ed,  is  dry  throughout  the  summer  sea 
son  ;  and  yet,  in  the  winter,  and  after 
heavy  rains,  it  swells  to  a  full  and  rapid 


torrent.  The  drowning  of  Sisera's  host, 
Judg.  4:13  ;  5:21,  is  paralleled  by  a  sim 
ilar  destruction  of  Arabs  fleeing  from  the 
French  after  the  battle  of  mount  Tabor. 
April  18,  1799. 

KISS.  This  salutation  was  customary 
in  the  East,  to  express  regard  and  rever 
ence,  as  well  as  affection,  Gen.  29:13; 
Ruth  1:14;  Acts  20 : 37 .  Sometimes  the 
beard  was  kissed,  2  Sam.  20:  9  ;  and,  iu 
token  of  humble  affection,  the  feet,  Luke 
7:38.  Images  and  the  heavenly  bodies 
were  worshipped  by  kissing  the  hand 
towards  them,  1  Kin.  19:18  ;  Job  31:27  ; 
Hos.  13  :  2.  The  expression,  "Kiss  the 
Son,"  Psa.  2  :  12,  may  be  illustrated  by 
1  Sam.  10  :  1,  where  king  Saul  receives 
the  kiss  of  allegiance  from  Samuel.  This 
salutation  being  customary  in  those  days 
between  man  and  man,  was  used  in  the 
early  church  as  a  pledge  of  Christian 
peace  and  charity,  Rom.  16  : 16  ;  1  Pet. 
5:14. 

KITE,  a  bird  of  prey,  and  therefore 
placed  by  Moses  among  the  unclean  birds, 
Lev.  11:14.  See  BIRDS. 

KIT'TIM,  son  of  Javan,  and  grandson 
of  Noah,  Gen.  10:4.  See  CIIITTIM. 

KNEAD'ING -TROUGHS.  In  the  de 
scription  of  the  departure  of  the  Israel 
ites  from  Egypt,  Exod.  12  :  34,  we  read 
that  "the  people  took  their  dough  be 
fore  it  was  leavened,  their  kneading- 
troughs  being  bound  up  in  their  clothes 
upon  their  shoulders."  These  were 
either  small  wooden  bowls,  or  circular 
pieces  of  leather  which  might  be  drawn 
up  like  a  bag,  by  a  cord  encircling  the 
edge.  The  Arabs  of  the  present  day  use 
both. 

KO'HATH,  son  of  Levi,  Gen.  46:11, 
and  father  of  the  Kohathites,  who  were 
appointed  to  carry  the  ark  and  sacred 
utensils  of  the  tabernacle  during  the 
journeyings  of  the  Israelites  in  the  des 
ert,  Ex.  6:16-24;  Num.  4:4-15. 

KO'RAH,  a  Levite,  who  rebelled 
against  Moses  and  Aaron,  and  so  against 
Jehovah.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Moses; 
for  their  fathers  Izhar  and  Amram  were 
brothers,  Ex.  6:16-21.  He  was  jealous 
of  the  civil  authority  and  priestly  dig 
nity  conferred  by  God  upon  Moses  and 
Aaron,  his  own  cousins,  while  he  was 
simply  a  Levite  ;  and  to  obtain  a  part  at 
least  of  their  power  for  himself,  he  stir 
red  up  a  factious  spirit  in  the  people. 
Too  much,  alas,  of  what  may  seem  to  be 
zeal  for  the  honor  of  God,  has  its  true 
249 


LAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAM 


character  displayed  in  the  pride  and  am 
bition  of  this  rebellious  Levite.  The  two 
hundred  and  fifty  Levites  whom  he  had 
enticed  to  join  him  were  destroyed  by 
fire  from  the  Lord ;  while  Korah,  Da- 
than,  and  Abiram  were  swallowed  up  by 
the  miraculous  opening  of  the  earth, 
Num.  16.  But  Koran's  children  escap 
ed,  Num.  26  : 11 ;  and  the  Korahites  or 
"sons  of  Korah,"  were  a  celebrated  fam 
ily  of  singers  and  poets  in  the  time  of 
David,  1  Chr.  9: 19  ;  26: 1.  To  them  are 
inscribed  several  Psalms,  Psa.  42,  44,  49, 
84,  85,  87,  88. 


L. 


LA'BAN,  a  rich  herdsman  of  Mesopo 
tamia,  son  of  Bethuel,  and  grandson  of 
Nahor,  Abraham's  brother,  Gen.  24:28- 
31.  His  character  is  shown  in  the  glad 
ness  with  which  he  gave  his  sister  Re- 
bekah  in  marriage  to  the  only  son  of  his 
rich  uncle,  Abraham,  Gen.  24  :  30,  50 ; 
and  in  his  deceitful  and  exacting  treat 
ment  of  Jacob  his  nephew  and  son-in- 
law,  against  which  Jacob  defended  him 
self  by  cunning  as  well  as  fidelity.  When 
the  prosperity  of  the  one  family  and  tbe 
jealousy  of  the  other  rendered  peace  im 
possible,  Jacob,  at  the  command  of  God, 
secretly  departed,  to  go  to  Canaan.  La- 
ban  pursued  him ;  but  being  warned  by 
God  to  do  him  no  harm,  returned  home 
after  making  a  treaty  of  peace.  He 
seems  to  have  known  and  worshipped 
God,  Gen.  24  :  50  ;  30  :  27  ;  31 :  53  ;  but 
the  "gods"  or  teraphim  which  Rachel 
stole  from  her  father,  Gen.  31  :  30,  34, 
show  that  he  was  not  without  the  taint 
of  idolatry. 

LA'CHISH,  a  city  in  the  south-west 
part  of  Judah,  Josh.  10  :  3,  5,  31 ;  forti 
fied  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr.  11  :  9,  and 
strong  enough  to  resist  for  a  time  the 
whole  army  of  Sennacherib,  2  Kin. 
18:17;  19:8;  2  Chr.  32:1,  9,  21;  Mic. 
1:13.  It  was  here  that  king  Amaziah 
was  slain,  2  Kin.  14:19.  For  a  wonder 
ful  confirmation  of  the  truth  of  Scrip 
ture,  see  SENNACHERIB. 

LAD'DER,  Gen.  28:12-17.  The  com 
forting  vision  of  the  heavenly  ladder 
shown  to  the  fugitive  Jacob,  assured  him 
of  the  omnipresent  providence  of  God, 
and  of  his  communication  of  all  needed 
good  to  his  people  in  the  desert  of  this 
world,  Heb.  1 : 14.  It  was  also  an  assur- 
250 


ance  that  there  was  a  way  open  from 
earth  to  heaven,  as  well  as  from  heaven 
to  earth  ;  and  we  may  see  in  it  an  illus 
tration  of  the  nature  of  Christ,  in  which 
heaven  and  earth  meet ;  and  of  his  work, 
which  brings  man  home  to  God. 

LA'ISH.     See  DAN. 

LAKE.  See  MEROM  and  SEA.  That 
most  terrible  description  of  hell,  as  a 
lake  burning  with  fire  and  brimstone, 
Rev.  19  :  20  ;  21  :  8,  recalls  the  fire  and 
sea  in  which  Sodom  was  consumed  and 
swallowed  up. 

LAMB,  the  young  of  the  sheep,  and 
also  the  kid  of  the  goat,  Ex.  12:5. 
Christ  is  the  Lamb  of  God,  John  1 :  29, 
as  being  the  accepted  sacrifice  for  hu 
man  sin.  The  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Tes 
tament  were  an  ordained  and  perpetual 
foreshadowing  not  only  of  his  expia£ory 
death,  but  of  his  spotless  holiness  and 
his  unresisting  meekness,  Isa.  53:4-9. 
He  is  described  in  Rev.  5  :  6  ;  12  :  11,  as 
wearing  the  form  of  a  sacrificial  lamb  in 
heaven  itself.  See  PASSOVER  and  SAC 
RIFICES. 

LAMECH,  L,  Gen.  4:18-24,  a  descend 
ant  of  Cain,  in  the  fifth  generation,  and 
ancestor  of  a  numerous  posterity  distin 
guished  for  skill  in  agriculture,  music, 
and  several  mechanic  arts.  He  is  the 
first  polygamist  on  record.  His  address 
to  his  two  wives  is  the  oldest  specimen 
of  poetry  extant,  and  is  a  good  illustra 
tion  of  Hebrew  parallelism. 

"AdahandZillah, 

Hear  my  voice ; 
Ye  wives  of  Lamech, 

Hearken  unto  my  speech. 
I  have  slain  a  man 

To  my  wounding, 
And  [or  even]  a  young  man 

To  my  hurt. 
If  Cain  shall  be  avenged 

Seven-fold, 
Truly  Lamech 

Seventy  and  seven  fold." 

Many  explanations  of  this  abrupt  frag 
ment  have  been  suggested.  The  most 
satisfactory,  perhaps,'is  that  Lamech  had 
accidentally  or  in  self-defence  killed  a 
man,  and  was  exposed  to  the  vengeance 
of  "the  avenger  of  blood;"  but  quiets 
the  fears  of  his  wives  by  saying,  that  as 
God  had  prohibited  the  slaying  of  Cain 
under  heavy  penalties,  Gen.  4:15,  much 
more  would  he  guard  the  life  of  Lamech 
who  was  comparatively  innocent. 

II.  The  son  of  Methuselah,  and  father 
of  Noah ;  he  lived  seven  hundred  and 


LAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAN 


eeventy-seven  years,  and  died  only  five 
years  before  the  flood,  Gen.  5:25-31. 

LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH,  an 
elegiac  poem,  composed  by  the  prophet 
on  occasion  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusa 
lem  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  first  two 
chapters  principally  describe  the  calami 
ties  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  ;  the  third 
deplores  the  persecutions  which  Jeremiah 
himself  had  suffered ;  the  fourth  adverts 
to  the  ruin  and  desolation  of  the  city  and 
temple,  and  the  misfortune  of  Zedekiah ; 
and  the  fifth  is  a  kind  of  form  of  prayer 
for  the  Jews  in  their  captivity.  At  the 
close,  the  prophet  speaks  of  the  cruelty 
of  the  Edomites,  who  had  insulted  Jeru 
salem  in  her  misery,  and  threatens  them 
with  the  wrath  of  God,  B.  c.  586. 

The  first  four  chapters  of  the  Lamenta 
tions  are  in  the  acrostic  form ;  every 
verse  beginning  with  a  letter  of  the  He 
brew  alphabet,  in  regular  order.  The 
first,  second,  and  fourth  chapters  contain 
twenty-two  verses  each,  according  to  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet ;  the  third  chap 
ter  has  three  successive  verses  beginning 
with  the  same  letter,  making  sixty-six 
in  all.  Moreover,  all  the  verses  in  each 
chapter  are  nearly  of  the  same  length. 
The  fifth  chapter  is  not  acrostic.  See 
LETTERS.  The  style  of  Jeremiah's  Lam 
entations  is  lively,  tender,  pathetic,  and 
affecting.  It  was  the  talent  of  this 
prophet  to  write  melancholy  and  moving 
elegies,  2  Chr.  35 . 25 ;  and  never  was  a 
subject  more  worthy  of  tears,  nor  treat 
ed  with  more  tender  and  affecting  sen 
timents.  One  would  think,  as  it  has 
often  been  said,  that  every  letter  was 
written  with  a  tear,  and  every  word  was 
the  &ob  of  a  broken  heart.  Yet  he  does 
not  forget  that  a  covenant  God  still 
reigns. 

LAMP.  The  lamps  of  the  ancients, 
sometimes  called  "  candles"  in  our  Bible, 
were  cups  and  vessels  of  many  conven 
ient  and  graceful  shapes ;  and  might  be 
carried  in  the  hand,  or  set  upon  a  stand. 
See  CANDLESTICK.  The  lamp  was  fed 
with  vegetable  oils,  tallow,  wax,  etc., 
and  was  kept  burning  all  night.  The 
poorest  families,  in  some  parts  of  the 
East,  still  regard  this  as  essential  to 
health  and  comfort.  A  darkened  house 
therefore  forcibly  told  of  the  extinction 
of  its  former  occupants,  Job  18  :  5,  6 ; 
Prov.  13:9;  20 :  20 ;  Jer.  25  :  10,  11 ; 
while  a  constant  light  was  significant  of 
prosperity  and  perpetuity,  2  Sam.  21 : 17  ; 


1  Kin.  11: 86  ;Psa.  132:17.    Lamps  to  be 
carried  in  the  streets  presented  a  large 
surface  of  wicking  to  the  air,  and  need 
ed  to  be  frequently  replenished  from  a 
vessel  of  oil  borne  in  the  other  hand, 
Matt.  25:3,  4.     Torches  and  lanterns, 
John  18  •  3,  were  very  necessary  in  ancient 
cities,  the  streets  of  which  were  never 
lighted. 

LAND'MAEK.   Fences  and  walls  seem 
to  have  been  little  used  in  Judea,  Mark 

2  :  23,  though  gardens  were  sometimes 
inclosed.     The  ancient  and  permanent 
limits,  therefore,  of  individual  property 
in  the  open  field,  Ruth  2:3,  were  marked 
by  trees  or  heaps  of  stones  at  the  corners ; 
and  as  it  was  easy,  by  removing  these, 
to  encroach  on  a  neighbor's  ground,  a 
peculiar  form  of  dishonesty  arose,  requir 
ing  a  severe  punishment,  Deut.  19:14; 
Prov.  22:28;  Hos.  5:10. 

LAN'GUAGE,  one  of  the  distinguish 
ing  gifts  of  God  to  man,  essential  to  all 
high  enjoyment  and  improvement  in  so 
cial  life,  and  to  be  prized  and  used  in  a 
manner  worthy  of  its  priceless  value  for 
the  glory  of  God  and  the  benefit  of  man 
kind.  The  original  language  was  not 
the  growth  of  a  mere  faculty  of  speech 
in  man,  but  a  creation  and  gift  of  God. 
Adam  and  Eve  when  created  knew  how 
to  converse  with  each  other  and  with  the 
Creator.  For  some  two  thousand  years, 
"the  whole  earth  was  of  one  language 
and  of  one  speech,"  Gen.  11:1.  But 
251 


LA  N  BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


about  one  hundred  years  after  the  flood, 
according  to  the  common  chronology, 
and  later  according  to  others,  God  mi 
raculously  "confounded  the  language" 
of  the  Cushite  rebels  at  Babel ;  and  peo 
pling  the  earth  by  these  scattered  fam 
ilies  of  diverse  tongues,  He  frustrated 
their  designs  and  promoted  his  own 
There  are  now  several  hundreds  of  lan 
guages  and  dialects  spoken  on  the  earth, 
and  infidels  have  hence  taken  occasion 
to  discredit  the  Bible  doctrine  of  the 
•unity  of  the  human  race.  It  is  found, 
however,  that  these  languages  are  dis 
tributed  in  several  great  classes,  which 
have  striking  affinities  with  each  other ; 
and  as  comparative  philology  extends  its 
researches,  it  finds  increasing  evidence 
of  the  substantial  oneness  of  the  human 
race  and  of  the  truth  of  Scripture. 

The  miracle  performed  at  Jerusalem 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost  was  the  reverse 
of  that  at  Babel,  Acts  2:1-18,  and  beau 
tifully  illustrated  the  tendency  of  the 
gospel  to  introduce  peace  and  harmony 
where  sin  has  brought  discord,  and  to 
reunite  all  the  tribes  of  mankind  in  one 
great  brotherhood. 

To  the  student  of  the  Bible,  one  of  the 
most  important  subjects  is  the  character 
and  history  of  the  original  languages  in 
which  that  holy  book  was  written.  In 
respect  to  the  original  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament,  some  remarks  have  been 
made  under  the  article  GREECE.  The  He 
brew  language,  in  which  the  Old  Testa 
ment  was  written,  is  but  one  of  the  clus 
ter  of  cognate  languages  which  anciently 
prevailed  in  Western  Asia,  commonly 
called  the  Shemitic  languages,  as  belong 
ing  particularly  to  the  descendants  of 
Shem.  A  proper  knowledge  of  the  He 
brew,  therefore,  implies  also  an  acquaint 
ance  with  these  other  kindred  dialects. 

The  Shemitic  languages  may  be  di 
vided  into  three  principal  dialects,  name 
ly,  the  Aramaoan,  the  Hebrew,  and  the 
Arabic.  1.  The  Aramaean,  spoken  in 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Babylonia,  is 
subdivided  into  the  Syriac  and  Chaldee 
dialects,  sometimes  called  also  the  West 
and  East  Aramaean.  2.  The  Hebrew 
or  Canaanitish  dialect,  Isa.  19  :  18,  was 
spoken  in  Palestine,  and  probably  with 
little  variation  in  Phoenicia  and  the  Phoe 
nician  colonies,  as  for  instance,  at  Car 
thage  and  other  places.  The  remains  of 
the  Phoenician  and  Punic  dialects  are  too 
few  and  too  much  disfigured  to  enable 
253 


us  to  judge  with  certainty  how  exten 
sively  these  languages  were  the  same  as 
the  dialect  of  Palestine.  3.  The  Arabic, 
to  which  the  Ethiopic  bears  a  special  re 
semblance,  comprises,  in  modern  times, 
a  great  variety  of  dialects  as  a  spoken 
language,  and  is  spread  over  a  vast  ex 
tent  of  country  ;  but  so  far  as  we  are  ac 
quainted  with  its  former  state,  it  appears 
more  anciently  to.  have  been  limited  prin 
cipally  to  Arabia  and  Ethiopia. 

These  languages  are  distinguished  from 
European  tongues  by  several  marked  pe 
culiarities  :  they  are  all,  except  the  Ethi 
opic,  written  from  right  to  left,  and  their 
books  begin  at  what  we  should  call  the 
end  ;  the  alphabet,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Ethiopic  which  is  syllabic,  consists 
of  consonants  only,  above  or  below  which 
the  vowel-points  are  written  ;  they  have 
several  guttural  consonants  very  difficult 
of  pronunciation  to  Europeans  ;  the  roots 
of  the  language  are,  in  general,  verbs  of 
three  letters,  and  pronounced,  according 
to  the  various  dialects,  with  one  or  more 
vowels ;  the  verbs  have  but  two  tenses, 
the  past  and  the  future ;  and  the  pro 
nouns  in  the  oblique  cases  are  generally 
united  in  the  same  word  with  the  noun 
or  verb  to  which  they  have  a  relation. 
These  various  dialects  form  substantially 
one  language,  of  which  the  original  home 
was  Western  Asia.  That  they  have  all 
diverged  from  one  parent  stock  is  mani 
fest,  but  to  determine  which  of  them  has 
undergone  the  fewest  changes  would  be 
a  difficult  question.  The  language  of 
Noah  and  his  son  Shem  was  substantially 
that  of  Adam  and  all  the  antediluvians. 
Shem  and  Heber  wrere  contemporary  with 
Abraham,  and  transmitted,  as  we  have 
good  reason  to  believe,  their  common 
tongue  to  the  race  of  Israel ;  for  it  is  not 
to  be  assumed  that  at  the  confusion  of 
Babel  no  branch  of  the  human  family 
retained  the  primitive  language.  It 
does  not  appear  that  the  descendants  of 
Shem  were  among  the  builders  of  Ba 
bel,  Gen.  10  :  8-10.  The  oldest  records 
that  are  known  to  exist  are  composed 
in  the  Hebrew  language.  It  flourished 
in  its  purest  form  in  Palestine,  among 
the  Phoenicians  and  Hebrews,  until  the 
period  of  the  Babylonish  exile ;  soon 
after  which  it  declined,  and  finally  was 
succeeded  by  a  kind  of  Hebra?o-Aramaean 
dialect,  such  as  was  spoken  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour  among  the  Jews.  The 
West  Aramaean  had  flourished  before 


LAO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAP 


this  for  a  long  time  in  the  east  anc 
north  of  Palestine  ;  but  it  now  advanced 
farther  west,  and  during  the  period  that 
the  Christian  churches  of  Syria  flour 
ished,  it  was  widely  extended.  It  is  at 
present  almost  a  dead  language,  and  has 
been  so  for  several  centuries.  The  He 
brew  may  be  regarded  as  having  been  a 
dead  language,  except  among  a  small 
circle  of  literati,  for  about  the  space  of 
two  thousand  years.  Our  knowledge 
of  Arabic  literature  extends  back  very 
little  beyond  the  time  of  Mohammed. 
But  the  followers  of  this  pretended 
prophet  have  spread  the  dialect  of  the 
Koran  over  vast  portions  of  the  world. 
Arabic  is  now  the  vernacular  language 
of  Arabia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  in  a  great 
measure  of  Palestine  and  all  the  north 
ern  coast  of  Africa  ;  while  it  is  read  and 
understood  wherever  the  Koran  has 
gone,  in  Turkey,  Persia,  India,  and  Tar- 
tary. 

The  remains  of  the  ancient  Hebrew 
tongue  are  contained  in  the  Old  Testa 
ment  and  in  the  few  Phoenician  and 
Punic  words  and  inscriptions  that  have 
been  here  and  there  discovered.  The 
remains  of  the  Aramaean  are  extant  in  a 
variety  of  books.  In  Chaldee,  we  have 
a  part  of  the  books  of  Daniel  and  Ezra, 
Dan.  2:4  to  7:28;  Ezra  4:8  to  6:18,  and 
7:12-26,  which  are  the  most  ancient  of 
any  specimens  of  this  dialect.  The  Tar- 
gum  of  Onkelos,  that  is,  the  translation 
of  the  Pentateuch  into  Chaldee,  aifords 
the  next  and  purest  specimen  of  that 
language.  In  Syriac,  there  is  a  consid 
erable  number  of  books  and  manuscripts 
extant.  The  oldest  specimen  of  this  lan 
guage  that  we  have,  is  contained  in  the 
Peshito,  or  Syriac  version  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  made  perhaps  within  a 
century  after  the  time  of  Christ.  A  mul 
titude  of  writers  in  this  dialect  have 
flourished,  many  of  whose  writings  are 
probably  still  extant,  although  but  few 
have  been  printed  in  Europe.  In  Ara 
bic,  there  exists  a  great  variety  of  man 
uscripts  and  books,  historical,  scientilic, 
and  literary.  A  familiar  knowledge  of 
this  and  its  kindred  dialects  throws  much 
valuable  light  on  the  Old  Testament 
Scriptures. 

LAODICE'A,  a  large  and  opulent  city 
of  Asia  Minor,  the  metropolis  of  Phrygia 
Pacatiana.  It  was  situated  on  the  river 
Lycus,  not  far  above  its  junction  with 
the  Meander,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Co- 


losse  and  Hierapolis.  Its  earlier  name 
was  Diospolis ;  but  after  be|ng  enlarged 
by  Antiochus  II.,  it  was  called  Laodicea, 
from  his  wife  Laodice.  About  ±.  D.  65 
or  66,  this  city,  together  with  Hie  -ppolis 
and  Colosse,  was  destroyed  by  an  earth 
quake,  but  was  quickly  rebuilt  by  Mar 
cus  Aurelius.  It  is  now  in  ruins,  and  the 
place  is  called  Eski-hissar,  or  the  old  cas* 
tie.  A  Christian  church  was  early  gath 
ered  here.  It  was  addressed  by  Paul  in 
his  letter  to  Colosse,  and  in  another  now 
lost,  Col.  2:1;  4  :  13-16,  though  some 
think  the  "  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians"  is 
the  one  alluded  to.  The  church  at  La 
odicea  was  probably  visited  by  Paul, 
A.  D.  63,  and  is  one  of  the  seven  which 
received  special  messages  from  Christ 
after  his  ascension,  Eev.  1  : 11 ;  3  :  14- 
22.  We  know  little  of  its  after-history, 
except  that  an  important  council  was 
held  there  near  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century,  and  that  some  form  of  Chris 
tianity  lingered  there  until  the  tune  of 
the  Turks. 


LAPWING,  supposed  to  mean  the 
hoopoe,  a  beautiful  migratory  bird,  of 
filthy  habits  and  a  loud,  hoarse  voice; 
pronounced  unclean  by  Moses,  Lev. 
11: 19.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  thrush  ; 
its  beak  is  long,  black,  thin,  and  a  little 
hooked  ;  its  legs  gray  and  short.  On  its 
head  is  a  tuft  of  feathers  of  different  col 
ors,  which  it  raises  or  lowers  as  it  pleases. 
253 


LAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LAW 


Its  neck  and  breast  are  somewhat  red 
dish,  and  its  wings  and  tail  black,  with 
white  streaks. 

LASE'A,  a  city  near  Fair-Havens,  on 
the  south  side  of  Crete.  Paul  passed  it 
on  his  voyage  to  Rome,  Acts  27:8. 

LATTICE.     See  HOUSE. 

LAUD,  to  extol,  by  words  of  praise  or 
in  song,  Rom.  15:11. 

LAYER,  a  large  circular  vessel,  cast 
from  the  polished  brass  mirrors  contrib 
uted  by  the  Hebrew  women,  and  placed 
between  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  and 
the  altar  of  burnt-offering,  with  water 
for  the  necessary  sacred  ablutions,  Ex. 
30:18-21;  38:8;  40:7,  30-32. 

For  the  temple  of  Solomon,  besides  the 
vast  brazen  sea  for  the  use  of  the  priests, 
(see  SEA,)  ten  lavers  were  made  for 
cleansing  the  sacrifices,  2  Chr.  4:6.  Each 
laver  contained  about  three  hundred  gal 
lons,  and  was  supported  above  a  highly 
elaborate  and  beautiful  base,  1  Kin.  7:27- 
39.  They  were  stationed  within  the 
court  of  the  priests,  in  front  of  the  tem 
ple,  five  on  each  side.  See  TEMPLE. 

LAW,  in  the  Bible,  signifies  sometimes 
the  whole  word  of  God,  Psa.  19 : 7-11 ; 
119;  Isa.  8:20;  sometimes  the  Old  Tes 
tament,  John  10  :  34  ;  15  :  25,  and  some 
times  the  five  books  of  Moses,  which 
formed  the  first  of  the  three  divisions  of 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  Luke  24:44  ;  Acts 
13  :  15.  The  Pentateuch  was  probably 
"the  law,"  a  copy  of  which  every  king 
was  to  transcribe  for  himself  and  study, 
and  which  was  to  be  made  known  to 
young  and  old,  in  public  and  in  private, 
Dent.  6:7;  17:18,  19;  31:9-19,  26.  In 
other  places  the  Mosaic  institutions  as  a 
whole  are  intended  by  "the  law,"  in 
distinction  from  the  gospel,  John  1 :  17  ; 
Acts  25:8. 

When  the  word  refers  to  the  law  of 
Moses,  careful  attention  to  the  context 
is  sometimes  requisite  to  judge  whether 
the  civil,  the  ceremonial,  or  the  moral 
law  is  meant.  The  ceremonial  or  ritual 
laws,  concerning  the  forms  of  worship, 
sacrifices,  priests,  purifications,  etc.,  were 
designed  to  distinguish  the  Jewish  nation 
from  the  heathen,  and  to  foreshadow  the 
gospel  dispensation.  They  were  annulled 
after  Christ's  ascension,  Gal.  3:24  ;  Eph. 
2:15  ;  Heb.  9  ;  10:1-22.  The  civil  laws, 
Acts  23 : 3 ;  24 : 6,  were  for  the  government 
of  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  and  included  the 
ten  commandments.  The  whole  code  was 
adapted  with  consummate  wisdom  to  the 
254 


condition  of  the  Jews,  and  has  greatly 
influenced  all  wise  legislation  in  later 
years.  Its  pious,  humane,  and  just  spirit 
should  characterize  every  code  of  human 
laws.  The  moral  law,  Deut.  5:22,  Matt. 
5  :  17,  18,  Luke  10  :  26,  27,  is  more  im 
portant  than  the  others,  from  its  bear 
ings  on  human  salvation.  It  was  writ 
ten  by  the  Creator  on  the  conscience  of 
man,  and  sin  has  never  fully  erased  it, 
Rom.  1:19;  2 : 12-15.  It  was  more  fully 
taught  to  the  Hebrews,  especially  at 
mount  Sinai,  in  the  ten  commandments, 
and  is  summed  up  by  Christ  in  loving 
God  supremely  and  our  neighbor  as  our 
selves,  Matt.  22  :  37-40.  It  was  the  off 
spring  of  love  to  man,  Rom.  7  :  10,  12 ; 
required  perfect  obedience,  Gal.  3  : 10 ; 
James  2: 10  ;  and  is  of  universal  and  per 
petual  obligation.  Christ  confirmed  and 
enforced  it,  Matt.  5  :  17-20,  showing  its 
demand  of  holiness  in  the  heart,  apply 
ing  it  to  a  variety  of  cases,  and  supply 
ing  new  motives  to  obedience,  by  reveal 
ing  heaven  and  hell  more  clearly,  and 
the'gracious  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Some  have  argued  from  certain  passages 
of  Scripture  that  this  law  is  no  longer 
binding  upon  Christians ;  that  they  ' '  are 
not  under  the  law,  but  under  grace," 
Rom.  6  :  14,  15 ;  7:4,  6  ;  Gal.  3  :  13,  25 ; 
5  :  18  ;  and  the  perversion  of  these  pas 
sages  leads  men  to  sin  and  perish  because 
grace  abounds.  Rightly  understood,  they 
harmonize  with  the  declarations  of  the 
Saviour,  Matt.  5:17.  To  the  soul  that  is 
in  Christ,  the  law  is  no  longer  the  arbiter 
of  his  doom  ;  yet  it  still  comes  to  him 
as  the  divinely  appointed  teacher  of  that 
will  of  God  in  which  he  now  delights, 
Psa.  119:97;  Matt.  5:48;  11:30. 

The  word  "  law  "  sometimes  means  an 
inward  guiding  and  controlling  power. 
The  ' '  law  in  the  mind ' '  and  the  ' '  law 
in  the  members,"  mean  the  holy  im 
pulses  of  a  regenerated  soul  and  the  per 
verse  inclinations  of  the  natural  heart, 
Rom.  7:21-23.  Compare  also  Rom.  8:2; 
9:31;  James  1:25;  2:12. 

LAWYERS,  men  who  devoted  them 
selves  to  the  study  and  explanation  of 
the  Jewish  law,  particularly  of  the  tra 
ditionary  or  oral  law.  They  belonged 
nostly  to  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  and 
fell  under  the  reproof  of  our  Saviour  for 
having  taken  from  the  people  the  key 
of  knowledge.  They  were  as  the  blind 
leading  the  blind,  Matt.  32  :  35 ;  Luke 
10:25;  11:52.  See  SCRIBES. 


LAZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEB 


LAZARUS,  I.,  a  friend  and  disciple  of 
Christ,  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary,  with 
whom  he  resided  at  Bethany  near  Jeru 
salem.  Our  Saviour  had  a  high  regard 
for  the  family,  and  often  visited  them ; 
and  when  Lazarus  was  dangerously  ill, 
word  was  sent  to  Christ,  "Lord,  behold, 
he  whom  thou  lovest  is  sick. ' '  The  Sav 
iour  reached  Bethany  after  he  had  lain 
four  days  in  his  grave,  and  restored  him 
to  life  by  a  word,  "Lazarus,  come  forth." 
This  public  and  stupendous  miracle  drew 
so  many  to  Christ,  that  his  enemies 
sought  to  put  both  him  and  Lazarus  to 
death,  John  11;  12:1-11.  The  narra 
tive  displays  Christ  as  a  tender  and  com 
passionate  friend,  weeping  for  and  with 
those  he  loved,  and  at  the  same  time  as 
the  Prince  of  life,  beginning  his  triumph 
over  death  and  the  grave.  Happy  are 
they  who,  in  view  of  their  own  death,  or 
that  of  friends,  can  know  that  they  are 
safe  in  Him  who  says,  "  I  am  the  resur 
rection  and  the  life;"  and,  "because  I 
live,  ye  shall  live  also." 

II.  The  helpless  beggar  who  lay  at  the 
rich  man's  gate  in  one  of  Christ's  most 
solemn  and  instructive  parables.  The 
one,  though  poor  and  sorely  afflicted, 
was  a  child  of  God.  The  other,  describ 
ed  as  self-indulgent  rather  than  vicious 
or  criminal,  was  living  without  God  in 
the  enjoyment  of  every  earthly  luxury. 
Their  state  in  this  life  was  greatly  in 
contrast  with  their  real  character  before 
God,  which  was  revealed  in  the  amaz 
ing  changes  of  their  condition  at  death, 
Luke  16  :  19-31.  See  ABRAHAM'S  BOSOM. 
Our  Saviour  plainly  teaches  us,  in  this 
parable,  that  both  the  friends  and  the 
foes  of  God  know  and  begin  to  experi 
ence  their  doom  immediately  after  death, 
and  that  it  is  in  both  cases  unchangeable 
and  eternal. 

LEAD.  There  are  early  allusions  to 
this  well-known  metal  in  Scripture.  The 
Egyptians  "sank  as  lead"  in  the  Red 
sea,  Exod.  15  :  10 ;  Num.  31  :  22  ;  Ezek. 
27:12.  Job  refers  to  its  use  in  preserv 
ing  a  permanent  record  of  events,  by 
being  melted  and  poured  into  letters 
deeply  cut  in  a  rock,  Job  19:24.  Leaden 
tablets  also  were  used  by  the  ancients  for 
similar  records.  This  metal  was  em 
ployed,  before  the  use  of  quicksilver  was 
known,  in  purifying  silver ;  and  the  pro 
cess  by  which  these  metals  are  purged  from 
their  dross,  illustrates  God's  discipline  of 
his  people,  Jer.  6:29,  30  ;  Ezek.  22:17-22. 


^  the  elder  daughter  of  Laban, 
and  the  first  wife  of  Jacob,  though  less 
beloved  than  her  sister  Rachel.  She 
had,  through  life,  the  remembrance  of 
the  deceit  by  which  her  father  had  im 
posed  her  upon  Jacob.  She  was  the 
mother  of  seven  children,  among  whom 
were  Reuben  —  Jacob's  first-born  —  and 
Judah,  the  ancestor  of  the  leading  tribe 
among  the  Jews,  of  the  royal  line,  and 
of  our  Lord,  Gen.  29  :  16-35  ;  30  :  1-21. 
She  is  supposed  to  have  died  before  the 
removal  of  the  family  into  Egypt,  Gen. 
49:31. 

LEASING,  falsehood,  Psa.  4:2;  5:6. 

LEAVEN,  is  sour  dough  which  is  kept 
over  from  one  baking  to  another,  in  or 
der  to  raise  the  new  dough.  Leaven  was 
forbidden  to  the  Hebrews  during  the 
seven  days  of  the  Passover,  in  memory 
of  what  their  ancestors  did  when  they 
went  out  of  Egypt,  they  being  then 
obliged  to  carry  unleavened  meal  with 
them,  and  to  make  bread  in  haste,  the 
Egyptians  pressing  them  to  be  gone,  Ex. 
12  :  15,  19.  They  were  very  careful  in 
cleansing  their  houses  from  it  before  this 
feast  began,  1  Cor.  5:6.  God  forbade 
either  leaven  or  honey  to  be  offered  to 
him  in  his  temple,  Lev.  2:11.  The  per 
vading  and  transforming  effect  of  leaven 
is  used  in  illustration  of  the  like  influ 
ence  on  society,  exerted  by  the  purify 
ing  principles  of  the  gospel,  or  by  false 
doctrines  and  corrupt  men,  Matt.  13:23  ; 
16:6-12;  1  Cor.  5:6-8. 

LEBANON,  white,  a  long  chain  of 
mountains  on  the  north  of  Palestine,  so 
named  from  the  -whitish  limestone  of 
which  they  are  composed,  and  in  part 
perhaps  from  their  snowy  whiteness  in 
winter.  It  consists  of  two  main  ridges 
running  north-ea?t  and  south-west,  near 
ly  parallel  with  each  other  and  with  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  See  view  in 
SIDON.  The  western  ridge  was  called 
Libanus  by  the  Greeks,  and  the  eastern 
Anti-Libanus.  Between  them  lies  a  long 
valley  called  Coele-Syria,  that  is,  Hollow 
Syria,  and  the  "valley  of  Lebanon," 
Josh.  11 :17,  at  present  Bukkah.  It  opens 
towards  the  north,  but  is  exceedingly 
narrow  towards  the  south,  where  the 
river  Litany,  anciently  Orontes,  issues 
from  the  valley  and  flows  west  to  the 
sea,  north  of  Tyre.  The  western  ridge 
is  generally  higher  than  the  eastern,  and 
several  of  its  peaks  are  thought  to  be 
towards  10,000  feet  high.  One  summit, 
255 


LEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEG 


however,  in  the  eastern  range,  namely, 
mount  Hermon,  now  called  Jebel-esh- 
Sheikh,  is  higher  still,  and  rises  nearly 
into  the  region  of  perpetual  ice.  See 
HERMON.  An  Arab  poet  says  of  the  high 
est  peak  of  Lebanon,  "The  Sannin  bears 
winter  on  his  head,  spring  upon  his 
shoulders,  and  autumn  in  his  bos  am, 
while  summer  lies  sleeping  at  his  feet." 

The  Hebrew  writers  often  allude  to 
this  sublime  mountain  range,  Isa.  10:34 ; 
35:2,  rising  like  a  vast  barrier  on  their 
north,  Isa.  37 :24.  They  speak  of  its  sea 
of  foliage  agitated  by  the  gales,  Psa. 
72  :  16 ;  of  its  noble  cedars  and  other 
trees,  Isa.  60:13;  Jer.  22:23;  of  its  in 
numerable  herds,  the  whole  of  which, 
however,  could  not  atone  for  one  sin, 
Isa.  40  :  16 ;  of  its  excellent  wine,  Hos. 
14:7,  its  snow-cold  streams,  Jer!  18:14, 
and  its  balsamic  perfume,  Hos.  14 :  5. 
Moses  longed  to  enter  the  Holy  Land, 
that  he  might  "see  that  goodly  moun 
tain  and  Lebanon,"  Deut.  3:24,  25; 
and  Solomon  says  of  the  Beloved,  the 
type  of  Christ,  "his  countenance  is  as 
Lebanon,"  Song  5:15.  "The  tower  of 
Lebanon  which  looketh  towards  Damas 
cus,"  Song  7: 4,  is  brought  to  recollection 
by  the  accounts  given  by  modern  travel 
lers  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  temples,  built 
of  stones  of  vast  size.  Many  such  ruinous 
temples  have  been  discovered  in  differ 
ent  parts  of  Lebanon,  several  of  them  on 
conspicuous  points,  high  up  in  the  moun 
tains,  where  the  labor  of  erecting  them 
must  have  been  stupendous. 

At  present,  Lebanon  is  inhabited  by  a 
hardy  and  turbulent  race  of  mountain 
eers.  Its  vast  wilderness  of  mountains 
forms  almost  a  world  by  itself.  Its  west 
ern  slopes  particularly,  rising  by  a  suc 
cession  of  terraces  from  the  plain  of  the 
coast,  are  covered  with  vines,  olives, 
mulberries,  and  figs;  and  occupied,  as 
well  as  the  valleys  among  the  mountains, 
by  numberless  villages.  Anti-Lebanon 
is  less  populous  and  cultivated.  The 
chief  inhabitants  of  Lebanon  are  Druses 
and  Maronites ;  the  former  Mohamme 
dan  mystics,  and  4he  latter  bigoted  Ro 
manists.  Among  them  are  interspersed 
many  Greeks  and  Armenians. 

For  "cedar  of  Lebanon,"  see  CEDAR. 

LEBBE'US.     See  JUDAS  II. 

LEBO'NAH,  Juclg.  21  :  19,  a  town  of 
Ephraim,  near  Shiloh,  between  Bethel 
and  Shechem.  Its  name  and  site  are  pre 
served  in  the  present  village  of  Lubban. 
256 


LEEK,  a  bulbous  vegetable  resembling 
the  onion.  The  Hebrews  complained  in 
the  wilderness,  that  manna  grew  insipid 
to  them ;  they  longed  for  the  leeks  and 
onions  of  Egypt,  Num.  11  :  5.  Hassel- 
quist  says  the  karrat,  or  leek,  is  surely 
one  of  those  after  which  the  Israelites 
pined ;  for  it  has  been  cultivated  in 
Egypt  from  time  immemorial.  The  He 
brew  word  is  usually  translated  ' '  grass ' ' 
in  the  English  Bible.  Its  original  mean 
ing  is  supposed  to  be  greens  or  grass. 

LEES,  or  dregs,  the  refuse  and  sedi 
ment  of  wine.  Wines  that  have  been 
allowed  to  stand  a  long  time  on  the 
lees,  thereby  acquire  a  superior  color  and 
flavor.  Hence  such  wines  are  used  as  a 
symbol  of  gospel  blessings,  Isa.  25 :  6  ; 
also  of  a  nation  or  community  that, 
from  long  quiet  and  prosperity,  has  be 
come  rich  and  luxurious,  and  has  settled 
down  in  carnal  security,  Jer.  48:11; 
Zeph.  1:12.  To  drink  the  dregs  of  the 
cup  of  God's  wrath,  Psa.  75:8,  Isa. 
51:17,  is  to  drink  it  to  exhaustion ;  that 
is,  to  suffer  God's  wrath  without  mitiga 
tion  or  end. 

LE'GION.  The  number  in  a  Roman 
legion  varied  at  different  periods,  from 
three  thousand  to  more  than  twice  that 
number.  In  the  time  of  Christ  a  legion 
contained  six  thousand,  besides  the  cav 
alry.  There  were  ten  cohorts  in  each 
legion;  which  were  divided  each  into 
three  maniples  or  bands,  and  these  into 
two  centuries  containing  one  hundred 
men  each.  In  the  Bible  a  legion  means 
a  number  indefinitely  large.  The  Sav 
iour  cured  a  demoniac  who  called  him 
self  "Legion,"  as  if  possessed  by  myri 
ads  of  demons,  Mark  5:9.  The  expres 
sion,  "twelve  legions  of  angels,"  Matt 


LEH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEP 


26  :  53,  illustrates  the  immensity  of  the 
heavenly  host,  and  their  zealous  devotion 
to  Christ. 

LEHA'BIM.     See  LIBYA. 

LE'HI,  jaw-bone,  a  place  in  Judah, 
where  Samson  was  enabled  to  slay  one 
thousand  Philistines  with  the  jaw-bone 
of  an  ass,  and  where,  in  answer  to  his 
petition,  a  fountain  sprung  up  to  relieve 
his  thirst,  Judg.  15:9-19.  Probably  the 
Hebrew  word  Lehi  in  ver.  19,  should  be 
left  untranslated,  as  in  the  marginal 
reading:  "  God  clave  a  hollow  place  that 
was  in  Lehi,  and  there  came  water  there 
out."  This  spring  he  called  En-hakkore, 
the  fountain  of  him  that  prayed.  It  con 
tinued  to  flow,  and  may  even  to  this  day 
be  testifying  that  God  hears  the  cry  of 
his  people,  and  can  turn  a  dry  land  into 
springs  of  water  for  their  use,  Gen.  21 : 19 ; 
Num.  20:11. 

LEM'UEL,  the  author  of  Proverbs  31. 
Some  suppose  it  to  be  an  enigmatical 
name  for  Solomon. 


LEN'TILE,  a  species  of  pulse  or  bean. 
We  find  Esau  longing  for  a  mess  of  pot 
tage  made  of  lentiles,  Gen.  25  :  34.  Au 
gustine  says,  "Lentiles  are  used  as  food 
in  Egypt,  for  this  plant  grows  'abundant 
ly  in  that  country,  which  renders  the 
lentiles  of  Alexandria  so  valuable  that 
they  are  brought  from  thence  to  us,  as 
if  none  were  grown  among  us."  In 
Barbary ,  Dr.  Shaw  says,  ' '  Lentiles  are 
dressed  in  the  same  manner  as  beans, 
dissolving  easily  into  a  mass,  and  mak 
ing  a  pottage  of  a  chocolate  color. ' '  See 
2  Sam.  17:28;  23:11. 

LEOPARD,  a  fierce  wild  beast  of  the 
feline  genus,  beautifully  spotted  with  a 
diversity  of  colors ;  it  has  small  eyes, 


wide  jaws,  sharp  teeth,  round  ears,  a 
large  tail;  five  claws  on  the  fore  feet, 
and  four  on  those  behind.  It  is  swift-, 
crafty,  and  cruel ;  dangerous  to  all  do 
mestic  cattle,  and  even  to  man,  Jer.  5:6; 
13:23;  Dan.  10:6;  Hos.  13:7;  Hab.  1:8. 
Its  name,  leo-pard,  implies  that  it  has 
something  of  the  lion  and  of  the  pan 
ther  in  its  nature.  It  seems  from  Scrip 
ture  that  the  leopard  could  not  be  rare 
in  Palestine.  Its  Hebrew  name  occurs 
significantly  in  several  names  of  places  ; 
as  Beth-nimrah,  the  haunt  of  leopards, 
Num.  32  :  36.  So  in  Nimrah,  Nimrim, 
and  perhaps  Nimrod  the  mighty  hunter. 
Isaiah,  describing  the  happy  reign  of  the 
Messiah,  says,  chap.  11:6,  "The  leopard 
shall  lie  down  with  the  kid,  and  the 
calf  and  the  young  lion  and  the  fatling 
together."  The  spouse  in  the  Canticles 
speaks  of  the  mountains  of  the  leopards, 
Song  4:8;  that  is  to  say,  such  as  Leba 
non  and  Hermon,  where  wild  beasts 
dwelt. 

LEP'ER,  a  person  afflicted  with  lepro 
sy.  As  it  now  exists,  leprosy  is  a  scaly 
disease  of  the  skin,  occurring  in  several 
distinct  forms  and  with  many  degrees  of 
severity  ;  beginning  with  slight  reddish 
eruptions,  followed  by  scales  of  a  greyish 
white  color,  sometimes  in  circles  an  inch 
or  two  in  diameter,  and  at  other  times 
much  larger ;  in  many  cases  attacking 
only  the  knees  and  elbows,  in  others  the 
whole  body ;  usually  not  affecting  the 
general  health,  but  considered  impossible 
of  cure.  It  is  said  not  to  be  infectious ; 
but  is  communicated  from  father  to  son 
for  several  generations,  gradually  becom 
ing  less  noticeable.  It  corresponds  in 
the  main  with  the  disease  the  symptoms 
and  treatment  of  which  are  so  fully  de 
scribed  in  Lev.  13 ;  14.  There  is  little 
doubt,  however,  that  the  ancient  lep 
rosy,  in  its  more  aggravated  form,  is  to 
be  regarded  as  a  plague  or  judgment 
257 


LES" 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LET 


from  God,  Deut.  24:8.  It  was  peculiar 
ly  dreaded  among  the  Jews  as  unclean 
and  infectious ;  and  also  as  being  a  spe 
cial  inrtiction  from  Jehovah,  as  we  know 
it  to  have  been  in  the  cases  of  Miriam, 
Num.  12  : 10,  Gehazi,  2  Kin.  5  :  27,  and 
Uzziah,  2  Chr.  20:16-28.  No  remedies 
were  effectual.  The  sufferer  was  com 
mended  to  the  priest,  not  to  the  physi 
cian  ;  and  was  separated  from  many  of 
the  privileges  of  society.  We  find  that 
lepers  associated  chieny  with  each  other, 
2  Kin.  7:8;  Luke  17  :  12.  The  term, 
' '  the  plague  of  leprosy, ' '  is  applied  not 
only  to  this  disease  in  men,  but  to  a  sim 
ilar  infection  sometimes  sent  into  houses 
and  garments,  Lev.  14.  The  exact  na 
ture  of  this  latter  cannot  be  ascertain 
ed  ;  but  it  bears  the  marks  of  a  special 
aggravation,  as  a  judgment  from  God, 
of  some  evil  not  unknown  in  that  cli 
mate.  It  illustrates  the  awful  result  of 
moral  corruption  in  society,  uncounter- 
acted  by  the  grace  of  God.  The  disease 
in  all  its  forms  is  a  lively  emblem  of  sin. 
This  malady  of  the  soul  is  also  all-per 
vading,  unclean,  contagious,  and  incur 
able  ;  it  separates  its  victim  from  God 
and  heaven;  it  proves  its  existence  by 
its  increasing  sway  and  its  fatal  termina 
tion.  But  the  Saviour  has  shown  his 
power  to  heal  the  worst  maladies  of  the 
soul  by  curing  the  leprosy  with  a  word, 
Luke  17 : 12-19,  and  to  admit  the  restor 
ed  soul  to  all  the  privileges  of  the  sons 
of  God. 

ELEPHANTIASIS,  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  the  disease  of  Job,  and  the 
1 '  botch ' '  or  ulcer  of  Egypt,  Deut.  28 : 27, 
35,  is  a  tuberculous  malady  somewhat 
akin  to  the  leprosy,  but  more  dreadful. 
Its  name  is  derived  from  the  dark,  hard, 
and  rough  appearance  of  the  skin ;  and 
from  the  form  of  the  feet,  swollen,  and 
despoiled  of  the  toes.  This  horrid  mal 
ady  infects  the  whole  system  ;  ulcers  and 
dark  scales  cover  the  body  ;  and  the  hair, 
beard,  fingers,  and  all  the  extremities 
drop  off.  It  is  still  met  with  in  tropical 
countries,  and  was  introduced  into  Eu 
rope  by  the  crusaders;  but  after  occa 
sioning  dreadful  navoc,  and  the  building 
of  thousands  of  "  hospitals  for  lepers," 
it  disappeared  or  changed  its  form. 

LES'BOS.     See  MIITLENE. 

LET,  sometimes  used  in  the  Bible  in 
the  old  English  sense,  that  is,  to  hinder, 
Isa.  43:13;  Horn.  1:13. 

JnET'TERS,  Luke  23 : 38.    The  Hebrews 
258 


have  certain  acrostic  poems  which  begin 
with  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  ranged 
in  order.  The  most  considerable  of  these 
is  Psalm  119,  which  contains  twenty-two 
stanzas  of  eight  verses  each,  all  acrostic ; 
that  is,  the  first  eight  begin  with  Aleph, 
the  next  eight  with  Beth,  and  so  on. 
Psalms  25,  84,  have  but  twenty-two  verses 
each,  beginning  with  the  twenty-two 
letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  Others, 
as  Psalms  111,  112,  have  one-half  of  the 
verse  beginning  with  one  letter,  and  the 
other  half  with  the  next.  Thus, 

Blessed  is  the  man  who  feareth  the  Lord, 
Who  delighteth  greatly  in  his  commandments. 

The  first  half  of  the  verse  begins  in  the 
Hebrew  with  Aleph ;  the  second  with 
Beth.  Psalms  37  and  145  are  acrostic. 
The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  are  also  in 
acrostic  verse,  as  well  as  the  thirty-first 
chapter  of  Proverbs,  from  the  eighth 
verse  to  the  end.  In  John  7  : 15,  the 
word  "letters"  means  learning;  the 
Jews  said  of  Christ,  Whence  this  man's 
qualifications  to  teach  us  the  Scriptures, 
since  he  has  not  learned  of  the  doctors  of 
the  law  ? 

Paul  speaks  of  "the  letter"  in  dis 
tinction  from  "the  spirit,"  Rom.  2:27, 
29 ;  7:6;  2  Cor.  3:6;  contrasting  the 
mere  word  of  the  law  and  its  outward 
observance,  with  its  spiritual  meaning, 
and  cordial  obedience  to  it  through  the 
Spirit  of  Christ. 


AN  ANCIENT    EPISTLE. 

Epistolary  correspondence  seems  to 
have  been  little  practised  among  the  an* 
cient  Hebrews.  Some  few  letters  are 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  2  Sam. 
11:14  ;  Ezra  4:8.  They  were  conveyed 
to  their  destination  by  friends  or  travel 
lers,  Jer.  29  :  3 ;  or  by  royal  couriers, 
2  Chr.  30:6  ;  Esth.  8:10.  The  letter  was 
usually  in  the  form  c'f  a  roll,  the  last 
fold  being  pasted  down.  They  were  seal 
ed,  1  Kin.  21:8,  and  sometimes  wrapped 
in  an  envelope,  or  in  a  bag  of  costly  ma 
terials  and  highly  ornamented.  To  send 
an  open  letter  was  expressive  of  con 
tempt,  Neh.  6:5.  In  the  New  Testa 
ment  we  have  numerous  examples  of 
letters,  from  the  pens  of  the  apostles. 


LEV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEV 


LE'VI,  I. ,  the  third  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah,  born  in  Mesopotamia ;  and  father 
of  three  sons,  and  of  Jochebed  the  moth 
er  of  Moses,  Gen.  29  :  34 ;  Ex.  6  :  16-20. 
For  his  share  in  the  treacherous  massa 
cre  of  the  Shechemites,  Gen.  34,  his 
father  at  death  foreboded  evil  to  his  pos 
terity,  Gen.  49  :  5-7  ;  but  as  they  after 
wards  stood  forth  on  the  Lord's  side, 
Moses  was  charged  to  bless  them,  Ex. 
32  :  26-29  ;  Deut.  33:8-11.  The  tribe  of 
Levi  was,  according  to  Jacob's  predic 
tion,  scattered  over  all  Israel,  having  no 
share  in  the  division  of  Canaan,  but  cer 
tain  cities  in  the  portions  of  other  tribes. 
It  was  not  the  worse  provided  for,  how 
ever,  since  God  chose  this  tribe  for  the 
service  of  the  temple  and  priesthood, 
and  bestowed  on  it  many  privileges  above 
the  other  tribes.  All  the  tithes,  first- 
fruits,  and  offerings,  presented  at  the 
temple,  as  well  as  several  parts  of  all  the 
victims  that  were  offered,  belonged  to 
the  tribe  of  Levi.  See  LEVITES. 

II.  The  apostle  Matthew  was  also 
called  Levi.  See  MATTHEW. 


LEVI'ATHAN,  Psa.  74  :  14 ;  104  :  26, 
an  aquatic  monster  described  in  the  book 
of  Job,  ch.  41.  Probably  the  animal  de 
noted  is  the  crocodile,  the  terror  of  the 
Nile  ;  as  BEHEMOTH,  in  Job  40,  is  the  hip 
popotamus  of  the  same  river. 

The  crocodile  is  a  native  of  the  Nile, 
and  other  Asiatic  and  African  rivers ;  in 
some  instances  even  thirty  feet  in  length ; 
of  enormous  voracity  and  strength,  as 
well  as  fleetness  in  swimming;  attacks 
mankind  and  the  largest  animals,  with 
most  daring  impetuosity;  when  taken 
by  means  of  a  powerful  net,  will  often 
overturn  the  boats  that  surround  it ;  has 
proportionally  the  largest  mouth  of  all 


monsters  whatever ;  moves  both  its  jaws 
alike,  the  upper  of  which  has  not  less 
than  thirty-six,  and  the  lower  thirty 
sharp,  but  strong  and  massy  teeth ;  and 
is  furnished  with  a  coat  of  mail  so  scaly 
and  callous  as  to  resist  the  force  of  a 
musket-ball  in  every  part,  except  under 
the  belly.  The  general  character  of  the 
LEVIATHAN,  in  tact,  seems  so  well  to  ap 
ply  to  this  animal,  in  modern  as  well  as 
in  ancient  times  the  terror  of  all  the 
coasts  and  countries  about  the  Nile,  that 
it  is  unnecessary  to  seek  further.  In  sev 
eral  passages  in  the  Bible,  the  king  of 
Egypt  appears  to  be  addressed  as  levia 
than,  Isa.  27:1;  Ezek.  29:3. 

The  following  extract  of  a  letter  from 
an  American  gentleman  in  Manilla  gives 
a  graphic  view  of  the  strength  and  si/e 
of  the  crocodile:  "My  last  operation  in 
the  sporting  line,  was  no  less  than  kill 
ing  a  crocodile,  which  for  a  year  or  two 
before  had  infested  a  village  on  the  bor 
ders  of  the  lake,  taking  off  horses  and 
cows,  and  sometimes  a  man.  Having 
understood  that  he  had  killed  a  horse  a 
day  or  two  before,  and  had  taken  him 
into  a  small  river,  I  proceeded  to  the 
spot,  accompanied  by  my  host,  closed 
the  mouth  of  the  river  with  strong  nets, 
and  attacked  the  huge  brute  with  guns 
and  spears.  After  something  of  a  des 
perate  battle,  we  succeeded  in  driving 
him  against  the  nets,  where,  being  con 
siderably  exhausted  by  the  wounds  he 
( had  received  from  balls  and  lances,  he 
/  got  entangled,  was  dragged  on  shore, 
and  the  coup  de  grace  given  to  him.  He 
measured  twenty  feet  in  length,  and 
from  eleven  to  thirteen  feet  in  circum 
ference,  the  smallest  part  being  eleven 
and  the  largest  thirteen.  The  head 
alone  weighed  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  pounds.  He  had  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  horse  in  him,  and  the  legs,  with 
the  hoofs,  were  taken  out  entire." 

LE'VITES.  All  the  descendants  of 
Levi  may  be  comprised  under  this  name, 
Ex.  6:16,  25;  Josh.  3:3,  (see  LEVI  ;)  but 
chiefly  those  who  were  employed  in 
the  lower  services  in  the  temple,  by 
which  they  were  distinguished  from  the 
priests,  who  were  of  the  race  of  Levi  by 
Aaron,  and  were  employed  in  higher 
offices,  Num.  3:6-10;  18:2-7.  God 
chose  the  Levites  for  the  service  of  his 
tabernacle  and  temple,  instead  of  the 
first-born  of  all  Israel,  to  whom  such 
duties  naturally  belonged,  and  who  were 
259  * 


LEV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LEV 


already  sacred  to  God  in  memory  of  the 
great  deliverance  in  Egypt,  Ex.  13 ; 
Num.  3  : 12,  13,  39-51.  In  the  wilder 
ness,  the  Levites  took  charge  of  the  tab 
ernacle  and  its  contents;  and  conveyed 
it  from  place  to  pL-«,ce,  each  of  the  three 
families  having  a  separate  portion,  Num. 
1 : 51 ;  4 ;  1  Chr.  15 : 2,  27.  After  the  build 
ing  of  the  temple  they  took  charge  of 
the  gates,  of  the  sacred  vessels,  of  the 
preparation  of  the  show-bread  and  other 
offerings,  and  of  the  singing  and  instru 
mental  music,  1  Chr.  9 ;  23  ;  2  Chr.  29. 
They  brought  wood,  water,  etc. ,  for  the 
priests ;  aided  them  in  preparing  the 
sacrilices,  and  in  collecting  and  disburs 
ing  the  contributions  .of  the  people, 
2  Chr.  30  :  16,  17  ;  35  : 1.  They  were 
also  the  temple  guards,  Neh.  13:13,  22; 
and  the  salutation  and  response  in  Psalm 
134,  are  thought  by  Bishop  Lowth  to  have 
been  their  song  in  the  night.  But  be 
sides  their  services  in  the  temple,  they 
performed  a  very  important  part  in  teach 
ing  the  people,  2  Chr.  30  :  22,  Neh.  8:7, 
among  whom  they  were  scattered,  bind 
ing  the  tribes  together,  and  promoting 
virtue  and  piety.  They  studied  the  law, 
and  were  the  ordinary  judges  of  the 
country,  but  subordinate  to  the  priests, 
2  Chr.  17:9;  19 : 8-11 .  God  provided  for 
the  subsistence  of  the  Levites,  by  giving 
to  them  the  tithe  of  corn,  fruit,  and  cat 
tle  ;  but  they  paid  to  the  priests  the 
tenth  of  their  tithes;  and  as  the  Levites 
possessed  no  estates  in  land,  the  tithes 
which  the  priests  received  from  them 
were  considered  as  the  first-fruits  which 
they  were  to  offer  to  the  Lord,  Num. 
18 : 21-32.  The  payment  of  tithes  to  the 
Levites  appears  not  to  have  been  en 
forced,  but  depended  on  the  good-will 
of  the  people  ;  hence  the  special  charges 
laid  on  their  brethren,  not  to  forget 
them,  Deut.  12:12,  18,  19. 

God  assigned  for  the  habitation  of  the 
Levites  forty-eight  cities,  with  fields, 
pastures,  and  gardens,  Num.  35.  Of 
these,  thirteen  were  given  to  the  priests, 
all  in  the  tribes  near  Jerusalem.  Six  of 
the  Levitical  cities  were  appointed  as 
cities  of  refuge,  Josh.  20;  21.  While 
the  Levites  were  actually  employed  in 
the  temple,  they  were  supported  out  of 
the  provisions  kept  in  store  there,  and 
out  of  the  daily  offerings.  The  same 
privilege  was  granted  to  volunteers, 
drawn  to  Jerusalem  by  the  fervor  of  their 
love  to  God's  service,  Deut.  12  :  18,  19 ; 
2GO 


18 : 6-8.  The  consecration  of  Levites  was 
without  much  ceremony.  See  Num. 
8:5-22;  2  Chr.  29:34. 

The  Levites  wore  no  peculiar  dress  to 
distinguish  them  from  other  Israelites, 
till  the  time  of  Agrippa.  His  innova 
tion  in  this  matter  is  mentioned  by  Jo- 
sephus,  who  remarks  that  the  ancient 
customs  of  the  country  were  never  for 
saken  with  impunity. 

The  Leytes  were  divided  into  different 
classes :  the  Gershomites,  Kohathites, 
and  Merarites,  Num.  3  :  17-20.  They 
were  still  further  divided  into  courses, 
like  the  priests,  1  Chr.  23-26.  At  first, 
they  entered  in  full  on  their  public  du 
ties  at  thirty  years  of  age,  Num.  4:3; 
8  :  25  ;  but  David  fixed  the  age  for  com 
mencing  at  twenty  years ;  and  at  fifty 
they  were  exempt,  1  Chr.  23  :  24-27. 
The  different  courses  of  porters,  singers, 
guards,  etc. ,  were  on  duty  in  succession, 
one  week  at  a  time,  1  Chr.  23-26  ;  2  Chr. 
23  :  4,  8 ;  31  :  17  ;  Ezra  3  :  8-12.  After 
the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  a  large  por 
tion  of  the  Levites  abandoned  their  cit 
ies  in  Israel,  and  dwelt  in  Judah,  2  Chr. 
11:12-14;  13:9-11.  After  the  captivity, 
numbers  of  them  returned  from  beyond 
the  Euphrates  to  Judea,  Neh.  11:15-19  ; 
12:24-31.  In  the  New  Testament  they 
are  not  often  mentioned,  Luke  10 :  32 ; 
John  1:19;  Acts  4 : 36.  The  ' '  scribes ' ' 
and  "doctors,"  however,  are  supposed 
to  have  belonged  chiefly  to  this  class. 

LEVIT'ICUS,  the  third  book  in  the 
Pentateuch  ;  called  Leviticus,  because  it 
contains  principally  the  laws  and  regula 
tions  relating  to  the  Levites,  priests,  and 
sacrifices.  The  Hebrews  call  it  "the 
priests'  law."  In  the  first  section,  the 
various  bloody  and  unbloody  sacrifices 
are  minutely  described  :  the  burnt-offer 
ing,  the  meat,  sin,  peace,  ignorance,  and 
trespass  offerings ;  the  sins  for  which 
and  the  mode  in  which  they  were  to  be 
offered.  The  fulness  of  these  details  not 
only  signified  the  importance  of  God's 
worship,  but  forbade  all  human  addi 
tions  and  changes,  that  might  lead  to 
idolatry.  The  whole  scheme  was  "a 
shadow  of  good  things  to  come,"  typi* 
cal  of  the  Lamb  ' '  who  through  the  eter 
nal  Spirit  offered  himself  without  spot 
unto  God."  Its  best  commentary  is  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

A  full  account  of  the  consecration  of 
Aaron  and  his  sons  as  priests,  is  followed 
by  the  instructive  narrative  of  Nadab 


LIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LIG 


and  Abihu.  Then  are  given  the  laws 
respecting  personal  and  ceremonial  puri 
fications,  a  perpetual  memento  of  the 
defilement  of  sin,  and  of  the  holiness  of 
God.  Next  follows  a  description  of  the 
great  day  of  Expiation  ;  after  which  the 
Jews  are  warned  against  the  supersti 
tions,  idolatry,  impurity,  etc.,  of  the 
Canaanites;  and  laws  are  given  guard 
ing  their  morals,  health,  and  civil  order. 
The  observance  of  their  distinguishing 
festivals  is  enjoined  upon  them;  and 
laws  are  given  respecting  the  Subbath 
and  the  jubilee,  vows  and  tithes.  The 
warnings  and  promises  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  book  point  their  attention  to  the 
future,  and  aim  to  unite  the  whole  na 
tion  in  serving  their  covenant  God.  The 
book  is  generally  held  to  be  the  work 
of  Moses,  though  he  was  probably  assist 
ed  by  Aaron.  Its  date  is  B.  c.  1490.  It 
contains  the  history  of  the  first  month  of 
their  second  year  after  leaving  Egypt. 

LIB'ERTINES,  Acts  6:9.  This  word 
is  from  the  Latin  libertinus,  which  signi 
fies  a  freedman,  that  is,  one  who,  having 
been  a  slave,  either  by  birth  or  capture, 
has  obtained  his  freedom ;  or  one  born 
of  a  parent  who  was  a  freedman.  The 
"synagogue  of  the  Libertines"  stands 
connected  with  the  Cyrenians  and  Alex 
andrians,  both  of  whom  were  of  African 
origin  ;  it  is  therefore  supposed  by  some, 
that  the  Libertines  were  of  African  ori 
gin  also.  It  is,  however,  most  probable 
that  this  word  denotes  Jews  who  had 
been  taken  captive  by  the  Romans  in 
war,  and  carried  to  Italy ;  and  having 
there  been  manumitted,  were  accustom 
ed  to  visit  Jerusalem  in  such  numbers  as 
to  erect  a  synagogue  for  their  particular 
use ;  as  was  the  case  with  Jews  from 
other  cities  mentioned  in  the  context. 
They  originated  the  persecution  against 
Stephen,  which  resulted  in  his  martyr 
dom.  See  SYNAGOGUE. 

LIB'NAH,  a  city  in  the  western  part 
of  Judah,  not  far  from  Lachish,  conquer 
ed  by  Joshua  from  the  Canaanites,  and 
assigned  to  the  priests,  Josh.  10:29,  30; 
15:42;  21:13;  1  Chr.  6:57.  Its  inhab 
itants  revolted  against  the  idolatrous 
and  cruel  Jehoram,  2  Chr.  21  :  10.  It 
was  a  strongly  fortified  place,  and  under 
its  walls  the  Assyrian  army  was  miracu 
lously  cut  off,  2  Kin.  19:8,  9,  35. 

LIB'YA,  a  country  in  the  north  of 
Africa,  stretching  along  on  the  Mediter 
ranean  between  Egypt  and  Carthage,  and 


running  back  somewhat  into  the  interior. 
The  part  adjoining  Egypt  was  sometimes 
called  Libya  Marmarica  ;  and  that  around 
Cyrene,  Cyrenaica,  from  its  chief  city ;  or 
Pentapolitana,  from  its  five  cities,  Cyrene, 
Apollonia,  Berenice,  Arsinoe,  and  Ptol- 
emais.  In  these  cities  great  numbers  of 
Jews  dwelt  in  the  time  of  Christ ;  and 
they,  with  their  Libyan  proselytes,  re 
sorted  to  Jerusalem  to  worship,  Acts 
2:10.  Libya  received  its  name  from  the 
Lehabim  or  Lubim,  Gen.  10:13  ;  a  war 
like  people,  who  assisted  Shishak  king 
of  Egypt,  and  Zerah  the  Ethiopian,  in 
their  wars  against  Judea,  2  Chr.  12:3; 
14  :  9  ;  16  :  8  ;  Dan.  11  :  43.  They  were 
also  allies  of  ancient  Thebes,  Nah.  3  :  9. 
Compare  Jer.  46:9  ;  Ezek.  SO: 5.  Libya 
fell  at  length  under  the  power  of  Car> 
thage  ;  and  subsequently,  of  the  Greeks, 
Romans,  Saracens,  and  Turks. 

LICE,  the  third  plague  of  Egypt,  Ex. 
8:16  ;  Psa.  105  :  31 ;  peculiarly  offensive 
to  the  priests,  who  were  obliged  to  shave 
and  wash  their  entire  body  every  third 
day,  lest  they  should  carry  any  vermin 
into  the  temples.  According  to  many 
interpreters,  they  were  the  small  sting 
ing  gnats  which  abound  in  Egypt. 

LIFE,  in  the  Bible,  is  either  natural, 
Gen.  3:17  ;  spiritual,  that  of  the  renew 
ed  soul,  Rom.  8:6;  or  eternal,  a  holy 
and  blissful  immortality,  John  3  : 36 ; 
Rom.  6  :  23.  Christ  is  the  great  Author 
of  natural  life,  Col.  1  :  16 ;  and  also  of 
spiritual  and  eternal  life,  John  14  :  6 ; 
6:47.  He  has  purchased  these  by  laying 
down  his  own  life  ;  and  gives  them  free 
ly  to  his  people,  John  10  :  11,  28.  He  is 
the  spring  of  all  their  spiritual  life  on 
earth,  Gal.  2  :  20;  will  raise  them  up  at 
the  last  day ;  and  make  them  partakers 
for  ever  of  his  own  life,  John  11  :  25 ; 
14:19. 

LIGHT,  one  of  the  most  wonderful, 
cheering,  and  useful  of  all  the  works  of 
God ;  called  into  being  on  the  first  of 
the  six  days  of  creation,  by  his  voice : 
"Let  there  be  light;"  and  there  was 
light.  No  object  better  illustrates 
whatever  is  pure,  glorious,  spiritual,  joy 
ful,  and  beneficent.  Hence  the  beauty 
and  force  of  the  expressions,  "God  is 
light,"  1  John  1:5,  and  "the  Father  of 
lights,"  Jas.  1  : 17  ;  Christ  is  the  "  Sun 
of  righteousness,"  and  "the  light  of  the 
world,"  John  1  :  9 ;  8  : 12.  So  also  the 
word  of  God  is  "  a  light,"  Psa.  119:105  ; 
truth  and  Christians  are  lights,  John 
261 


LIG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LIO 


8: 19;  12:36;  prosperity  is  "light," 
Esth.  8:16  ;  and  heaven  is  full  of  light, 
Rev.  21 :  23-25.  The  opposite  of  all 
these  is  ' '  darkness. ' ' 

LIGN-ALOES.     See  ALOES. 

LIG'URE,  probably  the  same  with  the 
jacinth,  a  stone  in  the  high -priest's 
breastplate,  Ex.  28  :  19  ;  39  :  12,  said  to 
have  been  of  a  deep  and  brilliant  red 
color,  with  a  tinge  of  yellow,  and  trans 
parent. 


LILITJM  CHALCEDONICUM. 

LIL'Y.  Of  this  queenly  plant,  several 
varieties  are  found  among  the  wild  flow 
ers  of  Palestine,  the  profusion,  beauty, 
and  fragrance  of  which  are  the  delight 
of  travellers.  The  lily  is  a  spring  flower, 
and  appears  early  in  all  parts  of  the  Holy 
Land.  It  was  introduced  in  the  orna 
mental  work  of  the  temple,  1  Kin.  7 : 19- 
26  ;  2  Chr.  4:5.  In  Canticles  it  is  often 
employed  as  a  symbol  of  loveliness.  More 
commonly  it  is  applied  to  the  bride  and 
her  various  perfections:  chap.  2:1,  2, 
where  the  bride  speaks,  ver.  1,  the 
bridegroom  answers,  ver.  2,  and  the 
bride  again  responds,  ver.  3.  The  bride 
groom's  lips  are  compared  to  lilies  in 
chap.  5:13,  and  he  is  described  as  feed 
ing  among  the  lilies,  chap.  2:16;  6:3; 
which  typically  represents  Christ  as  de 
lighting  himself  with  the  graces  of  his 
people.  From  the  lily  our  Saviour  has 
also  drawn  one  of  his  most  striking  fig 
ures:  "Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field, 
how  they  grow;"  "even  Solomon  in 
262 


all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of 
these.  If  God  so  clothe  the  grass  of  the 
field,  shall  he  not  much  more  clothe 
you?"  Matt.  6  :  28.  We  must  be  care 
ful  not  to  confound  the  lily  of  the  valleys, 
Song  2:1,  which  means  simply  the  lily 
growing  in  valleys,  with  our  "lily  of  the 
valley,"  which  belongs  to  another  class- 
of  flowers. 

LIN'EN,  as  is  well  known,  is  made  of 
the  fine  fibres  of  flax,  and  was  much  used 
by  the  ancients.  Four  different  words 
in  Hebrew  are  translated  in  our  Bible, 
"linen,"  "fine  linen,"  and  "silk:" 
PISHTAH,  Judg.  15:14;  Ezek.  44:17,  18; 
BAD,  worn  by  the  priests,  Ex.  28  :  42 ; 
39  :  28,  and  by  king  David,  etc.,  2  Sam. 
6:14;  SIIESII,  worn  by  Joseph  when  gov 
ernor  of  Egypt,  Gen.  41 :  42,  and  by  the 
virtuous  woman  in  Prov.  31  :  22,  (see 
SILK  ;)  and  BUTZ,  of  which  the  veil  of  the 
temple  and  David's  outer  mantle  were 
made,  1  Chr.  15:27;  2  Chr.  2:14;  3:14; 
5:12.  These  words  may  indicate  differ 
ent  qualities  of  linen,  but  are  thought  to 
mean  in  part  cloth  of  different  materials, 
particularly  the  two  last.  Some  think 
BUTZ,  in  Latin  byssus,  denotes  cotton 
cloth,  and  SHESH  that  made  of  hemp. 
See  COTTON,  and  FLAX.  Fine  linen  was 
sometimes  made  of  snowy  whiteness, 
and  was  a  symbol  of  the  purity  of  an 
gels  and  of  the  redeemed  church,  liev. 
15:6;  19:8. 

LINES,  the  cords  used  in  measuring 
and  settling  the  bounds  of  landed  prop 
erty,  Psa.  16:6;  Isa.  34:17. 

LI'NUS,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  whose 
salutation  Paul  sent  to  Timothy,  2  Tim. 
4:21. 

LI'ON,  the  well-known  and  noble  king 
of  beasts,  frequently  spoken  of  in  Scrip 
ture.  He  often  exceeds  eight  feet  in 
length  and  four  feet  in  height ;  and  his 
majestic  and  dauntless  aspect,  his  pro 
digious  strength  and  agility,  and  his  pe 
culiar  roar,  make  him  the  terror  of  the 
forests.  Lions  were  common  in  Pales 
tine,  (see  JORDAN,)  and  the  Hebrews 
had  seven  different  names  for  them,  to 
distinguish  the  different  ages,  etc.  Five 
of  these  occur  together  in  Job  4  :  10,  11. 
See  also  Nah.  2  :  11,  12.  The  psalmist 
alludes  to  the  stealthy  creeping  of  the 
lion  till  he  can  spring  upon  his  prey, 
when  he  says  of  the  crafty  wicked  man, 
' '  He  lieth  in  wait  secretly  as  a  lion  in 
his  den ;  ....  he  croucheth,  and  hum- 
bleth  himself,  that  the  poor  may  fall  by 


LIT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LOG 


his  strong  onfis/v  The  Bible  reader  \vill 
remember  the  exploits  of  Samson  and  of 
David,  Judg.  14:5,  6;  1  Sam.  17:34-36, 
the  story  of  the  disobedient  prophet  slain 
by  a  lion,  1  Kin.  13:28,  and  of  the  obe 
dient  Daniel,  safe  in  the  lions'  den,  Dan. 
6  ;  also  the  sublime  image  of  Jehovah's 
care  for  his  people,  in  Isa.  31:4. 

"The  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah," 
Kev.  5:5,  is  Jesus  Christ,  who  sprung 
from  the  tribe  of  Judah  and  the  race  of 
David,  and  overcame  death,  the  world, 
and  the  devil.  It  is  supposed  that  a  lion 
was  the  device  of  the  tribe  of  Judah ; 
whence  this  allusion,  Gen.  49:9. 


LIT'TER,  a  light,  covered  conveyance, 
resembling  a  sedan-chair,  or  a  palanquin ; 
borne  by  men,  but  oftener  at  the  present 
day  in  Syria  between  two  mules  or  cam 
els.  Solomon's  chariot,  Song  3:9,  or 
bed  as  in  the  margin,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  an  elegant  mule-litter.  The  He 
brew  word  translated  litters  in  Isa. 
66:20,  is  rendered  wagons  in  Num.  7:3. 

LIVER,  Lev.  3:4.  This  organ  in  man 
was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  the  seat 
of  the  passions  Idolaters  consulted  the 
liver  of  the  victim  offered  in  sacrifice,  for 
purposes  of  divination,  Ezek.  21:21. 

LIZ'ARD,  a  cold-blooded  animal,  with 
much  resemblance  to  the  serpent,  but 
having  four  feet.  Large  numbers  are 


found  in  Syria,  varying  greatly  in  size, 
appearance,  and  place  of  abode ;  some 
dwelling  partly  in  water,  and  others  on 
the  rocks  of  the  desert,  or  among  old 
ruins.  Lizards  were  unclean  by  the  Le- 
vitical  law,  Lev.  11:30. 

LOANS.  Jehovan.  as  the  sole  pro 
prietor  of  the  land  occupied  by  the  Jews, 
required  them,  as  one  condition  of  its 
use,  to  grant  liberal  loans  to  their  poor 
brethren ;  and  every  seven  years,  the 
outstanding  loans  were  to  become  gifts,  - 
and  could  not  be  reclaimed.  If  a  pledge 
was  taken  on  making  a  loan,  it  must  be 
done  with  mercy  and  under  certain  be 
nevolent  restrictions,  Exod.  22  :  25,  27  ; 
Deut.  15:1-11;  23:19,  20;  24:6,  10-13, 
17.  The  great  truth  so  prominent  in 
this  and  similar  features  of  the  Mosaic 
laws,  ought  to  be  restored  to  its  funda 
mental  place  in  our  theories  of  prop 
erty  ;  and  no  one  who  believes  in  God 
should  act  as  the  owner,  but  only  as  the 
steward  of  what  he  possesses,  all  of  which 
he  is  to  use  as  required  by  its  great  Own 
er.  In  the  same  spirit,  our  Saviour  en 
joins  the  duty  of  loaning  freely,  even  to 
t  enemies,  and  without  hope  of  reward, 
Luke  6: 34,  35. 

LO'CUST,  a  voracious  winged  insect, 
belonging  to  the  genus  known  among 
naturalists  as  the  Grylli,  closely  resem 
bling  the  grasshopper,  and  a  great 
scourge  in  oriental  countries  in  both  an 
cient  and  modern  times.  There  are  ten 
different  names  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  for 
insects  of  this  kind ;  but  some  of  these 
probably  designate  different  forms  or 
stages  in  life  of  the  same  species.  The 
Bible  represents  their  countless  swarms 
as  directed  in  their  flight  and  march  by 
God,  and  used  in  the  chastisement  of 
guilty  nations,  Deut.  28  :  38-42  ;  1  Kin. 
8:37  ;  2  Chr.  6:28.  A  swarm  of  locusts 
was  among  the  plagues  of  Egypt ;  they 
covered  the  whole  land,  so  that  the  earth 
263 


LOG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LOG 


was  darkened,  and  devoured  every  green 
herb  of  the  earth,  and  the  fruit  of  every 
tree  which  the  hail  had  left,  Ex.  10:4-19. 
But  the  most  particular  description  of 
this  insect,  and  of  its  destructive  career, 
in  the  sacred  writings,  is  in  Joel  2:3-10. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  striking  and  ani 
mated  descriptions  to  be  met  with  in  the 
whole  compass  of  prophecy;  and  the 
double  destruction  to  be  produced  by 
locusts  and  the  enemies  of  which  they 
were  the  harbingers,  is  painted  with  the 
most  expressive  force  and  accuracy.  We 
see  the  destroying  army  moving  before  us 
as  we  read,  and  see  the  desolation  spread 
ing.  It  should  also  be  mentioned,  that 
the  four  insects  specified  in  Joel  1  : 4, 
the  palmer-worm,  the  locust,  the  canker- 
worm,  and  the  caterpillar,  are  strictly, 
according  to  the  Hebrew,  only  different 
forms  of  locusts,  some  perhaps  without 
wings,  as  mentioned  below.  The  follow 
ing  extracts  from  Dr.  Shaw  and  Mr.  Mo- 
rier,  which  are  also  corroborated  by  Nie- 
buhr,  Burckhardt,  and  other  travellers, 
may  serve  as  a  commentary  upon  this 
and  other  passages  of  Scripture. 

Dr.  Shaw  remarks,  "Those  which  I 
saw,  were  much  bigger  than  our  com 
mon  grasshoppers,  and  had  brown  spot 
ted  wings,  with  legs  and  bodies  of  a 
bright  yellow.  Their  first  appearance 
was  towards  the  end  of  March,  the  wind 
having  been  some  time  from  the  south. 
In  the  middle  of  April,  their  numbers 
were  so  vastly  increased,  that  in  the 
heat  of  the  day  they  formed  themselves 
into  large  and  numerous  swarms,  flew 
in  the  air  like  a  succession  of  clouds,  and 
as  the  prophet  Joel  expresses  it,  they 
darkened  the  sun.  When  the  wind  blew 
briskly,  so  that  these  swarms  were  crowd 
ed  by  others,  or  thrown  one  upon  anoth 
er,  we  had  a  lively  idea  of  that  compari- 
264 


son  of  the  psalmist,  Psa.  109:23,  of  being 
tossed  up  and  down  as  the  locust.  In 
the  month  of  May,  these  swarms  gradu 
ally  retired  into  the  Metijiah  and  other 
adjacent  plains,  where  they  deposited 
their  eggs.  These  were  no  sooner  hatch 
ed,  in  June,  than  each  of  the  broods  col 
lected  itself  into  a  compact  body  of  a  fur 
long  or  more  square,  and  marching  after 
wards  in  a  direct  line  towards  the  sea, 
they  let  nothing  escape  them  ;  eating  up 
every  thing  that  was  green  and  juicy, 
not  only  the  lesser  kinds  of  vegetables, 
but  the  vine  likewise,  the  fig-tree,  the 
pomegranate,  the  palm,  and  the  apple- 
tree,  even  all  the  trees  of  the  field,  Joel 
1:12;  in  doing  which,  they  kept  their 
ranks  like  men  of  war,  climbing  over,  as 
they  advanced,  every  tree  or  wall  that 
was  in  their  way ;  nay,  they  entered  into 
our  very  houses  and  bedchambers  like 
thieves.  The  inhabitants,  to  stop  their 
progress,  made  a  variety  of  pits  and 
trenches  all  over  their  fields  and  gar 
dens,  which  they  filled  with  water ;  or 
else  they  heaped  up  therein  heath,  stub 
ble,  and  such  like  combustible  matter, 
which  were  severally  set  on  fire  upon 
the  approach  of  the  locusts.  But  this 
was  all  to  no  purpose,  for  the  trenches 
were  quickly  filled  up  and  the  fires  ex 
tinguished  by  infinite  swarms  succeeding 
one  another,  while  the  front  was  regard 
less  of  danger  and  the  rear  pressed  on 
so  close  that  a  retreat  was  altogether 
impossible.  A  day  or  two  after  one  of 
these  broods  was  in  motion,  others  were 
already  hatched  to  march  and  glean  after 
them,  gnawing  off  the  very  bark  and  the 
young  branches  of  such  trees  as  had  be 
fore  escaped  with  the  loss  only  of  their 
fruit  and  foliage.  So  justly  have  they 
been  compared  by  the  prophet  to  a  great 
army ;  who  further  observes,  that  the 
land  is  as  the  garden  of  Eden  before 
them,  and  behind  them  a  desolate  wil 
derness." 

Mr.  Morier  says,  "On  the  llth  of 
June,  while  seated  in  our  tents  about 
noon,  we  heard  a  very  unusual  noise, 
that  sounded  like  the  rustling  of  a  great 
wind  at  a  distance.  On  looking  up,  we 
perceived  an  immense  cloud,  here  and 
there  semi-transparent,  in  other  parts 
quite  black,  that  spread  itself  all  over 
the  sky,  and  at  intervals  shadowed  the 
sun.  These  we  soon  found  to  be  locusts, 
whole  swarms  of  them  falling  about  us. 
These  were  of  a  red  color,  and  I  should 


LOG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


LOR 


suppose  are  the  red  predatory  locusts, 
one  of  the  Egyptian  plagues.  As  soon 
as  they  appeared,  the  gardeners  and  hus 
bandmen  made  loud  shouts,  to  prevent 
their  settling  on  their  grounds.  They 
seemed  to  be  impelled  by  one  common 
instinct,  and  moved  in  one  body,  which 
had  the  appearance  of  being  organized 
by  a  leader,  Joel  2:7." 

The  locust  was  a  ' '  clean ' '  animal  for 
the  Jews,  Lev.  11:22,  and  might  be  used 
for  food.  In  Matt.  3:4,  it  is  said  of  John 
the  Baptist,  that  "his  meat  was  locusts, 
and  wild  honey."  They  are  still  eaten 
in  the  East,  and  regarded  by  some  as  a 
delicacy,  though  usually  left  to  the  poor 
est  of  the  people.  Niebuhr  remarks, 
' '  Locusts  are  brought  to  market  on 
strings,  in  all  the  cities  of  Arabia,  from 
Babel mandel  to  Bassorah.  On  mount 
Sumara  I  saw  an  Arab  who  had  collect 
ed  a  whole  sackful  of  them.  They  are 
prepared  in  different  ways.  An  Arab  in 
Egypt,  of  whom  we  requested  that  he 
would  immediately  eat  locusts  in  our 
presence,  threw  them  upon  the  glowing 
coals,  and  after  he  supposed  they  were 
roasted  enough,  he  took  them  'by  the 
legs  and  head,  and  devoured  the  remain 
der  at  one  mouthful.  When  the  Arabs 
have  them  in  quantities,  they  roast  or 
dry  them  in  an  oven,  or  boil  them  and 
eat  them  with  salt.  The  Arabs  in  the 
kingdom  of  Morocco  boil  the  locusts, 
and  then  dry  them  on  the  roofs  of  their 
houses.  One  sees  there  large  baskets  full 
of  them  in  the  markets. ' ' 

Burckhardt  also  relates  the  fact  in  a 
similar  manner:  "The  Bedaween  eat 
locusts,  which  are  collected  in  great 
quantities  in  the  beginning  of  April, 
when  they  are  easily  caught.  After 
having  been  roasted  a  little  upon  the 
iron  plate  on  which  bread  is  baked,  they 
are  dried  in  the  sun,  and  then  put  into 
large  sacks,  with  the  mixture  of  a  little 
salt." 

In  Rev.  9  :  7-10,  there  is  a  terrific  de 
scription  of  symbolical  locusts,  in  which 
they  are  compared  to  war-horses,  their 
hair  to  the  hair  of  women,  etc.  Niebuhr 
heard  an  Arab  of  the  desert,  and  another 
in  Bagdad,  make  the  same  comparison. 
They  likened  ' '  the  head  of  the  locust  to 
that  of  the  horse ;  its  breast  to  that  of 
the  lion  ;  its  feet  to  those  of  the  camel ; 
its  body  to  that  of  the  serpent ;  its  tail 
to  that  of  the  scorpion ;  its  antennas,  if 
[  mistake  not,  to  the  locks  of  hair  of  a 
12 


virgin  ;  and  so  of  other  parts. ' '  In  like 
manner,  the  Italians  still  call  locusts  lit~ 
tie  horses,  and  the  Germans  hay-horses. 

LOD.     See  LYDDA. 

LODGE.     See  GARDEN. 

LOG,  a  Hebrew  measure  for  liquids, 
containing  five-sixths  of  a  pint,  Lev. 
14:10,  12,  24. 

LOINS.     See  GIRDLE. 

LO'IS,  a  pious  Jewess,  whose  "ua« 
feigned  faith"  Paul  traces  in  her  daugh 
ter  Eunice,  and  her  grandson  Timothy, 
2  Tim.  1:5. 


LOOK'ING-GLASS'ES,  or  rather,  mir 
rors,  were  anciently  made  of  metal, 
chiefly  copper,  Ex.  38  :  8  ;  Job  37  : 18, 
melted  and  cast  in  a  circular  form,  high 
ly  polished,  and  attached  to  an  orna 
mental  handle.  Similar  mirrors  have 
been  found  in  the  ruins  of  ancient 
Egypt. 

LORD.  This  name  belongs  to  God  by 
preeminence ;  and  in  this  sense  ought 
never  to  be  given  to  any  creature.  Je 
sus  Christ,  as  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of 
God,  and  equal  with  the  Father,  is  often 
called  Lord  in  Scripture,  especially  in 
the  writings  of  Paul.  The  word  LORD, 
in  the  English  Bible,  when  printed  in 
small  capitals,  stands  always  for  JEHO 
VAH  in  the  Hebrew.  See  JEHOVAH. 

LORD'S-DAY.     See  SABBATH. 

LORD'S  SUPPER,  called  also  "the 
breaking  of  bread,"  Acts  2  :  42  ;  20  :  7, 
and  the  communion  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  1  Cor.  10  : 16,  is  one  of 
the  two  simple  ordinances  of  the  Chris 
tian  church  ;  instituted  by  our  Saviour 
in  the  most  affecting  circumstances  on 
the  Passover  night  in  which  he  was  be- 
265 


LOT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LOV 


trayed,  to  be  observed  by  his  followers 
until  his  second  coming.  Bread  and 
wine,  the  symbols  of  his  body  broken 
and  his  blood  shed  for  our  redemption, 
are  to  be  tasted  by  each  communicant, 
to  keep  in  mind  that  great  sacrifice,  the 
foundation  of  all  our  hopes  and  the 
strongest  motive  to  a  holy  and  devoted 
life.  In  the  Lord's  supper  the  covenant 
is  renewed  between  Christ  and  his  peo 
ple.  It  is  also  the  visible  token  of 
Christian  fellowship ;  and  all  true  be 
lievers,  and  none  but  they,  should  claim 
to  partake  of  it,  1  Cor.  5  :  6-8.  In  it 
Christians  may  expect  and  should  seek 
to  receive  of  the  fulness  of  Christ,  grace 
for  grace,  2  Cor.  1  :  21,  22  ;  Eph.  4  :  15, 
16  ;  while  those  who  partake  heedlessly 
incur  great  guilt,  and  may  look  for  chas 
tisement,  1  Cor.  11:  20-84.  The  dogma 
of  the  Romish  church,  that  the  bread  is 
changed  into  the  very  body  and  soul  of 
Christ,  which  the  priest  offers  anew  in 
sacrifice,  is  contrary  to  the  Scripture  and 
to  all  the  senses,  as  it  is  also  to  common- 
sense. 

LOT,  the  son  of  Haran,  and  nephew 
of  Abraham,  followed  his  uncle  from  Ur, 
and  afterwards  from  Haran,  to  settle  in 
Canaan,  Gen.  11  :  31 ;  12  :  4-6  ;  13  :  1. 
Abraham  always  had  a  great  affection  for 
him,  and  when  they  could  not  continue 
longer  together  in  Canaan,  because  they 
both  had  large  flocks  and  their  shep 
herds  sometimes  quarrelled,  Gen.  13:5- 
7,  he  gave  Lot  the  choice  of  his  abode. 
Lot  chose  the  plain  of  Sodom,  which  ap 
pears  then  to  have  been  the  most  fertile 
part  of  the  land.  Here  he  continued  to 
dwell  till  the  destruction  of  Sodom  and 
the  adjacent  cities.  He  was  a  righteous 
man  even  in  Sodom,  2  Pet.  2:7  ;  but  the 
calamities  consequent  upon  his  choice  of 
this  residence — his  capture  by  eastern 
marauders,  the  molestation  caused  by 
his  ungodly  and  vicious  neighbors,  the 
loss  of  his  property  in  the  burning  city, 
the  destruction  of  his  sons-in-law  and  of 
his  wife — if  they  do  not  prove  that  he 
regarded  ease  and  profit  more  than  duty, 
show  that  the  most  beautiful  and  fruit 
ful  land  is  not  always  the  best ;  the  prof 
ligacy  of  its  citizens  may  sink  it  into  the 
abyss  of  perdition,  and  endanger  all  who 
have  any  concern  with  it.  Lot's  wife, 
looking  back  with  disobedient  regrets, 
and  arrested  by  "the  threatened  judg 
ment  midway  in  her  flight  to  the  moun 
tain,  is  an  awful  warning  to  all  who 
266 


turn  their  faces  Zionward,  but  are  un 
willing  to  leave  all  for  Christ,  Gen.  19 ; 
Luke  17:32. 

LOTS  were  often  cast  by  the  Jews,  as 
well  as  other  ancient  nations,  with  the 
expectation,  when  God  was  appealed  to, 
that  he  would  so  control  them  as  to 
give  a  right  direction  in  doubtful  cases, 
Psa.  22 : 18  ;  Prov.  16 : 33  ;  18 : 18.  They 
were  often  used  by  the  divine  appoint 
ment.  The  portions  of  the  twelve  tribes 
were  thus  assigned  to  them ;  and  hence 
each  tribe's  portion  was  called  "the  lot 
of  its  inheritance,"  Num.  26:55,  56  ;  Psa. 
125:3;  Acts  8: 21.  The  scape-goat  was 
to  be  selected,  and  the  order  of  the 
priests'  service  determined  by  lot,  Lev. 
16:8  ;  1  Chr.  24:5  ;  25:8.  By  the  same 
means  Achan,  Jonathan,  and  Jonah  were 
discovered,  Josh.  7  :  14  ;  1  Sam.  14  :  41, 
42 ;  Jonah  1:7;  and  thus  Matthias  was 
designated  by  Christ  to  be  an  apostle  in 
the  place  of  Judas,  Acts  1  :  26.  A  com 
mon  mode  of  casting  lots  was  by  the  use 
of  pebbles,  one  or  more  of  them  being 
marked,  and  all  of  them  being  shaken 
together  in  some  fold  of  a  garment,  an 
urn,  or  a  helmet,  before  drawing,  Prov,, 
16:33 ;  John  19:24.  As  the  use  of  lots 
by  one  who  believes  in  the  particular 
providence  of  God  involves  a  solemn  ap 
peal  to  the  Disposer  of  all  events,  they 
should  never  be  used  on  trivial  occa 
sions  ;  and  in  this  day,  a  case  can  hardly 
occur  when  such  an  appeal  would  be 
warranted.  See  PURIM. 

LOVE.     GOD  is  LOVE  ;   AND  HE  THAT 

DWELLETII  IN  LOVE  DWELLETII  IN  GOD,  AND 

GOD  IN  HIM,  1  John  4: 16.  Love  is  a  chief 
attribute  of  Jehovah,  the  length  and 
breadth  and  height  and  depth  of  which 
are  beyond  comprehension,  for  they  are 
infinite,  Eph.  3:18,19.  Between  the 
three  Persons  of  the  Godhead,  love  is 
unutterably  full,  perfect,  and  blissful ; 
towards  holy  angels  and  Christians,  God's 
love  is  an  infinite  fatherly  complacency 
and  affection ;  towards  sinners,  it  is  im 
measurable  compassion.  It  is  shown  in 
all  his  works  and  ways,  and  dictated  his 
holy  law,  but  is  most  signally  displayed 
in  the  gospel,  John  3  :  16.  "Herein  is 
love." 

Holy  love  in  man  would  make  the 
whole  heart  and  soul  supremely  delight 
in  and  obey  God,  and  cordially  and  prac 
tically  love  all  beings  according  to  their 
character— the  good  with  fellowship  of 
soul,  and  the  evil  with  a  Christ-like  be' 


LOW 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


LYC 


nevolence.  Such  a  love  would  meet  and 
fulfil  all  the  ends  of  the  law,  Matt. 
22:37-40;  Rom.  13:8-10.  Without  it, 
none  can  enter  heaven ;  and  as  the  affec 
tions  of  every  unreuewed  heart  are  all 
mixed  with  sin,  being  given  to  forbidden 
objects,  or  sellishly  and  unduly  given  to 
objects  not  forbidden,  we  must  be  "born 
again"  in  order  to  see  God,  John  3:3; 
1  John  4:7,  19;  5:4. 

LOWER  PARTS  OF  THE  EARTH, 
valleys,  Isa.  44 :  23  ;  also  the  grave,  or 
the  abode  of  disembodied  spirits  secluded 
from  our  view, 

"That   undiscovered    country    from   whose 

bourne 
No  traveller  returns." 

Psa.  63:9;  139:15:  Eph.  4:9. 

LU'BIM.     See  LIBYA. 

LU'CAS,  the  same  with  LUKE. 

LU'CIFER,  light-bringer,  the  Latin 
name  of  the  morning-star,  or  "son  of 
the  morning."  In  the  figurative  lan 
guage  of  Scripture,  a  brilliant  star  de 
noted  an  illustrious  prince,  Num.  24:17. 
Christ  was  given  to  men  as  the  "  bright 
and  morning  Star,"  Rev.  2  :  28  ;  22  :  16. 
The  word  Lucifer  is  used  once  only  in 
the  English  Bible,  and  then  of  the  king 
of  Babylon,  Isa.  14:12.  It  is  now  com 
monly,  though  inappropriately,  given  to 
the  prince  of  darkness. 

LU'CIUS  of  Cyrene,  mentioned  Acts 
13: 1,  was  one  of  the  ministers  and  teach 
ers  of  the  Christian  church  at  Antioch, 
and  probably  a  kinsman  of  Paul,  Rom. 
16:21.  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  be 
the  same  with  the  evangelist  Luke  ;  but 
of  this  there  is  no  evidence. 

LUD,  a  son  of  Shorn,  Gen.  10:22,  and 
ancestor,  it  is  thought,  of  the  Lydians  in 
Asia  Minor. 

LU'DIM,  descendants  of  Mizraim,  Gen. 
10:13,  dwelling  in  Africa,  probably  near 
Ethiopia;  they  were  famous  bowmen, 
Isa.  66:19,  and  are  mentioned  as  soldiers 
with  the  Ethiopians,  Libyans,  and  Tyr- 
ians,  Jer.  46:9;  Ezek.  27:10;  30:5. 

LUKE,  the  evangelist,  probably  the 
same  person  who  is  called  by  St.  Paul, 
"the  beloved  physician,"  Col.  4:14. 
The  name  Luke,  or  Lucas,  Phile.  24,  is 
the  same  as  Lucanus  in  Latin.  Luke 
was  the  writer  of  the  gospel  which  bears 
his  name,  and  of  the  Acts  of, the  Apos 
tles,  having  been  the  friend  and  com 
panion  of  St.  Paul  in  most  of  the  jour 
neys  recorded  in  the  latter  book.  Thus, 


in  Acts  16  :  11,  he  first  uses  the  word 
we,"  and  shows  that  he  was  with  Paul 
at  Troas  and  in  his  first  Macedonian 
tour.  After  they  reach  Philippi,  an  in 
terval  of  separation  occurs ;  but  they  are 
again  together  at  Philippi  when  Paul 
sails  thence  for  Jerusalem,  and  from  that 
time  he  continues  with  the  apostle  in  his 
labors,  voyages,  and  sufferings,  to  the 
close  of  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
Acts  17:1 ;  20:5,  6, 13-16;  21-28;  Phile. 
24;  2  Tim.  4:11.  His  personal  history 
before  and  after  this  period  of  his  com 
panionship  with  Paul,  is  unknown,  or 
rests  on  uncertain  traditions.  His  own 
narrative  contains  the  least  possible  men 
tion  of  himself;  yet  we  cannot  doubt 
that  he  was  eminently  useful  to  the  early 
church,  by  his  learning,  judgment,  fidel 
ity,  and  even  his  medical  skill,  besides 
leaving  to  the  church  universal  the  in 
valuable  legacy  of  his  writings. 

LU'NATIC,  a  word  formed  from  the 
Latin  luna,  the  moon,  and  thus  corre 
sponding  to  the  original  Greek  word 
and  to  the  English  "moonstruck;"  ap 
plied  to  a  class  of  persons  mentally  and 
often  corporally  diseased,  who  were 
believed  to  suffer  most  when  the  moon 
was  full.  Insanity,  epilepsy,  and  mor 
bid  melancholy  were  among  the  frequent 
effects  of  demoniac  possession,  yet  this 
possession  existed  independently  of  these 
effects,  and  wras  a  more  dreadful  calam 
ity.  Lunatics  are  expressly  mentioned 
in  distinction  from  men  possessed  by  evil 
spirits,  Matt.  4:24;  17:15.  See  DEVILS. 

LUST  originally  meant  any  longing 
desire,  however  innocent,  Deut.  12:15; 
14  :  26.  But,  in  tacit  acknowledgment 
of  the  depravity  of  man's  passions,  gen 
eral  usage  soon  attached  the  idea  of  guilt 
to  the  word;  and  now  it  usually  denotes 
carnal,  lascivious  desire.  In  Gal.  5:17, 
we  see  that  the  aspirations  of  the  heart 
renewed  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  oppose  and 
will  subdue  the  native  evil  desires,  1  Cor. 
15:57  ;  but  in  the  unrenewed  heart  these 
reign  uncontrolled,  lead  to  greater  and 
greater  outward  sins,  and  secure  eternal 
death,  James  1:14,  15. 

LUZ,  the  ancient  name  of  a  part  at 
least  of  Bethel,  Gen.  28:19;  Josh.  16:2; 
18  :  13  ;  afterwards  given  to  a  smaller 
place  founded  by  a  refugee  from  Bethel, 
Judg.  1:26.  See  BETHEL. 

LYCAO'NIA,  a  small  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  north  by  Galatia,  east 
by  Cappadccia,  south  by  Isauria  and 
267 


•LYC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAC 


Cilicia,  and  west  by  Phrygia.  It  appears  | 
to  have  been  within  the  limits  of  Phry 
gia  Major,  but  was  erected  into  a  Roman 
province  by  Augustus.  The  country  is 
level,  but  not  fertile,  though  peculiarly 
adapted  to  pasturage.  Of  its  cities,  Ico- 
nium,  Derbe,  and  Lystra  are  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament,  Acts  14 :G.  The 
"  speech  of  Lycaonia,"  ver.  11,  is  gener 
ally  supposed  to  have  been  a  dialect  of 
Greek,  corrupted  by  a  large  mixture  of 
Syriac.  Lycaonia  now  forms  part  of  the 
Turkish  province  of  Caramania. 

LY'CIA,  a  province  in  the  south-west 
of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  west  by  Caria, 
east  by  Pamphylia,  north  by  Phrygia 
and  Pisidia,  and  south  by  the  Mediterra 
nean.  The  country  is  somewhat  moun 
tainous,  though  not  barren.  Of  its  cit 
ies,  only  Patara  and  Myra  are  mention 
ed  in  the  New  Testament,  Acts  21:1,  2 ; 
27:5. 

LYD'DA,  in  Hebrew  Lud  or  Lod, 
1  Chr.  8  :  12 ;  Ezra  2  -.  33,  and  by  the 
Greeks  called  Diospolis,  was  a  city  nine 
miles  east  of  Joppa,  on  the  way  to  Jeru 
salem.  Here  Peter  healed  Eneas,  Acts 
9  :  33,  34.  It  was  destroyed  not  long 
after  Jerusalem  ;  but  Avas  soon  rebuilt, 
and  became  the  seat  of  a  famous  Jewish 
school.  A  Christian  church  was  here 
organized,  and  was  in  existence  A.  D. 
518.  Lydda  is  often  mentioned  in  the 
history  of  the  crusades.  It  was  situated  ! 
in  the  midst  of  fine  and  extensive  plains, 
the  soil  of  which  is  a  rich  black  mould, 
that  might  be  rendered  exceedingly  fer 
tile.  It  is  at  present  only  a  miserable 
village  called  Ludd.  The  ruins  of  a 
stately  church  of  the  middle  ages,  called 
the  church  of  St.  George,  preserve  the 
name  of  a  saint  and  martyr  said  to  have 
been  buried  here  in  the  third  century. 
The  English  crusaders  adopted  him  as 
the  "patron"  of  England,  and  many 
fabulous  legends  are  told  of  his  exploits. 
.  LYD'IA,  a  woman  of  Thyatira,  resid 
ing  at  Philippi  in  Macedonia,  and  deal 
ing  in  purple  cloths.  She  was  not  a  Jew 
ess  by  birth,  but  had  become  a  proselyte 
to  Judaism  and  "worshipped  God." 
She  was  led  by  the  grace  of  God  to  re 
ceive  the  gospel  with  joy ;  and  having 
l>een  baptized,  with  her  household,  con 
strained  Paul  and  his  fellow-laborers  to 
make  her  house  their  home  while  at 
Philippi,  Acts  16:14,  40.  See  PUILIPFI. 

LYSA'NIAS.     See  ABILENE. 

LYS'IAS,    or   Claudius   Lysias,    com- 
268 


mander  of  the  Roman  guard  at  Jerusa 
lem  during  Paul's  last  visit  there.  In 
the  honorable  discharge  of  his  duty,  he 
repeatedly  saved  Paul  from  the  malice 
of  the  Jews,  Acts  21:27-40  ;  22  ;  23. 

LYS'TRA,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  near 
Derbe  and  Iconium,  and  the  native  place 
of  Timothy.  Paul  and  Barnabas  preach 
ed  the  gospel  here  ;  and  having  healed  a 
cripple,  were  almost  worshipped.  Soon 
after,  however,  Paul  was  stoned  there, 
Acts  14:  6,  21;  16:1;  2  Tim.  3:11.  It 
is  now  a  small  place  called  Latik. 


M. 


MA'ACAH,  or  MAACHAH,  I.,  a  city  and 
region  of  Syria  or  Aram,  1  Chr.  19:6; 
somewhere  near  the  foot  of  mount  Her- 
mon,  and  Geshur.  The  portion  of  Ma- 
nasseh  beyond  Jordan  reached  to  this 
country,  like  that  of  Og  king  of  Bashan, 
Deut.  3  : 13,  14  ;  but  it  does  not  appear 
to  have  become  subject  to  Israel,  Josh. 
12:4-6;  13:13,  except  during  the  reign 
of  David,  Solomon,  and  Jeroboam  II. 
The  king  of  Maachah,  with  other  Syri 
ans,  joined  the  Ammonites  in  a  war  with 
David,  and  were  defeated  and  made  trib 
utary,  2  Sam.  10:6-8,  19. 

II.  A  wife  of  David,  and  the  mother 
of  Absalom.    She  was  a  daughter  of  Tal- 
mai,  king  of  Geshur  in  Syria,  2  Sam. 
3:3. 

III.  The  wife  of  Rehoboam  and  moth 
er  of  Abijah,   kings  of  Judah.     She  is 
called  the  "daughter"  of  Abishalom  or 
Absalom,  1  Kin.  15:2;  2  Chr.  11:20-22. 
In  2  Chr.  13:2,  she  is  called  Michaiah, 
and  is  said  to  be  the  daughter  of  Uriel. 
She  appears  to  have  exerted  a  great  in 
fluence  over  the  members  of  the  royal 
family ;  but  was  degraded  from  her  high 
position,  by  Asa  her  grandson,  for  pro 
moting  idolatry,  2  Chr.  15:16. 

Six  others  of  the  same  name  are  men 
tioned,  in  Gen.  22  :  24  ;  1  Kin.  2  :  39 ; 
1  Chr.  2:48;  7:16;  11:43;  27:16. 

MACEDO'NIA,  a  large  country  lying 
north  of  Greece  proper,  bounded  south 
by  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  east  by  Thrace 
and  the  ^Egean  sea,  west  by  the  Adri 
atic  sea  and  Illyria,  and  north  by  Darda- 
nia  and  Moesia.  Its  principal  rivers 
were  the  Strymon  and  Axius.  Its  most 
celebrated  mountains  were  Olympus  and 
Athos :  the  former  renowned  in  heathen 
mythology  as  the  residence  of  the  gods, 


MAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAG 


lying  on  the  confines  of  Thessaly,  and 
principally  within  that  state  ;  the  latter 
being  at  the  extremity  of  a  promontory 
which  juts  out  into  the  ^Egean  sea,  and 
noted  in  modern  times  as  the  seat  of  sev 
eral  monasteries,  in  which  are  many 
manuscripts  supposed  to  be  valuable. 
This  region  is  believed  to  have  been  peo 
pled  by  Kittim,  Gen.  fO:4  ;  but  little  is 
known  of  its  early  history.  The  Mace 
donian  empire  is  traced  back  some  four 
hundred  years  before  the  famous  Philip, 
under  whom,  and  especially  under  his 
son  Alexander  the  Great,  it  reached  the 
summit  of  its  power.  Alexander,  B.  c. 
336-323,  at  the  head  of  Macedonians  and 
Greeks  united,  conquered  a  large  part  of 
western  and  southern  Asia.  This  power 
was  foretold  by  Daniel,  8:3-8,  under  the 
symbol  of  a  goat  with  one  horn ;  and  it 
is  worthy  of  note  that  ancient  Macedo 
nian  coins  still  exist,  bearing  that  na 
tional  symbol.  After  the  death  of  Alex 
ander,  the  power  of  the  Macedonians 
declined,  and  they  were  at  length  con 
quered  by  the  Romans  under  Paulus 
jEmilius,  B.  c.  168,  who  divided  their 
country  into  four  districts.  The  Ro 
mans  afterwards  divided  the  whole  of 
Greece  and  Macedonia  into  two  great 
province?,  which  they  called  Macedonia 
and  Achaia,  B.  c.  142,  Rom.  15 : 26 ; 
2  Cor.  9  :  2.  See  GREECE.  In  the  New 
Testament  the  name  is  probably  to  be 
taken  in  this  latter  sense.  Of  the  cities 
of  Macedonia  proper,  there  are  mention 
ed  in  the  New  Testament,  Amphipolis, 
Apollonia,  Berea,  Neapolis,  Philippi,  and 
Thessalonica.  This  country  early  receiv 
ed  the  gospel,  A.  D.  55,  Paul  having  been 
summoned  to  labor  there  by  a  supernat 
ural  vision,  Acts  16 : 9  ;  20 : 1 .  Its  fertile 
soil  is  now  languishing  under  the  Turk 
ish  sway. 

MA'CHIR,  I.,  a  son  of  Manasseh,  Gen. 
50:23.  His  posterity  were  active  in  the 
conquest  of  Gilead,  Num.  32  :  39 ;  Josh. 
17  :  1 ;  and  in  the  war  with  Jabin  and 
Sisera,  Judg.  5:14. 

II.  A  friend  of  Mephibosheth,  the  son 
of  Jonathan,  2  Sam.  9:4,  5. 

MACHPE'LAH,  the  field  and  cave  pur 
chased  by  Abraham  for  a  family  tomb. 
Sarah  was  first  buried  there,  Gen.  23 ; 
and  afterwards  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
with  Rebekah,  Leah,  etc.,  Gen.  49 :  30 ; 
50:13.  See  HEBRON. 

MA'DAI,  the  third  son  of  Japheth,  an 
cestor  of  the  Medes,  etc.,  Gen.  10:2. 


MADMAN'NAH,  a  city  near  Gaza,  first 
assigned  to  Judah,  and  afterwards  to 
Simeon,  Josh.  15:31;  1  Chr.  2:49. 

MAD'MEN,  an  unknown  place  in 
Moab,  Jer.  48:2. 

MADME'NAH,  a  town  not  far  from 
Jerusalem,  site  not  known,  Isa.  10:31. 

MAG'DALA,  the  ancient  Migdal-el,  in 
the  border  of  Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  38 ; 
now  a  small  Turkish  village  called  Med- 
jel.  It  lay  near  the  shore  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  at  its  most  westerly  point,  three 
miles  north- west  of  Tiberias;  in  the 
southern  part  of  a  small  plain  on  which 
stood  also  Capernaum  at  the  other  end, 
and  Dalmanutha  in  its  immediate  vicin 
ity,  Matt.  15  :  39 ;  Mark  8  : 10.  Mary 
Magdalene  was  born,  or  resided,  at  Mag- 
dala;  and  it  was  the  seat  of  a  Jewish 
school  after  Jerusalem  was  destroyed. 

MA'GI,  or  WISE  MEN,  an  appellation 
given  among  the  Medes  and  Persians  to 
a  class  of  priests,  wise  men,  philosophers, 
etc.,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the 
study  of  the  moral  and  physical  sciences, 
and  particularly  cultivated  astrology  and 
medicine.  They  alone  performed  the  re 
ligious  rites,  and  pretended  to  communi 
cate  to  men  secret  things,  future  eVents, 
and  the  will  of  the  gods.  See  MEDIA. 
As  they  thus  acquired  great  honor  and 
influence,  they  were  introduced  into  the 
courts  of  kings  and  consulted  on  all  oc 
casions.  They  also  accompanied  the 
army  in  warlike  expeditions;  and  so 
much  importance  was  attached  to  their 
advice  and  opinions,  that  nothing  was 
attempted  without  their  approbation.  A 
similar  class  of  men  existed  in  Babylon, 
Egypt,  Arabia,  etc.  The  book  of  Daniel 
shows  in  what  high  estimation  they 
were  held  in  Babylon.  Daniel  was  ap 
pointed  master  of  the  wise  men ;  but 
their  jealousy  of  his  wisdom  and  their 
hatred  of  his  religion,  as  well  as  the 
terms  in  which  they  are  spoken  of  in 
Isa.  47:13,  14,  Dan.  2  :  9,  27,  show  that 
as  a  class  they  were  destitute  of  true 
wisdom. 

Not  so  those  who  came  "from  the 
East"  to  salute  and  adore  the  infant 
Jesus,  Matt.  2  :  1-12.  The  captivity  of 
the  Jews  beyond  the  Euphrates  had  dis 
persed  through  the  East  much  know 
ledge  of  the  true  God ;  and  these  philos 
ophers  and  astronomers,  in  their  search 
after  wisdom,  had  found  and  believed  the 
prophecies  respecting  the  Messiah,  and 
were  divinely  guided  to  his  presence  at 
269 


MAG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAM 


Bethlehem.  See  STAR,  In  them,  the 
science  and  philosophy  of  the  heathen 
world  laid  their  homage  at  the  feet  of 
Christ.  Compare  Psa.  72  :  10,  11 ;  Isa. 
60:1-3. 

MAG'IC  means,  in  the  Bible,  all  the 
superstitious  ceremonies  of  magicians, 
sorcerers,  enchanters,  necromancers,  spir 
itualists,  exorcists,  astrologers,  soothsay 
ers,  interpreters  of  dreams,  fortune-tell 
ers,  casters  of  nativities,  etc.,  which  are 
all  forbidden  by  the  law  of  God,  whether 
practised  to  hurt  or  to  benefit  mankind. 
It  was  also  forbidden  to  consult  magi 
cians  on  pain  of  death,  Lev.  19  :  31 ; 
20:6.  See  ENCHANTMENTS  and  SORCERERS. 

MAGOG.     See  Goo. 

MA'HALATH,  in  the  title  of  Psalms 
63  and  88,  is  conjectured  to  refer  to  the 
tune  or  the  instrument  used  in  chanting 
these  Psalms ;  or  as  Hengstenberg  and 
Alexander  suggest,  to  the  spiritual  mal 
ady  which  they  lament. 

M  AH  AN  AIM,  two  hosts,  a  place  so 
named  because  a  host  of  angels  here  met 
the  host  of  Jacob,  on  his  return  from 
Padan-aram,  Gen.  82  :1,  2.  It  lay  north 
of  thp  Jabbok  and  near  Pcnuel,  and 
afterwards  became  a  Levitical  city  in  the 
tribe  of  Gad,  Josh.  21 :88.  It  was  appar 
ently  a  town  of  some  strength ;  for  Ish- 
bosheth  lived  there  during  his  short 
reign,  and  David  took  refuge  there  dur 
ing  Absalom's  rebellion,  2  Sam.  2:8; 
17:24,  27. 

MA'HER-SHALAL-HASH-BAZ,  haste, 
spoil,  speed  to  the  prey,  the  name  given  by 
Isaiah  to  one  of  his  sons,  for  a  prophetic 
intimation  of  the  speedy  victory  of  the 
Assyrians  over  Syria  and  Israel,  Isa. 
8:1-3. 

MAH'LON,  a  son  of  Elimelech  and 
Naomi,  and  the  first  husband  of  Ruth 
the  Moabitess,  Ruth  1. 

MAKKE'DAH,  a  chief  city  of  the  Ca- 
naanites,  near  which  five  confederate 
kings  were  defeated,  taken  in  the  cave 
to  which  they  had  fled,  and  executed. 
It  lay  in  the  vicinity  of  Libnah,  Azekah, 
and  Lachish,  south-west  of  Jerusalem, 
in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  Josh.  10:10-28; 
12:16;  15:41. 

MAK'TESH,  Zeph.  1 :11,  apparently  in 
or  near  Jerusalem,  and  occupied  by  mer 
chants  ;  but  we  have  no  clue  to  its  loca 
tion. 

MALACHI,  the  last  of  the  minor 
prophets,  and  of  all  the  Old  Testament 
writers ;  so  little  known,  that  it  is  doubt- 
270 


ed  by  some,  though  without  sufficient 
reason,  whether  his  name  be  a  proper 
name,  or  only  a  generical  one,  signifying 
the  angel  of  the  Lord,  that  is,  a  messen 
ger,  a  prophet,  Hag.  1 :  13;  Mai.  3:1. 
Malachi  most  probably  prophesied  about 
B.  c.  416,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  ad 
ministration  of  .Nehemiah,  and  after 
Haggai  and  Zechariah,  at  a  time  of  great 
disorder  among  the  priests  and  peo 
ple  of  Judah,  whom  he  reproves.  He 
inveighs  against  the  priests;  reproves 
the  people  for  having  taken  strange 
wives,  for  inhumanity  to  their  brethren, 
for  divorcing  their  wives,  and  for  neglect 
of  paying  tithes  and  first-fruits.  He 
seems  to  allude  to  the  covenant  that 
Nehemiah  renewed  with  the  Lord,  to 
gether  with  the  priests  and  the  chief  of 
the  nation.  In  the  latter  part  he  fore 
tells  the  coming  of  John  the  Baptist  in 
the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah,  Mai.  3:1; 
4:5,  6;  Matt.  11:10,  14;  17:10-13; 
Luke  1:17.  He  also  foretells  the  two 
fold  coming  of  Christ,  and  tlie  blessed 
ness  of  those  who  fear  and  serve  him. 
Thus  the  Old  Testament  closes  with  pre 
dictions  of  the  Messiah,  and  the  New 
Testament  opens  with  the  record  of  their 
fuliilmcnt. 

MAL'CHUS,  the  servant  whose  right 
ear  was  cut  off  by  Peter  and  miraculous 
ly  restored  by  Christ,  in  Gethsemane, 
Matt.  26  :  51.  The  seizure  of  the  Sav 
iour  immediately  after  two  manifesta 
tions  of  his  divinity,  JLuke  22  :  51,  John 
18:6,  evinces  the  blindness  and  obstina 
cy  of  mankind  in  sin. 

MALLOWS,  Job  30  :  4,  supposed  by 
Bochart  to  signify  the  plant  called  Orach, 
the  Atriplex  Halimus  of  Linnaeus.  It 
somewhat  resembles  lettuce,  and  its 
young  leaves  are  used  in  the  East,  either 
green  or  boiled,  as  food,  by  the  poor. 

MAM'MON,  a  Chaldee  wqrd  signifying 
riches.  Our  Saviour  says  we  cannot  serve 
God  and  mammon,  Matt.  6:24.  Wealth 
is  as  truly  an  idol  to  those  who  set  their 
hearts  on  it,  as  Jupiter  or  Diana ;  and 
no  idolater  can  enter  heaven.  He  also 
charges  us,  from  the  example  of  the  un 
just  steward,  so  to  use  worldly  goods, 
which  are  generally  sought  and  used  sin 
fully —  "the  unrighteous  mammon — " 
as  to  have  God  the  Judge  our  friend, 
and  receive  the  true  riches  in  heaven, 
Luke  16:9,  11. 

MAM'RE,  I. ,  an  Amorite  prince,  broth 
er  of  Eshcol  and  Aner.  All  three  united 


MAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAN 


their  forces  to  aid  Abraham  in  the  rescue 
of  Lot,  Gen.  14.  He  gave  his  name  to 

II.  The  town  where  he  dwelt,  after 
wards  Hebron,  in  the  suburbs  of  which 
was  a  large  terebinth-tree,  or  grove,  (see 
OAK,)  called  in  the  English  Bible  "the 
plain  of  Mamre."  Here  Abraham  and 
his  descendants  often  pitched  their  tents, 
Gen.  13  :  18 ;  18  : 1.  The  cave  of  Mach- 
pelah  was  adjacent  to  Mamre  on  the  east, 
Gen.  23  : 17,  19  ;  49  :  80  ;  and  from  the 
heights  near  by,  Abraham  could  see  the 
smoking  plain  of  Sodom,  Gen.  19:27,  28. 

MAN  OF  SIN.     See  ANTICHRIST. 

MAN'AEN,  a  foster-brother  of  Herod 
Antipas,  but  unlike  him  in  character 
and  end :  Manaen  was  a  minister  of 
Christ  at  Antioch ;  Herod  was  guilty  of 
the  blood  of  both  Christ  and  his  forerun 
ner,  Acts  13  : 1.  "  One  shall  be  taken, 
and  another  left." 

MANAS'SEH,  I.,  the  eldest  son  of  Jo 
seph,  born  in  Egypt.  His  descendants 
constituted  a  full  tribe.  This  was  divid 
ed  in  the  promised  land :  one  part  hav 
ing  settled  east  of  the  Jordan,  in  the 
country  of  Bashan,  from  the  river  Jab- 
bok  northwards;  and  the  other  west  of 
the  Jordan,  between  Ephraim  and  Issa- 
char.  extending  from  the  Jordan  to  the 
Mediterranean.  It  was  far  inferior  to 
Zphraim  in  wealth  and  power,  according 
«o  the  prediction  of  Jacob,  Gen.  41 :  50, 
•31;  48;  Josh.  16;  17. 

II.  The  son  and  impious  successor  of 
the  good  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah.  He 
began  to  reign  at  twelve  years  old,  B.  c. 
698,  and  reigned  fifty-live  years.  For 
his  shocking  idolatries,  tyranny,  and  cru 
elties,  God  suffered  him  to  be  carried  as 
a  prisoner  to  Babylon  in  the  twenty-sec 
ond  year  of  his  reign,  probably  by'Esar- 
haddon  king  of  Assyria.  Here,  how 
ever,  he  so  humbled  himself  that  God 
moved  the  Assyrians  to  restore  him  to 
his  throne,  as  a  tributary ;  and  thence 
forth  he  set  himself  to  undo  the  evil  he 
had  done.  He  abolished  the  idols  he 
had  worshipped  and  the  diviners  he  had 
consulted  ;  accomplished  many  reforms 
for  the  spiritual  and  material  good  of 
his  kingdom ;  repaired  the  defences  of 
Jerusalem,  enclosing  with  a  wall  new 
space  on  the  west  and  Ophel  on  the 
south-east ;  and  strengthened  the  walled 
cities  of  Judah.  After  a  reign  longer 
than  that  of  any  other  king  of  Judah,  he 
died  in  peace  and  was  buried  in  Jerusa 
lem,  2  Kin.  21;  2  Chr.  33. 


MAN'DKAKES,  Hebrew  Dudaim,  Gen. 
30 :  14-16,  Song  7  '  13,  a  plant  to  which 
was  attributed,  probably  without  reason, 
the  power  of  rendering  barren  women 
fruitful.  According  to  most  of  the  an 
cient  versions,  it  was  the  Atropa  Man- 
dragora  of  Linnseus,  a  plant  of  the  genus 
belladonna,  with  a  root  like  a  beet,  white 
and  reddish  blossoms,  and  fragrant  yel 
low  apples,  which  ripen  from  May  to 
July.  But  this  opinion  is  uncertain. 

MA'NEH,  a  Hebrew  weight  of  sixty 
shekels,  Ezek.  45:12.  See  the  TABLE  at 
the  end  of  the  volume. 

MAN'NA,  the  miraculous  food  given 
by  God  to  the  Israelites  during  their 
wanderings  in  the  desert.  It  was  a  small 
grain,  white  like  hoar-frost,  round,  and 
of  the  size  of  coriander-seed,  Exod.  16 ; 
Num.  11.  It  fell  every  morning,  with 
the  dew,  about  the  camp  of  the  Israel 
ites,  and  in  so  great  quantities  during 
the  whole  forty  years  of  their  journey  in 
the  wilderness,  that  it  was  sufficient  to 
serve  the  entire  multitude  instead  of 
bread,  Ex.  16:35;  Deut.  29:5,  6;  Josh. 
5  :  12.  It  is  nowhere  said  that  the  Is 
raelites  had  no  other  food.  That  numer 
ous  flocks  and  herds  accompanied  the 
camp  of  Israel  is  clear  from  many  pas 
sages.  Certainly  the  daily  sacrifices  were 
offered,  and  no  doubt  other  offerings, 
affording  animal  food  on  which  the 
priests  and  Levites  subsisted,  according 
to  their  offices. 

When  manna  was  first  sent,  the  Israel 
ites  "  knew  not  what  it  was,"  and  "said 
one  to  another,  MAN-HIT,  which  means, 
What  is  it?  Most  interpreters  think 
that  from  the  frequent  repetition  of  this 
inquiry  the  name  MAN  or  manna  arose- 
271 


MAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


MAR 


Burckhardt  says,  that  in  the  valleys 
around  Sinai  a  species  of  manna  is  still 
found,  dropping  from  the  sprigs  of  sev 
eral  trees,  but  principally  from  the  tama 
risk,  in  the  month  of  June.  It  is  collect 
ed  by  the  Arabs,  who  make  cakes  of  it,  and 
call  it  honey  of  beyrouk.  See  Ex.  16  :  31, 
Since  his  time  it  has  been  ascertained  by 
Dr.  Ehrenburg  that  the  exudation  of  this 
manna  is  occasioned  by  an  insect,  which 
he  has  particularly  described.  Besides  this 
substance  and  the  manna  of  commerce, 
which  is  used  as  a  laxative  medicine,  and 
is  produced  by  the  ash-trees  of  southern 
Europe,  several  other  vegetable  products 
in  Arabia,  Persia,  etc.,  of  similar  origin 
and  qualities,  are  known  by  the  same 
name.  It  is  in  vain,  however,  to  seek 
to  identify  with  any  of  these  the  manna 
of  the  Israelites,  which  was  evidently  a 
special  provision  for  them,  beginning 
and  terminating  with  their  need  of  it. 
It  was  found,  not  on  trees  and  shrubs, 
but  on  ' '  the  face  of  the  wilderness ' ' 
wherever  they  went ;  and  was  different 
in  its  qualities  from  any  now  known 
by  that  name,  being  dry  enough  to 
grind  ani  bake  like  grain,  but  breed 
ing  worms  on  the  second  day.  It  was 
miraculous  in  the  amount  that  fell,  for 
the  supply  of  millions  ;  in  not  falling  on 
the  Sabbath  ;  in  falling  in  double  quan 
tities  the  previous  day;  and  in  remain 
ing  fresh  during  the  Sabbath,  By  these 
last  three  peculiarities  God  miraculously 
attested  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath,  as 
dating  from  the  creation  and  not  from 
mount  Sinai.  Moreover,  a  specimen  of 
manna  was  laid  up  in  a  golden  vase  in 
the  ark  of  the  covenant,  in  memory  of  a 
substance  which  would  otherwise  have 
perished,  Heb.  9:4. 

In  Psa.  78:24,  25,  manna  is  called 
"angels'  food"  and  "corn  of  heaven," 
in  token  of  its  excellence,  and  that  it 
came  directly  from  the  hand  of  God. 
The  people  gathered  on  an  average  about 
three  quarts  for  each  man.  They  who 
gathered  more  than  they  needed,  shared 
it  freely  with  others  ;  it  could  not  be 
hoarded  up :  and  thus,  as  Paul  teaches 
us,  2  Cor.  8 :  13-15,  it  furnishes  for  all 
men  a  lesson  against  hoarding  the  earth 
ly  and  perishable  gifts  of  God,  and  in 
favor  of  freely  imparting  to  our  brethren 
in  need. 

This  great  boon  of  God  to  the  Israel 
ites  also  offers  many  striking  analogies, 
illustrative  of  "the  true  Bread"  which 
272 


came  down  from  heaven  to  rebellious 
and  perishing  man,  John  6:31-58 ;  Rev. 
2:17.  Like  the  manna,  Christ  descends 
from  above  around  the  camp  of  his 
church  in  daily  and  abundant  supplies, 
to  meet  the  wants  ot  every  man. 

MANOAH,  a  native  of  Zorah,  in  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  and  the  father  of  Samson, 
Judg.  13:14;  16:31.  In  the  prediction 
of  his  son's  birth  and  achievements,  we 
see  the  Angel  of  the  covenant,  who  ap 
peared  to  Abraham,  Gideon,  etc.,  and 
who  never  slumbers  nor  sleeps,  caring 
for  his  oppressed  people.  So  too  ho 
appeared  to  Jacob,  and  would  not  tell 
his  mysterious  name,  Gen.  32:29;  Judg. 
13:18;  Isa.  9:6;  Luke  13:34. 
MAN'SLAYER.  See  REFUGE. 
MANTLE.  See  GARMENTS. 
MA'ON,  a  town  in  the  edge  of  the 
hill-country  of  Judah,  Josh.  15:55,  near 
which  Nabal  lived  and  David  took  ref 
uge  from  Saul,  1  Sam.  23:24,  25;  25:2. 
Dr.  Robinson  finds  it  in  the  ruinous 
place  called.  Main,  seven  miles  south  by 
east  from  Hebron 

MA'ONITES,  called  MEIIUNIM  in  2Chr. 
26:7,  an  Arabian  tribe,  named  with  the 
Amalekites  and  other  foes  of  Israel. 
Their  abode  may  have  been  near  the 
place  now  called  Maan,  nearly  east  of 
Petra,  on  the  Haj  route  from  Damascus 
to  Mecca.  Uzziah  defeated  them. 

MA'RAH,  bitterness,  a  well  near  the 
Red  sea,  three  days'  journey  from  the 
point  where  the  Israelites  crossed  it. 
The  well  was  sweetened  for  the  use  of 
the  distressed  Hebrews  by  the  miracu 
lous  efficacy  imparted  to  the  branches  of 
a  certain  tree  which  Moses  threw  in,  Ex. 
15:23-25.  No  plant  is  now  known  pos 
sessed  of  such  a  quality/  The  name 
Amarah  now  marks  the  dry  bed  of  a 
wintry  torrent,  a  little  south  of  which 
is  a  well  called  Hawara,  which  answers 
well  to  the  description,  Its  water,  after 
remaining  a  few  seconds  in  the  mouth, 
becomes  exceedingly  nauseous.  The 
Arabs  do  not  drink  it,  though  their  cam 
els  will.  See  also  Ruth  1 : 20. 

MA'RAN-A'THA,  composed  of  two 
Syriac  words,  signifying  "the  Lord 
cometh."  See  ANATHEMA. 

MARE'SHAH,  a  town  in  Judah,  Josh. 
15  :  44,  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  2  Chr. 
11  :  8,  and  the  birthplace  of  Micah.  In 
a  valley  near  by,  Asa  defeated  Zerab, 
with  an  immense  host  of  Ethiopians, 
2  Chr.  14:9-13,  It  probably  lay  on  th« 


MAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAR 


western  border  of  Judah,  just  south  of 
Eleutheropolis. 

MARK,  or  MARCUS,  the  writer  of  one 
of  the  four  gospels.  See  GOSPELS.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  of  the  correctness  of 
the  general  opinion  of  learned  men,  that 
he  is  the  same  person  who  is  mentioned 
by  the  names  of  John  and  Mark  in  Acts 
12  :  12,  25  ;  13  :  5,  13,  and  as  the  cousin 
and  disciple  of  Barnabas,  Col.  4:10.  He 
was  also  the  companion  of  Paul  and  Bar 
nabas  in  their  journey  through  Greece 
to  Antioch,  Perga,  and  Pamphylia,  at 
which  last  place  he  left  them  and  re 
turned  to  Jerusalem,  much  to  the  dis 
satisfaction  of  Paul,  Acts  13 : 5,  etc.  ; 
15  :  37-39.  Yet  he  labored  faithfully 
with  Barnabas  at  Cyprus,  and  Paul  men 
tions  him,  when  in  captivity  at  Rome, 
as  one  of  those  who  were  associated  with 
him,  Col.  4:10,  11;  2  Tim.  4:11 ;  Phile. 
24.  He  afterwards  accompanied  Peter 
also  to  Babylon.  As  he  was  the  son  of 
that  Mary  at  whose  house  in  Jerusalem 
the  apostles  were  wont  to  convene,  so  it 
is  probable  that  he  was  particularly  in 
structed  in  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
by  Peter,  who  on  that  account  calls  him 
son,  I  Pet.  5  :  13.  Compare  1  Tim.  1  :  2 
and  2  Tim.  1:2. 

MAR'KET.  in  Greek  AG'ORA,  in  Latin 
FO'RUM,  a  large  open  area  in  many  an 
cient  cities,  especially  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  having  the  public  market  on  one 
side  only,  the  other  sides  of  the  area 
being  occupied  by  temples,  theatres,  col- 
onades,  courts  of  justice,  baths,  and  other 
public  structures,  the  whole  square  often 
presenting  a  magnificent  appearance. 
Here  was  the  city  exchange,  the  focus  to 
which  converged  all  the  lines  of  public 
life.  Hither  laborers  resorted  in  search 
of  employment,  Matt,  20  :  3-7,  and  chil 
dren  to  pursue  their  sports,  Luke  7:  32. 
Here  the  ordinary  assemblies  of  the  peo 
ple  were  held;  here  philosophers  and 
statesmen  met  and  debated ;  here  laws 
were  promulgated  and  news  announced ; 
hither  men  resorted  for  pleasure  as  well 
as  for  business.  The  most  notable  pub 
lic  men,  and  indeed  all  classes  of  citi 
zens,  here  congregated ;  and  what  was 
done  here  was  done  before  the  whole 
city.  Hence  the  proud  Pharisees  desired 
"greetings in  the  market-places,"  Matt. 
12 : 38  ;  and  Paul  resorted  to  the  agora  at 
Athens  to  meet  and  convince  the  philos 
ophers,  Acts  17  : 17  ;  and  the  masters  of 
the  damsel  at  Philippi  exorcised  by  Paul 
12* 


and  Silas,  ' '  drew  them  into  the  market' 
place  unto  the  rulers,"  Acts  10:19. 

MAR'RIAGE,  the  union  for  life  of  one 
man  and  one  woman,  is  an  ordinance  of 
the  Creator  for  the  perpetuity  and  hap 
piness  of  the  human  race  ;  instituted  in 
Paradise,  Gen.  1  :  27,  28 ;  2  :  18-24,  and 
the  foundation  of  no  small  part  of  all 
that  is  valuable  to  human  society.  By 
promoting  parental  love  and  the  sense 
of  responsibility,  marriage  most  effectu 
ally  promotes  the  health  and  happiness 
of  children,  and  their  careful  education 
to  virtue,  industry,  and  honor,  to  right 
habits  and  ends,  and  to  all  that  is  in 
cluded  in  the  idea  of  home.  God  made 
originally  but  one  man  and  one  woman. 
The  first  polygamists  were  Lamech  and 
those  degenerate  "sons  of  God,"  or  wor 
shippers  of  Jehovah,  who  "took  them 
wives  of  all  that  they  chose,"  Gen.  4: 17  ; 
6:2.  On  the  other  hand,  Noah  and  his 
three  sons  had  each  but  one  wife ;  and 
the  same  appears  to  be  true  of  all  his 
direct  ancestors  back  to  Adam.  So  also 
was  it  with  Job,  Nahor,  Lot,  and  at 
first  with  Abraham.  See  CONCUBINE.  In 
after-times  a  plurality  of  wives  became 
more  common  among  the  Hebrews,  and 
the  Scriptures  afford  numerous  illustra 
tions  of  its  evil  results,  Gen.  16  :  30 ; 
Judg.  8:30;  2  Sam.  3:3-5;  1  Kin.  11:1- 
8  ;  2  Chr.  11 : 18-21 ;  13 : 21.  In  the  time 
of  Christ  there  is  no  mention  of  polyga 
my  as  prevalent  among  the  Jews. 

The  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  marry 
within  certain  specified  degrees,  Lev.  18  ; 
20 ;  Deut.  27.  Marriage  with  Canaan- 
ites  and  idolaters  was  strictly  forbid 
den,  Exod.  34  : 16 ;  and  afterwards  with 
any  of  the  heathen  nations  around  them, 
especially  such  as  were  un circumcised, 
Neh.  13.  By  the  Levirate  law,  as  it  is 
termed,  if  a  Jew  died  without  children, 
his  nearest  brother  or  kinsman  was 
bound  to  marry  the  widow,  that  her 
first-born  son  after  this  marriage  might 
be  reckoned  the  son  and  heir  of  the  first 
husband,  Gen.  38  ;  Deut.  25:5-10  ;  Matt. 
22  :  23-26.  The  Saviour  set  his  seal  to 
marriage  as  a  divine  and  permanent  in 
stitution,  aside  from  all  the  civil  laws 
which  guard  and  regulate,  or  seek  to 
alter  or  annul  it ;  forbidding  divorce 
except  for  one  cause,  Matt.  5:32;  19:3- 
6,  9 ;  and  denouncing  all  breaches  of 
marriage  vows,  even  in  thought,  Matt. 
5 : 28.  Compare  Heb.  13:4:  Rev.  21:8. 

Jewish  parents  were  wont  to  arrange 
273 


MAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAR 


with  other  parents  as  to  the  marriage  of 
their  children,  sometimes  according  to 
the  previous  choice  of  the  son,  and  not 
without  some  regard  to  the  consent  of 
the  daughter,  Gen.  21:21;  24;  34:4-6; 
Judg.  14  : 2,  3.  The  parties  were  often 
betrothed  to  each  other  long  before  the 
marriage  took  place.  See  BETROTHING. 
A  dowry  was  given  by  the  suitor  to  the 
parents  and  brethren  of  the  bride,  Ex. 
22:16;  Deut.  22:29;  2  Sam.  13:11,  11. 
The  nuptials  were  often  celebrated  with 
great  pomp  and  ceremony,  and  with  pro 
tracted  feasting  and  rejoicings.  It  was 
customary  for  the  bridegroom  to  appoint 
a  Paranymphus,  or  groomsman,  called 
by  our  Saviour  ' '  the  friend  of  the  bride 
groom,"  John  3:29.  A  number  of  other 
young  men  also  kept  him  company  dur 
ing  the  days  of  the  wedding,  to  do  him 
honor  ;  as  also  young  women  kept  com 
pany  with  the  bride  all  this  time.  The 
companions  of  the  bridegroom  are  ex 
pressly  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Sam 
son,  Judg.  14:11,  20;  Song  5:1;  8:13; 
Matt.  9:14;  also  the  companions  of  the 
bride,  Psa.  45 : 9, 14  ;  Song  1:5;2:7;3:5; 
8 : 4.  The  office  of  the  groomsman  was  to 
direct  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  wedding. 
The  friends  and  companions  of  the  bride 
sang  the  epithalamium,  or  wedding  song, 
at  the  door  of  the  bride  the  evening  be 
fore  the  wedding.  The  festivities  of  the 
wedding  were  conducted  with  great  de 
corum,  the  3roung  people  of  each  sex  be 
ing  in  distinct  apartments  and  at  differ 
ent  tables.  The  young  men  at  Samson's 
wedding  diverted  themselves  in  propos 
ing  riddles,  and  the  bridegroom  appoint 
ed  the  prize  to  those  who  could  explain 
them,  Judg.  14:14. 

The  Jews  affirm,  that  before  Jerusa 
lem  was  laid  in  ruins,  the  bridegroom 
and  bride  wore  crowns  at  their  marriage. 
Compare  Isa.  61 :  10 ;  Song  3  :  11,  "Go 
forth,  0  ye  daughters  of  Zion,  and  be 
hold  king  Solomon  with  the  crown 
wherewith  his  mother  crowned  him  in 
the  day  of  his  espousals,  and  in  the  day 
of  the  gladness  of  his  heart."  The  mod 
ern  Jews,  in  some  places,  throw  handfuls 
of  wheat  on  the  newly  married  couple, 
particularly  on  the  bride,  saying,  "In 
crease  and  multiply."  In  other  places 
they  mingle  pieces  of  money  with  the 
wheat,  which  are  gathered  up  by  the 
poor.  The  actual  ceremony  of  marriage 
was  very  simple,  consisting  of  little  more 
than  the  reading  of  the  marriage  con- 
274 


tract,  Prov.  2  :  17,  Mai.  2  •.  14,  and  the 
nuptial  blessing  invoked  by  the  friends, 
Gen.  24:60;  Ruth  4:11,  12. 

<The  wedding  festivities  commonly 
lasted  seven  days  for  a  maid,  and  three 
days  for  a  widow.  So  Laban  says  to  Ja 
cob,  respecting  Leah,  "Fulfil  her  week," 
Gen.  29:27.  The  ceremonies  of  Samson's 
wedding  continued  seven  whole  days, 
Judg.  14  :  17,  18.  These  seven  days  of 
rejoicing  were  commonly  spent  in  the 
house  of  the  woman's  father,  after  which 
they  conducted  the  bride  to  her  husband's 
home. 

The  procession  accompanying  the  bride 
from  the  house  of  her  father  to  that  of  the 
bridegroom,  was  generally  one  of  more 
or  less  pomp,  according  to  the  circum 
stances  of  the  married  couple ,  and  for 
this  they  often  chose  the  night,  as  is  still 
the  custom  in  Syria.  Hence  the  para 
ble  of  the  ten  virgins  that  went  at  mid 
night  to  meet  the  bride  and  bridegroom, 
Matt.  25.  "  At  a  Hindoo  marriage",  the 
procession  of  which  I  saw  some  years 
ago,"  says  Mr.  Ward,  "the  bridegroom 
came  from  a  distance,  and  the  bride  lived 
at  Serarnpore,  to  which  place  the  bride 
groom  was  to  come  by  water.  After 
waiting  two  or  three  hours,  at  length, 
near  midnight,  it  was  announced,  as  if 
in  the  very  words  of  Scripture,  'Behold, 
the  bridegroom  cometh ;  go  ye  out  to 
meet  him.'  All  the  persons  employed 
now  lighted  their  lamps,  and  ran  with 
them  in  their  hands  to  fill  up  their  sta 
tions  in  the  procession  ;  some  of  them 
had  lost  their  lights,  and  were  unpre 
pared  ;  but  it  was  then  too  late  to  seek 
them,  and  the  cavalcade  moved  forward 
to  the  house  of  the  bride,  at  which  place 
the  company  entered  a  large  and  splen 
didly  illuminated  area,  before  the  house, 
covered  with  an  awning,  where  a  great 
multitude  of  friends,  dressed  in  their 
best  apparel,  were  seated  upon  mats. 
The  bridegroom  was  carried  in  the  arms 
of  a  friend,  and  placed  in  a  superb  seat 
in  the  midst  of  the  company,  where  he 
sat  a  short  time,  and  then  went  into  the 
house,  the  door  of  which  was  immedi 
ately  shut,  and  guarded  by  sepoys.  I 
and  others  expostulated  with  the  door 
keepers,  but  in  vain.  Never  was  I  so 
struck  with  our  Lord's  beautiful  parable 
as  at  this  moment ;  '  and  the  door  was 
shut.'  " 

Christianity  invests  the  family  institu 
tion  with  peculiar  sacredness ;  makes 


MAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAR 


true  love  its  basis,  and  mutual  preference 
of  each  others'  happiness  its  rule  ;  ant 
even  likens  it  to  the  inelFable  union  be 
tween  Christ  and  his  church,  Eph   5:22- 
33.     Nowhere  in  the  world  is  woman  so 
honored,  happy,  and  useful  as  in  a  Chris 
tia-n  land  and  a  Christian  home.     Be 
lievers  are  directed  to  marry  "in  the 
Lord,"  1  Cor.  7  :  39.     No  doubt  the  re 
strictions  laid  upon  the  ancient  people 
of  God  contain  a  lesson  for  all  periods, 
and  the  recorded  ill  results  of  forbidden 
marriages  among  the  Jews,  if  heeded-, 
would  prevent  the  serious  evils  which 
often  result  from  union  between  a  Chris 
tian  and  a  worldling.     As  to  the  mutual 
duties  of  husband  and   wife,  see   Eph. 
5:22-23;  1  Tim.  2:11,  12;  1  Pet.  3:1-7. 
The  Romish  church  puts  dishonor  on 
what  the  Holy  Spirit  describes  as  "hon 
orable  in  all."     It  not  only  extols  celi 
bacy    and   virginity  in   the    laity,    but 
strictly  refuses  marriage  to  all  its  priests, 
bishops,  etc.,  and  in  thus  "  forbidding  to 
marry,"  fixes  upon  itself  the  name  of 
anti-Christ,  1  Tim.  4 :  3.     See  BETROTH 
ING,  CONCUBINE,  DIVORCE,  GARMENTS,  etc. 
MARS'-HILL.     See  AREOPAGUS. 
MARTHA,  sister  of  Lazarus  and  Mary, 
at  Bethany.    Though  different  from  Mary 
in  temperament,  she  was  no  less  truly  a 
devoted  friend  of  Christ  and  beloved  by 
him,  John  11  :  5      His   gentle  reproof, 
Luke  10:38-42,  does  not  imply  that  she 
was  a  stranger  to  renewing  grace.     Her 
affectionate  care  for  the  hospitable  enter 
tainment  of  Christ  must  not  be  forgot 
ten,   nor  her  promptness  in  hasting  to 
meet  him,  nor  her  faith  in  his  power, 
John  11:20-28;  12:1,  2.    See  MARY  IV. 
MAR'TYR,    a   witness,    Matt.    18 :  16  ; 
Luke  24:48;  in  ecclesiastical  history,  "a 
witness,  by  the  shedding  of  his  blood,  in 
testifying  to  the  truth."      Thus  martyrs 
are    distinguished    from    "confessors," 
properly  so  called,  who  underwent  great 
afflictions   for   their    confession    of   the 
truth,  but  without  suffering  death.    The 
term    "martyr"    occurs  only  thrice  in 
the  New  Testament,  Acts  22  :  20 ;  Rev. 
2:13;  17:6.     Since  the  time  of  Stephen, 
Acts  7  :  59  ;  22  :  20,  myriads  of  martyrs 
have  gealed  the  truth  of  Christianity  by 
a  piinful  death ;   which  they  willingly 
endured  through  faith,  rather  than  to 
deny  Christ,  and  which  they  often  eager 
ly  desired  as  a  special  privilege.     It  is 
doubtless  possible  to  be  put  to  death  as 
a  Christian,  without  real  love  for  Christ, 


1  Cor.  13 :  3 ;  but  in  general  "the  noble 
army  of  the  martyrs ' '  have  borne  a  true 
and  overwhelming  testimony  to  the 
power  and  preciousness  of  faith  in  Christ ; 
and  their  blood  witnesses  before  God 
against  their  foes,  especially  against  that 
apostate  church  which  is  ' '  drunken  with 
the  blood  of  the  martyrs  of  Jesus,"  Rev. 
17:6. 

MARY,  in  Hebrew  MIRIAM,  I.,  "the 
mother  of  Jesus, ' '  Acts  1 : 14.  Her  ami 
able  and  lovely  character,  and  her  re 
markable  history  in  connection  with  the 
wonders  relating  to  the  birth  of  Christ, 
are  recorded  in  the  first  two  chapters  of 
Matthew  and  Luke.  The  genealogy  of 
the  Saviour  through  her,  in  the  line  of 
David  and  Abraham,  is  preserved  in 
Luke  3,  to  prove  that  he  was  born  "as 
concerning  the  flesh"  according  to  an 
cient  prophecies.  After  the  return  from 
Egypt  to  Nazareth,  she  is  but  live  times 
mentioned  in  the  gospel  history :  three 
times  with  some  appearance  of  reproval 
on  the  part  of  Christ,  Matt.  12  :  46-50  ; 
Luke  2  :  49,  50  ;  John  2:4;  once  when 
he  commended  her  to  the  care  of  John, 
John  19  .  26 ;  and  lastly  as  among  the 
disciples  at  Jerusalem  after  his  ascension, 
Acts  1 : 14.  Thenceforth,  throughout  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  Epistles,  and 
the  Revelation,  no  allusion  is  made  to 
her.  Manifestly  the  worship  of  Mary 
had  not  then  commenced.  The  inven 
tions  of  the  Romish  church  in  after- 
centuries  are  wholly  destitute  of  foun 
dation  in  Scripture,  and  subversive  of 
;he  gospel.  One  of  these  unauthor- 
zed  inventions  is  the  alleged  immacu- 
ate  conception  and  spotless  holiness  of 
Mary.  See  Rom.  3  : 10,  23  ;  Gal.  3  :  22 ; 
L  John  1:8;  and  compare  also  the  re- 
jroofs  above  alluded  to,  and  her  own 
confession  of  her  need  of  a  Saviour,  Luke 
L:47.  Another  unauthorized  invention 

her  alleged  virginity  after  the  birth 
of  Jesus,  Matt.   1  :  25  ;  Luke  2  :  7.     No 
case  can  be  found  in  Scripture  where 
'  iirst-born  son ' '  is  used  of  an  only  child, 
'n  other  passages  the  brethren,  sisters, 
and  mother  of  Christ  are  mentioned  to- 
ether,  apparently  as  one  family.  Matt, 
L3  :  55,  56 ;  and  she  was  known  as  the 
wife  of  Joseph  probably  for  almost  thirty 
'ears,  John  6  :  42.     To  adore  her  as  the 
'queen  of  heaven,"  and  the  "mother  of 
God,"  is,  in  the  light  of  the  Bible,  bias- 
>hemous  idolatry  ;  and  to  pray  to  her  as 
divine,  or  even  as  a  mediator  with  God, 
275 


MAS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAZ 


implies  that  she  possesses  the  attribute  of 
omnipresence,  and  degrades  the  only  and 
sufficient  Mediator,  1  Tim,  2:5;  Hcb. 
4.16.  She  was  "blessed"  or  signally 
favored  "among  women,"  as  Jael  was 
" blessed  above  women,"  Judg.  5:24; 
Luke  1 :  28  ;  but  Christ  himself  declares 
that  a  higher  blessing  belongs  to  those 
"that  hear  the  word  of  God  and  keep 
it,"  Luke  11:27,  28. 

II.  The  mother  of  Mark  the  Evange 
list.     She  had  a  house  in   Jerusalem, 
where  the  followers  of  Jesus  were  wont 
to  convene.     Hither  Peter,  when  deliv 
ered  from  prison  by  the  angel,  came  and 
knocked  at  the  gate,  Acts  12: 12.     Many 
such   hospitable   Christian   homes,    and 
places  of  social  prayer,  even  in  troublous 
times,  are  for  ever  enshrined  in  the  re 
membrances  of  the  people  of  God. 

III.  The  wife  of  Cleophas,  and  mother 
of   James   the    Less   and   Joses,   Matt. 
27  :  56,  61 ;  Luke  24  : 10;  John  19  :  25. 
This   last   passage,  leaves   it   uncertain 
whether  this  Mary  was  sister  to  Mary 
our  Lord's  mother,  or  not.     Some  sup 
pose  that  four  persons  are  there  named  : 
Christ's    mother,    his    mother's    sister, 
Mary  of  Cleophas,   and  Salome.      See 
MARY  I.  and  JAMES  III.     She  believed 
early  on  Jesus  Christ,  and  accompanied 
him  in  some  of  his  journeys,  to  minister 
to  him,  followed  him  to  Calvary,  and 
was  with  his  mother  at  the  foot  of  his 
cross.     She  was  also  present  at  his  bur 
ial,  prepared  perfumes  to  embalm  him, 
and  was  early  at  his  sepulchre  on  the 
morning  of  his  resurrection.     See  CLEO 
PHAS. 

IV.  The  sister  of  Lazarus,  whom  our 
Lord  raised  from  the  dead.     Her  charac 
ter  presents  a  beautiful  companion-pic 
ture  to  that  of  her  more  active  and  im 
pulsive  sister  Martha.      Contemplative, 
confiding,  and  affectionate,  it  was  like 
heaven  to  her  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  her 
adored  Teacher  and  Lord,  Luke  10  :  39- 
42.    The  character  of  the  two  sisters  was 
well  contrasted  at  the  supper  in  Bethany, 
after  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus.     No 
service  was  too  humble  for  Martha  to 
render,  and  no  offering  too  costly  for 
Mary  to  pour  out,  in  honor  of  their  Sav 
iour,  John  11;  12:1-8.     This  occurrence 
should  not  be  confounded  with  that  de 
scribed  in  Luke  7:37-50. 

V.  The  Magdalene,  or  native  of  Mag- 
dala  on  the  sea  of  Galilee.    She  was  fore 
most  among  the  honorable  women  of 

276 


substance  who  ministered  unto  Christ 
and  his  disciples,  Matt.  28  :  1-10  ;  Mark 
15:47 ;  16:1-10 ;  Luke  24  :  1-12  ;  John 
20  :  1,  2,  10-18.  She  was  especially  de 
voted  to  Christ,  for  his  mercy  in  casting 
out  from  her  seven  evil  spirits,  Luke 
8:2,  3.  She  was  early  at  his  tomb  ;  and 
lingering  there  when  the  disciples  had 
retired,  she  was  the  first  to  throw  her 
self  at  the  feet  of  the  risen  Saviour. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  she  was  ever 
a  profligate. 

VI.  A  benevolent  and  useful  Christian 
at  Rome,  saluted  in  Paul's  epistle,  Rom. 
16:6. 

MAS'CHIL  is  a  term  found  as  a  title 
of  thirteen  Psalms,  and  imports  one  that 
instructs  or  makes  to  understand.  Some 
interpreters  think  it  means  an  instru 
ment  of  music ;  but  it  more  probably 
signifies  an  instructive  song. 

MATRIX,  the  womb.  To  "open  the 
matrix,"  Ex.  13:12,  15,  means,  to  be 
the  first-born. 

MAT'THEW,  an  apostle  and  evange 
list,  was  son  of  Alpheus,  a  Galilean  by 
birth,  a  Jew  by  religion,  and  a  publican 
by  profession,  Matt.  9:9;  10  :  3 ;  Luke 
6 :  15.  The  other  evangelists  call  him 
only  LEVI,  which  was  his  Hebrew  name, 
Mark  2  :  14  ;  Luke  5  :  27  ;  but  he  always 
calls  himself  Matthew,  which  was  prob 
ably  his  name  as  a  publican,  or  officer 
for  gathering  taxes.  He  does  not  dis 
semble  his  former  profession ;  thus  ex> 
alting  the  grace  of  Christ  which  raised 
him  to  the  apostleship.  His  ordinary 
abode  was  at  Capernaum,  and  his  office 
probably  on  the  main  road,  near  the  sea 
of  Tiberias ;  here,  in  the  midst  of  his 
business,  he  was  called  by  Jesus  to  fol 
low  him,  Matt.  9:9;  Mark  2  : 14.  It  is 
probable  that  he  had  a  previous  know 
ledge  of  the  miracles  and  doctrine  of 
Christ. 

For  the  GOSPEL  OF  MATTHEW,  see  GOS 
PEL. 

MATTHIAS,  one  of  the  disciples  who 
continued  with  our  Saviour  from  his 
baptism  to  his  ascension,  Acts  1 :  21-26, 
and  was  after  the  ascension  associated 
with  the  eleven  apostles.  We  know 
nothing  further  of  him. 

MAZ'ZAROTH,  Job  38:32.  Our  trans 
lators  properly  suppose  this  word  to  de 
note  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac,  a 
broad  circle  in  the  heayens,  pomprehend- 
ing  all  such  stars  as  lie  in  the  path  of 
the  sun  and  moon.  As  these  luminaries 


MEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MED 


appear  to  proceed  throughout  this  cir 
cle  annually,  so  different  parts  of  it  pro 
gressively  receive  them  every  month ; 
and  this  progression  seems  to  be  what  is 
meant  by  '•'  bringing  forth  mazzaroth  in 
his  season,"  that  is,  Canst  thou  by  thy 
power  cause  the  revolutions  of  the  heav 
enly  bodies  in  the  zodiac,  and  the  sea 
sons  of  summer  and  winter,  in  their 
regular  succession  ? 

MEALS.     See  EATING. 

MEAS'URE.  See  the  general  table  of 
"Weights,  Measures,  and  Money  of  the 
Hebrews,  at  the  end  of  the  Dictionary ; 
also  the  particular  names  of  each,  as 
SHEKEL,  TALENT,  BATH,  EPIIAII,  etc. 

MEATS.  "Meat"  in  the  English 
Bible  usually  signifies  "food,"  and  not 
merely  "flesh,"  Gen.  1:29,  30;  Matt. 
15  :  37.  So  in  Luke  24  :  41 ;  "  Have  ye 
here  any  meat?"  literally,  any  thing  to 
eat  ?  The  ' '  meat-offerings ' '  of  the  Jews 
were  made  of  flour  and  oil,  etc. ,  Lev.  2. 
See  OFFERINGS  and  SACRIFICES.  As  to  the 
animal  food  used  by  the  Jews,  see  CLEAN, 
and  FOOD. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  ancient 
Hebrews  were  very  particular  about  the 
seasoning  and  dressing  of  their  food. 
We  find  among  them  roast  meat,  boiled 
meat,  and  ragouts.  Moses  forbade  them 
to  seethe  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk, 
Ex.  23:19  ;  34:26— a  precept  designed  to 
inculcate  principles  of  humanity,  and 
perhaps  to  prevent  them  from  adopting 
an  idolatrous  custom  of  their  heathen 
neighbors.  The  Jews  were  also  forbid 
den  to  kill  a  cow  and  its  calf  in  the  same 
day;  or  a  sheep,  or  goat,  and  its  young 
one,  at  the  same  time.  They  might  not 
cut  off  a  part  of  a  living  animal  to  eat 
it,  either  raw  or  dressed.  If  any  lawful 
beast  or  bird  should  die  of  itself  or  be 
strangled,  and  the  blood  not  drain  away, 
they  were  not  allowed  to  taste  of  it. 
They  ate  of  nothing  dressed  by  any  other 
than  a  Jew,  nor  did  they  ever  dress  their 
victuals  with  the  kitchen  implements  of 
any  but  one  of  their  own  nation. 

The  prohibition  of  eating  blood,  or  an 
imals  that  are  strangled,  has  been  always 
rigidly  observed  by  the  Jews.  In  the 
Christian  church,  the  custom  of  refrain 
ing  from  things  strangled,  and  from 
blood,  continued  for  a  long  time,  being 
approved  by  the  council  held  at  Jerusa 
lem,  and  recommended  to  the  Gentile 
converts,  Acts  15. 

At  the  first  settling  of  the  church, 


there  were  many  disputes  concerning 
the  use  of  meats  offered  to  idols.  Some 
newly  converted  Christians,  convinced 
that  an  idol  was  nothing,  and  that  the 
distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  crea 
tures  was  abolished  by  our  Saviour,  ate 
indifferently  of  whatever  was  served  up 
to  them,  even  among  pagans,  without 
inquiring  whether  the  meats  had  been 
offered  to  idols.  They  took  the  same 
liberty  in  buying  meat  sold  in  the  mar 
ket,  not  regarding  whether  it  were  pure 
or  impure  according  to  the  Jews ;  or 
whether  it  had  been  offered  to  idols  or 
not.  But  other  Christians,  weaker,  more 
scrupulous,  or  less  instructed,  were  of 
fended  at  this  liberty,  and  thought  the 
eating  of  meat  which  had  been  offered 
to  idols  was  a  kind  of  partaking  in  that 
wicked  and  sacrilegious  offering.  This 
diversity  of  opinion  among  the  disciples 
called  for  the  judgment  of  inspiration ; 
and  we  find  in  several  of  Paul's  epistles 
directions  both  for  those  who  held  such 
scruples,  and  for  those  who  were  free 
from  them.  The  former,  while  in  obe 
dience  to  their  own  conscience  they  care 
fully  abstained  from  the  food  in  ques 
tion,  were  charged  to  view  with  charity 
the  conduct  of  those  who  did  not  share 
their  scruples.  The  latter  might  freely 
buy  and  eat  without  guilt,  since  meat  is 
in  no  wise  injured  as  an  article  of  food 
by  being  offered  to  an  idol ;  yet  when 
ever  others  would  be  scandalized,  pained, 
or  led  into  sin  by  this  course,  even  they 
were  required  by  the  laws  of  Christian 
charity  and  prudence  to  abstain,  Rom. 
14:20-23;  1  Cor.  8 ;  10:19-33;  Tit.  1:15. 
This  principle  is  of  general  application  in 
similar  cases ;  and  many  in  our  own  day 
might  well  adopt  the  generous  determi 
nation  of  the  self-denying  apostle  to  par 
take  of  no  questionable  indulgence  while 
the  world  stands,  if  it  may  be  the  occa 
sion  of  sin  to  others. 

ME'DAD.     See  ELD  AD. 

ME'DAN,  a  son  of  Abraham  and  Ketu- 
rah,  Gen.  25:2.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
settled  in  Arabia,  near  Midian  his  brother. 

MED'EBA,  a  town  east  of  the  Jordan, 
in  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  Josh.  13  :  9,  16. 
Near  it  the  army  of  David  gained  a  great 
victory,  1  Chr.  19:7.  Long  afterwards, 
it  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  the  Moab- 
ites  its  ancient  masters,  Num.  21 :  30 ; 
Isa.  15  :  2.  Its  ruins,  on  rising  ground 
a  few  miles  south-east  of  Heshbon,  still 
retain  the  old  name. 

277 


MED 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


MED 


ME'DIA,  called  by  the  Hebrews  MA- 
DAI,  and  supposed  to  have  been  peopled 
by  the  descendants  of  Madai  the  son  of 
Japheth,  Gen.  10  :  2,  extended  itself  on 
the  west  and  south  of  the  Caspian  sea, 
from  Armenia  and  Assyria  on  the  north 
and  west,  to  Farsistan  or  Persia  proper 
on  the  south  ;  and  included  the  districts 
now  called  Shirvan,  Adserbijan,  Ghilan, 
Masanderan,  and  Irak  Adjemi.  It  cov 
ered  a  territory  larger  than  that  of  Spain, 
lying  between  32°  and  40°  of  north  lati 
tude,  and  was  one  of  the  most  fertile  and 
earliest  cultivated  among  the  kingdoms 
of  Asia.  It  had  two  grand  divisions,  of 
which  the  north-western  was  called  Atro- 
patene,  or  Lesser  Media,  and  the  south 
ern  Greater  Media.  The  former  corre 
sponds  to  the  modern  Adserbijan,  now, 
as  formerly,  a  province  of  the  Persian 
empire,  on  the  west  of  the  Caspian,  sur 
rounded  by  high  mountains  of  the  Tau- 
ritic  range,  except  towards  the  east, 
where  the  river  Kur,  or  Cyrus,  dis 
charges  its  waters  into  the  Caspian.  The 
Greater  Media  corresponds  principally  to 
the  modern  Irak  Adjemi,  or  Persian  Irak. 
Ecbatana  was  the  ancient  capital. 

Media  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  in- 
dependent  kingdoms  of  which  history 
makes  mention.  After  several  centuries 
of  subjugation  under  Assyria,  the  Medes 
rebelled  under  Arbaces  in  the  time  of 
Sardanapalus,  and  again  in  the  time  of 
Sennacherib,  about  700  B.  c.  They  be 
came  powerful,  cultivated,  and  wealthy, 
Isa.  13  :  17,  18 ;  21  :  2,  3,  and  continued 
an  independent  kingdom  until,  under 
Cyrus,  Media  became  united  with  Persia. 
In  this  way  arose  the  Medo-Persian  king 
dom  ;  and  the  "laws  of  the  Medes  and 
Persians ' '  are  always  mentioned  by  the 
sacred  writers  together,  Esth.  1:19,  etc.  ; 
Dan.  6:8,  12,  etc.  So  also  the  "Chron 
icles"  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  are 
mentioned  together,  Esth.  10  :  2.  In 
deed,  from  this  time  onward,  the  man 
ners,  customs,  religion,  and  civilization 
of  the  Medes  and  Persians  seem  ever  to 
have  become  more  and  more  amalga 
mated.  And  in  general  it  would  seem, 
as  we  may  gather  from  the  ancient  Zend 
writings,  that  the  Medes,  Persians,  and 
Bactrians  were  originally  the  same  peo 
ple,  having  in  common  one  language, 
the  Zend,  and  one  religion,  the  worship 
of  Ormuzd,  the  highest  being,  under  the 
symbol  of  fire.  They  also  worshipped 
the  stars,  particularly  the  planets ;  and 
278 


I  still  more,  the  sun  and  moon.  The 
I  priests  of  this  religion,  the  Magi,  were 
a  Median  race,  to  whom  were  intrusted 
the  cultivation  of  the  sciences,  and  the 
performance  of  the  sacred  rites.  Among 
these,  and  as  is  supposed  before  the  time 
of  Cyrus,  appeared  Zerdusht,  or  Zoroas 
ter,  as  a  reformer,  or  rather  as  the  re 
storer  of  the  ancient  but  degenerated 
religion  of  light,  whose  disciples  have 
maintained  themselves  even  to  the  pres 
ent  day  in  Persia  and  India,  under  the 
name  of  Guebres. 

Media  is  first  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
as  the  part  of  Assyria  to  which  the  ten 
tribes  were  transported :  at  first,  those 
beyond  the  Jordan,  by  Tiglath-pileser, 
1  Chr.  5  ;  26  ;  and  afterwards,  about  721 
B.  c.,  the  remainder  of  Israel,  by  Shal- 
maneser,  2  Kin.  17  :  6.  The  subsequent 
history  of  Media  is  involved  in  that  of 
Persia.  Both  countries  were  subdued  by 
Alexander  of  Macedon,  330  B.  c.  ;  and  in 
the  next  century  became  tributary  to  the 
Parthians  on  their  east,  in  connection 
with  whom  they  are  mentioned  in  Acts 
2:9.  See  PKRSIA. 

ME'DIATOB,  one  who  stands  between 
two  parties  or  persons  as  the  organ  of 
communication  or  the  agent  of  reconcil 
iation.  So  far  as  man  is  sensible  of  his 
own  guilt  and  of  the  holiness  and  justice 
of  God.  he  shrinks  from  any  direct  com 
munication  with  a  being  he  has  so  much 
reason  to  fear.  Hence  the  disposition 
more  or  less  prevalent  in  all  ages  and  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  to  interpose  be 
tween  the  soul  and  its  judge  some  person 
or  thing  most  adapted  to  propitiate  his 
favor — as  a  priestly  order,  an  upright  and 
devout  man,  or  the  smoke  of  sacrifices 
and  the  sweet  savor  of  incense,  Job  9: 33. 
The  Israelites  evinced  this  feeling  at 
mount  Sinai,  Deut.  5  :  23-31 ;  and  God 
was  pleased  to  constitute  Moses  a  medi 
ator  between  himself  and  them,  to  re 
ceive  and  transmit  the  law  on  the  one 
hand,  and  their  vows  of  obedience  on  the 
othe-r.  In  this  capacity  he  acted  on  va 
rious  other  occasions,  Exod.  32  :  30-32 ; 
Num.  14  ;  Psa.  105:23  ;  and  was  thus  an 
agent  and  a  type  of  Christ,  Gal.  3  : 19. 
The  Messiah  has  been  in  all  ages  the 
only  true  Mediator  between  God  and 
man  ;  and  without  Him,  God  is  inacces 
sible  and  a  consuming  fire,  John  14  :  6 ; 
Acts  4  :  12.  As  the  Angel  of  the  cove 
nant,  Christ  was  the  channel  of  all  com 
munications  between  heaven  and  earth 


MEG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MEL 


in  Old  Testament  days ;  and  as  the  Me 
diator  of  the  new  covenant,  he  does  all 
that  is  needful  to  provide  for  a  perfect 
reconciliation  between  God  and  man. 
He  consults  the  honor  of  God  by  appear 
ing  as  our  Advocate  with  the  blood  of 
atonement ;  and  through  his  sympathiz 
ing  love  and  the  agency  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  he  disposes  and  enables  us  to  re 
turn  to  God.'  The  believing  penitent  is 
"accepted  in  the  Beloved" — his  person, 
his  praises,  and  his  prayers ;  and  through 
the  same  Mediator  alone  he  receives  par 
don,  grace,  and  eternal  life.  In  this  high 
office  Christ  stands  alone,  because  he 
alone  is  both  God  and  man,  1  Tim.  2:5. 
To  join  Mary  and  the  saints  to  him  in 
his  mediatorship,  as  the  antichristian 
church  of  Rome  does,  implies  that  he  is 
unable  to  accomplish  his  own  peculiar 
work,  Heb.  8:6;  9:15;  12:24. 

MEGID'DO,  a  town  of  Manasseh, 
though  within  the  bounds  of  Issachar. 
It  had  been  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaan- 
ites,  and  they  long  retained  a  foothold 
in  it,  Josh.  12  :  21 ;  17  :  11 ;  Judg.  1:27. 
It  lay  in  the  south-west  border  of  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  near  the  Kishon, 
which  is  probably  intended  by  ' '  the  wa 
ters  of  Megiddo,"  mentioned  in  the  song 
of  Deborah  and  Barak  as  the  scene  of 
their  victory,  Judg:  5  : 19,  21.  In  the 
reign  of  Solomon,  Megiddo  was  fortified, 
1  Kin.  9  : 15.  Here  king  Ahaziah  died, 
and  king  Josiah  was  defeated,  slain,  and 
sorely  lamented,  2  Kin.  9  :  27  ;  23  :  29  ; 
Zech.  12:11.  Robinson  identifies  it  with 
a  village  now  called  Leijun,  the  Legio  of 
the  Romans. 

MELCHIZ'EDEK,  king  of  righteousness, 
king  of  Salem,  and  also  priest  of  the 
most  high  God,  -in  which  capacity  he 
blessed  Abraham,  and  received  tithes  at 
his  hand,  Gen.  14:18-20.  Scripture  tells 
us  nothing  of  his  father  or  mother,  of 
his  genealogy,  his  birth,  or  his  death  ; 
he  stands  alone,  without  predecessor  or 
successor,  a  royal  priest  by  the  appoint 
ment  of  God ;  and  thus  he  was  a  type  of 
Jesus  Christ,  who  is  "  a  priest  for  ever 
after  the  order  of  Melchizedek,"  and  not 
after  the  order  of  Aaron,  whose  origin, 
consecration,  life,  and  death,  are  known, 
Psa.  110:4;  Heb.  7.  See  GENEALOGY. 

It  has  been  matter  of  great  inquiry 
among  commentators,  who  Melchizedek 
really  was.  He  has  been  variously  sup 
posed  to  be  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Son  of 
God,  an  angel,  Enoch,  and  Shem.  But 


the  safest  and  most  probable  opinion  is 
that  which  considers  Melchizedek  as  a 
righteous  and  peaceful  king,  a  worship 
per  and  priest  of  the  most  high  God,  in 
the  land  of  Canaan ;  a  friend  of  Abra 
ham,  and  of  a  rank  elevated  above  him. 
This  opinion,  indeed,  lies  upon  the  very 
face  of  the  sacred  record  in  Gen.  14  and 
Heb.  77  and  it  is  the  only  one  which  can 
be  defended  on  any  tolerable  grounds  of 
interpretation.  See  SALEM. 

MEL'ITA.  The  name  Melita  was  an 
ciently  applied  to  two  islands;  one  in 
the  Adriatic  sea,  on  the  coast  of  Illyri- 
cum,  now  called  Meleda ;  the  other  in 
the  Mediterranean,  between  Sicily  and 
Africa,  now  called  Malta.  That  the  lat 
ter  is  the  one  on  which  Paul  suffered 
shipwreck  is  evident  both  from  the  di 
rection  of  the  wind  which  blew  him 
thither,  (see  EUROCLYDON,)  and  from  the 
fact  that  he  left  the  island  in  a  ship  of 
Alexandria,  which  had  wintered  there 
on  her  voyage  to  Italy,  and  after  touch 
ing  at  Syracuse  and  R'hegium,  landed  at 
Puteoli,  thus  sailing  on  a  direct  course. 
The  other  Melita  would  be  far  out  of  the 
usual  track  from  Alexandria  to  Italy ; 
and  in  sailing  from  it  to  Rhegium,  Syra 
cuse  also  would  be  out  of  the  direct 
course.  The  fact  that  the  vessel  was 
tossed  all  night  before  the  shipwreck  in 
the  Adriatic  sea,  does  not  militate  against 
this  view,  because  the  name  Adria  was 
applied  to  the  whole  Ionian  sea,  which 
lay  between  Sicily  and  Greece.  See 
ADRIA.  Acts  27: 27;  28:1. 

Malta  is  a  rocky  island,  sixty-two  miles 
south  of  Sicily,  seventeen  miles  long 
and  nine  broad,  and  containing  nearly 
one  hundred  square  miles,  and  100,000 
inhabitants.  At  an  early  period  it  was 
seized  by  the  Phoenicians ;  these  were 
dispossessed  by  the  Greeks  of  Sicily ; 
they  by  the  Carthaginians ;  and  they  in 
turn,  242  B.  c.,  by  the  Romans,  who  held 
it  in  the  time  of  Paul.  After  numerous 
changes,  it  fell  at  length  into  the  hands 
of  the  English,  who  since  1814  have  held 
undisputed  possession  of  it.  The  name 
of  "  St.  Paul's  bay  "  is  now  borne  by  a 
small  inlet  on  the  north  side  of  the  isl 
and,  opening  towards  the  east,  which 
answers  well  to  the  description  in  Acts 
27.  Here  Paul  was  protected  by  the 
hand  of  God,  amid  perils  on  shore  as 
well  as  in  the  sea.  He  remained  here 
three  months,  and  wrought  many  mir* 
acles. 

279 


MEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


HER 


MEL'ONS  are  common  in  the  East, 
but  do  not  differ  particularly,  from  ours. 
Watermelons  grow  luxuriantly  in  Pales 
tine,  even  in  dry  and  sandy  soil.  They 
are  a  delicious  fruit  in  a  hot  climate, 
and  were  among  the  articles  of  food  for 
which  the  Hebrews  pined  in  the  desert, 
Num.  11:5. 

MEL'ZAR,  the  name  or  the  official  title 
of  a  butler  or  steward  at  the  court  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Dan.  1:11-16. 

MEM'PHIS,  Hos.  9:6.     See  NOPH. 

MEN'AHEM,  the  sixteenth  king  of 
Israel,  previously  general  of  the  army  of 
Zachariah.  He  was  at  Tirzah  when  he 
heard  of  his  master's  murder ;  and  im 
mediately  marching  against  Shallum, 
who  had  shut  himself  up  in  Samaria,  he 
captured  and  slew  him,  and  then  ascend 
ed  the  throne.  He  reigned  in  Samaria 
ten  years,  771-760  B.  c.,  and  was  a  ty 
rannical  and  cruel  idolater.  Pul,  king 
of  Assyria,  having  invaded  Israel  during 
the  reign  of  Menahem,  obliged  him  to 
pay  a  tribute  of  a  thousand  talents, 
which  Menahem  raised  by  a  tax  on  all 
his  rich  subjects  of  fifty  shekels  a  head. 
He  seems  to  have  died  a  natural  death  ; 
but  his  son  and  successor  Pekahiah 
reigned  only  two  years,  and  was  the  last 
of  that  dynasty,  2  Kin.  15  : 13-22.  The 
name  of  Menahem  is  found  on  the  Assyr 
ian  tablets  recently  discovered. 

ME'NE,  he  is  numbered;  TE'KEL,  he  is 
weighed;  UPHAR'SIN,  and  they  are  dividing ; 
Chaldee  words  supernaturally  traced  on 
the  wall  at  Belshazzar's  impious  feast, 
and  significant  of  his  impending  doom, 
Dan.  5.  The  astrologers  could  not  read 
them,  perhaps  because  they  were  written 
in  antique  Hebrew  characters ;  still  less 
could  they  explain,  even  if  they  had 
dared  to  do  it,  what  was  so  portentous. 
Daniel,  however,  received  skill  to  under 
stand  and  courage  to  declare  their  awful 
280 


meaning  ;  and  the  same  night  witnessed 
their  fulfilment.  Over  how  many  proud 
heads,  often  found  in  scenes  of  ungodli 
ness  and  revelling,  the  hand  that  has 
recorded  their  past  history  is  even  now 
preparing  to  record  their  doom. 

MEPHIB'OSHETH,  a  son  of  Jonathan, 
also  called  Merib-baal,  1  Chr.  8:34.  See 
ESIIBAAL.  Mephibosheth  was  very  young 
when  his  father  was  killed  in  the  battle 
of  Gilboa,  2  Sam.  4:4,  and  his  nurse  was 
in  such  consternation  at  the  news,  that 
she  let  the  child  fall ;  and  from  this  ac 
cident  he  was  lame  all  his  life.  When 
David  found  himself  in  peaceable  posses 
sion  of  the  kingdom,  he  sought  for  all 
that  remained  of  the  house  of  Saul,  that 
he  might  show  them  kindness,  in  con 
sideration  of  the  friendship  between  him 
and  Jonathan.  He  gave  Mephibosheth 
the  estate  of  his  grandfather  Saul.  Of  a 
part  of  this,  however,  he  was  afterwards 
deprived  by  the  treachery  of  his  steward 
Ziba,  and  the  hasty  injustice,  as  it  ap 
pears,  of  David  towards  an  unfortunate 
but  noble  and  loyal  prince,  2  Sam.  9 ; 
16 : 1-4 ;  19 : 24-30.  David  subsequently 
took  care  to  exempt  him  from  the  num 
ber  of  the  descendants  of  Saul  given  up 
to  the  vengeance  of  the  Gibeonites,  2  Sam. 
21:1-14,  though  another  Mephibosheth, 
a  son  of  Saul,  was  slain,  ver.  8. 

ME'EAB,  the  eldest  daughter  of  king 
Saul,  was  promised  to  David  in  marriage, 
in  reward  for  his  victory  over  Goliath  ; 
but  was  given  to  Adriel,  son  of  Barzillai 
the  Meholathite,  1  Sam.  14  :  49  ;  18  : 17, 
19.  Merab  had  five  sons  by  him,  who 
were  delivered  to  the  Gibeonites,  and 
hanged  before  the  Lord,  2  Sam.  21:8,  9. 
The  text  intimates  that  the  five  men 
delivered  to  the  Gibeonites  were  sons  of 
Michal ;  but  see  ADRIEL. 

MER/ARI,  the  youngest  of  Levi's  three 
sons,  born  in  Canaan,  and  head  of  a  fam 
ily  of  the  Levites,  Gen.  46:11 ;  Ex.  6:16  ; 
Num.  3:17  ;  1  Chr.  6:1.  In  the  journey 
through  the  wilderness  they  were  charg 
ed  with  the  framework  of  the  tabernacle, 
to  carry  from  one  place  of  encampment 
to  another,  and  there  set  it  up,  Num. 
4  :  29-33  ;  7  :  8.  Twelve  cities  were  as 
signed  to  them  beyond  Jordan,  Josh- 
21:7,  34-40. 

MERCHANT,  Gen.  23 : 16.  The  com* 
modities  of  different  countries  were  usu 
ally  exchanged  by  traders  of  various 
kinds,  in  caravans  or  "travelling  com 
panies,"  Isa.  21:13,  which  had  their  reg* 


MER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MER 


ular  seasons  and  routes  for  passing  from 
one  great  mart  to  another,  Gen.  37:25, 
28.  These  merchants  prospered  by  wan 
dering,  as  ours  do  by  remaining  station 
ary.  The  apostle  James  reminds  them 
to  lay  their  plans  in  view  of  the  uncer 
tainty  of  life,  and  their  need  of  divine 
guidance,  James  4: 13.  Some  of  the  mar 
itime  nations,  as  Egypt,  and  still  more 
the  Phoenicians,  carried  on  a  large  traffic 
by  sea,  Isa.  23:2;  Ezek.  27:28. 

MER'CURY,  a  fabulous  god  of  the 
ancient  heathen,  the  messenger  of  the 
celestials,  and  the  deity  that  presided 
over  learning,  eloquence,  and  traffic. 
The  Greeks  named  him  Hermes,  inter 
preter,  because  they  considered  him  as 
the  interpreter  of  the  will  of  the  gods. 
Probably  it  was  for  this  reason  that  the 
people  of  Lystra,  having  heard  Paul 
preach,  and  having  seen  him  heal  a 
lame  man,  would  have  offered  sacrifice 
to  him  as  to  their  god  Mercury ;  and  to 
Barnabas  as  Jupiter,  because  of  his  ven 
erable  aspect,  Acts  14:11,  12. 


MER'CY,  the  divine  goodness  exer 
cised  towards  the  wretched  and  the 
guilty,  in  harmony  with  truth  and  jus 
tice,  Psa.  85  :  10.  The  plan  by  which 
God  is  enabled  to  show  saving  mercy  to 
men,  for  Christ's  sake,  is  the  most  con 
summate  work  of  infinite  wisdom  and 
love.  The  soul  that  has  truly  experi 
enced  thfi  mercy  of  God  will  be  merciful 
like  him,  Luke  6  :  36,  compassionate  to 
the  wretched,  Psa.  41 : 1,  2,  and  forgiv 
ing  towards  all,  Matt.  5:7  ;  18:33. 

MER'CY-SEAT,  1  Chr.  28  :  11,  the 
cover  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  which 
see.  The  Hebrew  word  means  a  cover, 
but  contains  an  allusion  to  the  covering 
or  forgiving  of  sins,  Psa.  32  :  1.  In  the 
New  Testament  it  is  designated  by  a 
Greek  word  meaning  ' '  the  propitia 
tory,"  or  "expiatory,"  Heb.  9:4,  5.  It 
was  approached  only  by  the  high-priest, 
and  not  without  the  blood  of  atonement, 
to  show  that  the  divine  mercy  can  be 
granted  only  through  the  blood  of  Christ, 
Rom.  3:25. 


LAKE   MEROM,   WITH   MOUNT   HERMON   IN   THE   DISTANCE. 


ME'ROM.  The  "waters  of  Merom," 
Josh.  11 :  5,  or  lake  of  Semechon,  is  the 
most  northern  of  the  three  lakes  sup 
plied  by  the  river  Jordan.  It  is  situated 
in  the  southern  part  of  a  valley  formed 
by  the  two  branches  of  mount  Hermon. 
The  lake  is  now  called  after  the  valley, 


the  lake  of  Huleh.  The  lake  proper  is 
four  or  five  miles  long,  and  perhaps  four 
broad,  tapering  towards  the  south.  It 
is  very  shallow,  and  a  large  part  of  it  is 
covered  with  aquatic  plants.  Thousands 
of  water-fowl  sport  on  its  surface,  and 
its  waters  abound  in  fish.  On  the  north 
281 


MEIl 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MES 


lies  the  plain  of  the  Pluleh,  which  is  a 
dead  level  for  a  distance  of  six  miles  or 
more.  Near  the  upper  end  of  this,  the 
three  streams  which  form  the  Jordan 
unite.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan 
above  the  lake,  a  marsh  extends  up  north 
as  far  as  the  junction  of  these  streams,  or 
even  farther ;  while  on  the  eastern  side 
the  land  is  tilled  almost  dowji  to  the 
lake.  It  is  a  splendid  plain,  and  ex 
tremely  fertile.  All  kinds  of  grain  grow 
on  it,  with  very  little  labor  ;  and  it  still 
merits  the  praise  accorded  to  it  by  the 
Danite  spies  :  ' '  We  have  seen  the  land  ; 
and  behold,  it  is  very  good,  ....  a  place 
where  there  is  no  want  of  any  thing  that 
is  in  the  earth,"  Judg.  18  :  9,  10.  Its 
rich  soil  is  formed  by  deposit,  and  it 
seems  to  be  partially  submerged  in  the 
spring.  Thus  the  lake  and  valley  El- 
Hulch  form  an  immense  reservoir,  and 
unite  with  the  snows  of  Hermon  to  main 
tain  the  summer  supplies  of  the  Jordan. 
Near  this  lake  Joshua  defeated  the  kings 
of  Northern  Canaan,  Josh.  11:1-8. 

MER'IBAH,  strife,  I.,  a  station  of  the 
Israelites  between  the  lied  sea  and  mount 
Sinai,  where  they  murmured  against  the 
Lord,  and  a  fountain  gushed  from  the 
rock  for  their  use,  Ex.  17:1-7.  It  was 
also  named  Massah,  temptation,  when  they 
tempted  God  there,  Deut.  33:8 ;  Heb.  3:8. 

II.  A  similar  miraculous  fountain  in 
the  desert  of  Zin,  near  Kadesh,  which 
see,  Num.  20:13,  14.  This  was  the  scene 
of  the  transgression  of  Moses  and  Aaron, 
for  which  they  were  precluded  from  cross 
ing  the  Jordan.  It  is  called  "the  wa 
ters  of  Meribah, ' '  Deut.  33 : 8 ;  Psa.  81 : 7  ; 
106:32,  and  also  Meribah-kadesh,  Num. 
27:14;  Deut.  32:51;  Ezek.  47:19. 

MERO'DACH,  an  idol  of  the  Babylo 
nians,  representing  probably  the  planet 
Mars,  Jer.  50  :  2.  The  names  of  Baby 
lonish  kings  were  also  sometimes  com 
pounded  with  this  name,  as  Evil-Mero- 
dach  and  Merodach-Baladan,  Isa.  39  : 1, 
who  is  also  called  Berodach-Baladan  in 
2  Kin.  20:12. 

ME'ROZ,  an  unknown  place  in  Gali 
lee,  cursed  in  the  song  of  Deborah  and 
Barak  for  not  joining  with  them  against 
the  foes  of  Israel,  Judg.  5:23.  Probably 
their  vicinity  to  the  scene  of  conflict,  or 
the  opportunity  they  had  of  rendering 
some  special  assistance,  rendered  their 
refusal  peculiarly  guilty. 

ME'SHA,  I.,  a  place  on  the  eastern 
frontier  of  the  territory  of  Joktan,  Gen. 
282 


10:30,  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  re 
gion  of  Bassora,  at  the  north-west  end  of 
the  Persian  gulf. 

II.  A  king  of  Moab,  who  paid  an  enor 
mous  tribute  to  Ahab  king  of  Israel,  but 
revolted  at  his  death,  2  Kin.  1:1 ;  3:4- 
27.  Joram  the  son  of  Ahab,  with  the 
aid  of  Judah  and  Edom,  made  war  upon 
him,  and  oesiegcd  him  in  his  capital. 
Unable  to  force  his  way  through  the  be 
sieging  host,  king  Mesha  sought  the  aid 
of  his  gods  by  sacrificing  his  own  son  on 
the  city  wall ;  and  the  besiegers,  horror- 
struck  at  this  atrocious  act,  withdrew 
in  terror,  lest  some  curse  should  fall  ou 
them. 

ME'SHACH.     See  ABED-NEGO. 

ME'SHECH,  or  MESECII,  Psa.  120:5, 
the  sixth  son  of  Japheth,  Gen.  10  :  2,  lo 
cated  near  Tubal  at  the  north-east  cor 
ner  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Iberia,  and  sup 
posed  by  many  to  have  been  the  father 
of  the  Muscovites.  Meshech  traded  with 
Tyre  in  "the  persons  of  men,  and  in 
vessels  of  brass,"  Ezek.  27 :  13 ;  32  :  26  ; 
38:2. 

MESOPOTA'MIA,  between  the  rivers,  the 
Greek  name  of  the  country  between  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  called  in  Ara 
bic,  Al  Jezira,  the  island.  See  ARAM  II., 
and  PADAN-ARAM.  In  its  fullest  sense, 
Mesopotamia  extended  from  the  Persian 
gulf  to  mount  Taurus ;  but  the  name 
usually  denotes  only  the  tract  above  Bab 
ylonia,  now  called  Diarbekr  and  cele 
brated  for  its  exuberant  fertility  ;  while 
the  part  below,  now  Irak-Arabi,  is  sterile 
and  without  water.  Mesopotamia  was 
included  in  the  territories  of  the  Assyr 
ian,  Babylonian,  Persian,  Macedonian, 
and  Roman  empires  successively,  and 
belongs  now  to  that  of  the  Turks. 

This  region  is  associated  with  the  ear 
liest  history  of  the  human  race  both  be 
fore  and  after  the  flood.  Eden  was  not  far 
off';  Ararat  was  near  to  it  on  the  north, 
and  the  land  of  Shinar  on  the  south, 
The  traveller  here  reaches  what  is  truly 
"the  old  world,"  and  is  surrounded  by 
objects  compared  with  which  the  antiq 
uities  of  Greece  and  Rome  are  modern 
novelties.  This  was  the  home  of  the 
patriarchs  who  preceded  Abraham — Te- 
rah,  Heber,  Peleg,  etc.  Here  Abraham 
and  Sarah  were  born,  and  the  wives  of 
Isaac  and  Jacob,  and  most  of  the  sons  of 
Jacob,  the  heads  of  the  twelve  tribes. 
Mesopotamia  is  also  mentioned  in  Scrip 
ture  as  the  abode  of  the  first  oppressor 


MES 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIC 


of  Israel  ill  the  time  of  the  judges,  Judg. 
3  :  8-10 ;  in  the  history  of  the  wars  of 
David,  2  Sam.  10:16  ;  and  as  furnishing 
a  delegation  of  Jews,  and  perhaps  prose 
lytes,  to  attend  the  Passover  at  Jerusa 
lem,  Acts  2: 9. 

MESSI'AH,  or  MESSI'AS,  anointed,  a  title 
given  principally,  or  by  way  of  eminence, 
to  that  sovereign  Deliverer  promised  to 
the  Jews.  They  were  accustomed  to 
anoint  their  kings,  high-priests,  and  some 
times  prophets,  when  they  were  set  apart 
to  tiheir  office ;  and  hence  the  phrase, 
"to  anoint"  for  an  employment,  some 
times  signifies  merely  a  particular  desig 
nation  or  choice  for  such  an  employment. 
Cyrus,  who  founded  the  empire  of  the 
Persians,  and  who  set  the  Jews  at  liber 
ty,  is  called,  Isa.  45:1,  "the  anointed  of 
the  Lord  ;"  and  in  Ezek.  28:14,  the  epi 
thet  "anointed"  is  given  to  the  king  of 
Tyre. 

But,  as  we  have  already  observed, 
MESSIAH  is  the  designation  given  by  the 
Hebrews,  eminently,  to  that  Saviour  and 
Deliverer  whom  they  expected,  and  who 
was  promised  to  them  by  all  the  proph 
ets.  As  the  holy  unction  was  given  to 
kings,  priests,  and  prophets,  by  describ 
ing  the  promised  Saviour  of  the  world 
under  the  name  of  Christ,  Anointed,  or 
Messiah,  it  was  sufficiently  evidenced 
that  the  qualities  of  king,  prophet,  and 
high-priest  would  eminently  centre  in 
him,  and  that  he  should  exercise  them 
not  only  over  the  Jews,  but  over  all 
mankind,  and  particularly  over  those 
who  should  receive  him  as  their  Saviour. 
See  CHRIST. 

That  Jesus  Christ  was  the  true  MES 
SIAH  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  "Shi- 
loh"  of  Jacob,  the  "Redeemer"  of  Job, 
the  "Angel  of  the  Covenant,"  is  abun 
dantly  clear.  The  time  of  his  appear 
ance  was  predicted  in  Gen.  49:10  ;  Dan. 
9  :  20,  25  ;  Hag.  2:7  ;  Mai.  3:1.  At  the 
time  when  the  Saviour  actually  came, 
and  then  only,  could  these  predictions 
meet :  then  the  seventy  weeks  of  years 
were  ended  ;  and  soon  after,  the  sceptre 
was  torn  for  ever  from  the  hands  of  Ju- 
da.h,  the  only  tribe  that  could  then  claim 
the  headship  of  the  Jews  ;  and  the  tem 
ple  in  whidh  the  Messiah  was  to  appear 
was  annihilated.  Then  also  the  genea 
logical  lists  were  extant,  which  proved 
the  descent  of  Christ  from  the  line  pre 
dicted.  Numerous  and  clear  detached 
predictions  respecting  the  birth,  charac 


ter,  life,  sufferings,  and  death  of  Christ, 
his  resurrection,  ascension,  and  king 
dom,  were  all  in  him  perfectly  fulfilled, 
John  1:41;  4:25. 

ME'THEG-AM'MAH,  2  Sam.  8:1; 
1  Chr.  18:1.  See  GATH. 

METHU'SELAH,  son  of  Enoch,  and 
father  of  Lamech.  He  lived  969  years, 
a  longer  life  than  any  other  on  record, 
and  died  within  the  year  before  the  del 
uge,  Gen.  5:21,  22. 

MI'CAH,  I.,  the  Morasthite,  or  of 
Maresheth,  a  village  near  Eleutheropolis, 
in  the  west  of  Judah ;  the  seventh  in 
order  of  the  lesser  prophets.  He  proph 
esied  under  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Heze- 
kiah,  kings  of  Judah,  for  about  fifty 
years,  if  with  some  we  reckon  from 
near  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Jotham,  to  the  last  year  of  Hezekiah 
B.  c.  750-698.  He  was  nearly  con 
temporary  with  Isaiah,  and  has  some 
expressions  in  common  with  him.  Com 
pare  Isa.  2  :  2  with  Micah  4:1,  and  Isa. 
41 : 15  with  Micah  4 : 13..  His  bold  fidel 
ity  served  as  a  shield  to  the  prophet  Jer 
emiah  a  century  afterwards,  Jer.  26  : 18, 
19  ;  Mic.  3:12.  He  wrote  in  an  elevated 
and  vehement  style,  with  frequent  tran 
sitions.  His  prophecy  relates  to  the  sins 
and  judgments  of  Israel  and  Judah,  the 
destruction  of  Samaria  and  Jerusalem, 
the  return  of  the  Jews  from  captivity, 
and  the  punishment  of  their  enemies. 
He  proclaims  the  coming  of  the  Messiah, 
1 '  whose  goings  forth  have  been  from  of 
old,  from  everlasting,"  as  the  founda 
tion  of  all  hope  for  the  glorious  and 
blessed  future  he  describes ;  and  specifies 
Bethlehem  in  Judah  as  the  place  where 
He  should  be  born  of  woman,  Mic.  5  :  2, 
3.  The  prediction  was  thus  understood 
by  the  Jews,  Matt.  2:6;  John  7:41,  42. 

II.  An  Ephraimite  in  the  time  of  the 
judges,  soon  after  Joshua,  who  stole 
eleven  hundred  shekels  of  silver  from 
his  mother,  but  restored  them,  and  with 
her  consent  employed  them  in  establish 
ing  a  private  sanctuary,  with  an  image 
to  be  used  in  the  worship  of  Jehovah, 
and  with  a  Levite  for  his  priest.  Provi 
dence  frowned  on  his  idolatrous  service, 
and  a  troop  of  Danites  robbed  him  of  his 
priest  and  of  all  his  implements  of  wor 
ship,  Judg.  17 ;  18. 

MICAI'AH,  I.,  a  faithful  and  fearless 

prophet,  consulted  by  king  Ahab  at  the 

demand  of  Jehoshaphat  as  to  the  issue 

of  their  proposed  campaign  against  the 

283 


MIC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIG 


Syrians.  He  was  imprisoned  to  abide 
the  event,  which  coincided  with  his  pre 
dictions  and  probably  secured  his  re 
lease,  1  Kin.  22:8-38.  Ahab's  conduct 
in  this  matter  displays  the  amazing  folly 
of  sins  against  light. 

II.  A  prince  of  Judah,  who  seconded  the 
efforts  of  Jehoshaphat  to  instruct  and  re 
form  the  people  of  Judah,  2  Kin.  17 : 7-9. 

MI'CHAEL.     See  ARCHANGEL. 

MICHAI'AH,  a  young  prince  at  the 
court  of  Jehoiakim,  who  communicated 
to  the  king's  counsellors  the  solemn 
warnings  of  Jeremiah,  Jer.  36:11-13. 

ME'CHAL,  the  younger  of  Saul's  two 
daughters,  in  love  with  David,  and  whom 
Saul  reluctantly  gave  to  him  in  marriage, 
1  Sam.  14:49;  18:20-29.  She  saved  her 
husband's  life  from  assassins  sent  by  her 
father,  by  a  stratagem  which  gave  him 
time  to  escape,  1  Sam.  19  :  14,  15.  Her 
father  then  gave  her '  in  marriage  to 
Phalti,  1  Sam.  25:44,  from  whom  David 
some  years  after  recovered  her,  2  Sam. 
3:12-21.  When  David  brought  the  ark 
of  God  to  Jerusalem,  she  conceived  and 
expressed  great  disgust  at  his  pious  joy, 
and  the  affections  of  the  king  remained 
alienated  from  her  till  her  death,  2  Sam. 
6  : 16-23.  Her  hatred  of  unfashionable 
zeal  in  religion  was  stronger  than  her 
love  of  her  husband  and  her  God.  She 
left  no  children. 

MICH'MASH,  a  town  of  Benjamin, 
nine  miles  north  by  east  of  Jerusalem, 
Neh.  7:31;  11:31.  It  was  a  strong  po 
sition,  and  lay  on  the  north  side  of  a 
deep  valley ;  for  which  reasons  perhaps 
Sennacherib,  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem, 
left  his  heavy  equipage  there,  Isa.  10:28, 
29.  In  this  deep  valley,  a  little  west  of 
the  town,  are  two  steep  hills  or  rocks, 
supposed  to  be  the  ones  referred  to  in 
the  account  of  Jonathan's  achievement 
at  "the  passage  of  Michmash,"  1  Sam. 
13:23  ;  14:4.  Dr.  Robinson  found  here  a 
village  called  Mukhmas,  which  appeared 
to  be  the  remnant  of  a  town  of  some  size 
and  importance. 

MICH'TAM,  prefixed  to  Psalms  16,  56- 
60,  and  meaning  golden,  profound,  or  as 
some  think,  a  writing  or  song,  as  in  Isa. 
38:9. 

MID'IAN,  the  fourth  son  of  Abraham 
and  Keturah,  Gen.  25:2. 

MID'IANITES,  descendants  of  Midian, 

a  nomade  race  in  Arabia,  numerous,  and 

rich  in  flocks,  herds,  and  camels,  Isa. 

60:6.     The  original  and  appropriate  dis- 

284 


trict  of  the  Midianites  seems  to  have  been 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Elanitic  branch  of 
the  Red  sea,  where  the  Arabian  geogra 
phers  place  the  city  Madian,  Acts  7:29. 
But  they  appear  to  have  spread  them 
selves  northward,  probably  along  the 
desert  east  of  mount  Seir,  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  Moabites  ;  and  on  the  other  side, 
also,  they  covered  a  territory  extending 
to  the  neighborhood  of  mount  Sinai. 
See  Ex.  3  :  1 ;  18  : 1 ;  Num.  22;  25  ;  31 ; 
Judg.  6-8.  In  Gen.  25  :  2,  4,  compared 
with  ver.  12-18,  they  are  distinguished 
from  the  descendants  of  Ishmael,  though 
elsewhere  we  find  the  two  people  intk 
mately  associated,  so  that  they  are  call 
ed  now  by  one  name  and  now  by  the 
other.  See  Gen.  37  :  25,  compared  with 
verse  36.  Their  capital  city  was  call 
ed  Midian,  and  its  remains  were  to  be 
seen  in  the  time  of  Jerome  and  Euse- 
bius.  It  was  situated  on  the  Arnon, 
south  of  the  city  Ar,  or  Areopolis. 

The   Midianites    were   idolaters,    and 
often  led  Israel  astray  to  worship  their 
gods.     They  also  not  unfrequently  ren 
dered   the   Hebrews  tributary,  and  op 
pressed  them.     See  Num.  22;  25;  31. 
Often  when  the  Israelites  had  sown,  and 
their   harvest   was  nearly  ready  to  be 
gathered  in,  the  Midianites  and  Ama- 
lekites,  children  of  the  eastern  desert, 
came    down  like    locusts   in    countless 
swarms,  with  their  cattle  and  tents  and 
camels,  to  devour  and  carry  off  the  fruits 
of  the  ground,  and  not  only  rob  but  de 
stroy  their  owners.     And  often  did  the 
Jews,  lacking  the  strength  or  the  faith 
or  the  leadership  necessary  for  effectual 
resistance,  seek  refuge  in  mountain-dens 
and  caverns  till   the  invaders  retired. 
Gideon  was  their  deliverer  in  one  such 
period  of  oppression,  Judg.  6 ;  7.     The 
modem  Ishmaelites  still  follow  the  an 
cient  practice,  and  their  violent  incur 
sions,  robberies,  and  murders  might  be 
described  in  the  same  terms  that  were 
used  with  reference  to  their  fathers  by 
the  historians  of  old. 
MID'NIGHT.     See  HOUR, 
MIG'DOL,  a  tower,  a  frontier  town  in 
Northern  Egypt,  towards  the  Red  sea, 
Jer.  44  : 1 ;  46  : 14  ;  Ezek.  29  : 10  ;  30:6. 
The  Hebrews,   on   leaving  Egypt,   en» 
camped  between  it  and  the  sea,  Exod. 
14:2;  Num.  33:7. 

MIG'RON,  a  town  in  the  vicinity  of 
Ai  and  Gibeah,  north  of  Michmash,  now 
lost,  1  Sam.  14:2;  Isa.  10:28. 


MIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIN 


See  MOLOCH. 

MILE.  The  word  mile,  in  Matt.  5:41, 
is  spoken  of  the  Koman  milliare,  or  mile, 
which  contained  eight  stadia,  1,000  paces, 
that  is,  about  1,614  yards,  while  the  Eng 
lish  mile  contains  1,760  yards. 

MILE'TUS,  an  ancient  city,  formerly 
the  metropolis  of  all  Ionia,  situated  on 
the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
confines  of  Caria,  just  south  of  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Meander.  It  was  the  parent 
of  many  colonies,  and  was  celebrated  for 
a  temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo  Didy- 
macuti,  and  as  the  birthplace  of  Thales, 
Anaximander,  Democritus,  and  other 
famous  men.  The  apostle  Paul,  on  his 
voyage  from  Macedonia  towards  Jerusa 
lem,  spent  a  day  or  two  here,  and  held 
an  affecting  interview  with  the  Christian 
elders  of  Ephesus,  who  at  his  summons 
came  nearly  thirty  miles  from  the  north 
to  meet  him,  Acts  20  :  15-38.  He  also 
revisited  Miletus  after  his  first  imprison 
ment  at  Rome,  2  Tim.  4:20.  There  were 
Christians  and  bishops  there  from  the 
fifth  to  the  eighth  century  ;  but  the  city 
has  long  been  in  ruins,  and  its  exact  site 
can  hardly  be  determined,  so  much  is 
the  coast  altered  around  the  mouth  of 
the  Meander. 

MILK  is  often  alluded  to  in  the  Bible, 
as  a  symbol  of  pure,  simple,  and  whole 
some  truth,  Heb.  5  : 12,  13  ;  1  Pet.  2:2; 
and  in  connection  with  honey,  to  denote 
fertility  and  plenty,  Gen.  49  : 12  ;  Num. 
16  :  13  ;  Josh.  5:6.  The  Jews- and  their 
neighbors  used  not  only  the  milk  of 
cows,  but  that  of  camels,  sheep,  and 
goats,  Gen.  32:15;  Deut.  32:14;  Prov. 
27 : 37.  See  BUTTER  and  CHEESE. 

MILL.     See  CORN. 

MIL'LO,  I.,  probably  a  bastion  of  the 
citadel  of  Zion,  at  Jerusalem,  mentioned 
in  the  history  of  David  and  Solomon, 
2  Sam.  5-9;  2  Kin.  12:20;  1  Chr.  11:8; 
2Chr.  32:5. 

II.  The  name  of  a  family  or  of  a  for 
tress  at  Shechem ;  in  the  latter  case,  the 
' '  house  of  Millo ' '  would  mean  the  gar 
rison  of  that  fortress,  Judg.  9:6. 

MIL'LET,  a  kind  of  grain,  of  which 
there  are  several  species  cultivated  in 
Italy,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  India.  It  is 
used  partly  green  as  fodder,  and  partly 
in  the  ripe  grain  for  bread,  etc.  Ezekiel, 
4:9,  received  an  order  from  the  Lord  to 
make  himself  bread  with  a  mixture  of 
wheat,  barley,  beans,  lentiles,  and  mil 
let.  "  Durra,"  says  Niebuhr,  "  is  a  kind 


of  millet,  made  into  bread  with  camel's 
milk,  oil,  butter,  etc.,  and  is  almost  the 
only  food  eaten  by  the  common  people 
of  Arabia  Felix.  I  found  it  so  disagree 
able,  that  I  would  willingly  have  pre 
ferred  plain  barley  bread."  This  illus 
trates  the  appointment  of  it  to  the  proph 
et  Ezekiel,  as  a  part  of  his  hard  fare. 

MIN'ISTER,  one  who  attends  or  waits 
on  another,  Matt.  20  :  28 ;  so  Elisha  was 
the  minister  of  Elijah,  1  Kings  19  : 21 ; 
2  Kings  3  : 11,  and  Joshua  the  minister  of 
Moses,  Ex.  24:13  ;  33:11.  These  persons 
did  not  feel  themselves  degraded  by  their 
stations,  and  in  due  time  they  succeeded 
to  the  office  of  their  masters.  In  like 
manner,  John  Mark  was  minister  to  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  Acts  13  :  5.  Angels  are 
ministers  of  God  and  of  his  people,  Psa. 
103:21 ;  Heb.  1:14.  The  term  is  applied 
to  one  who  performs  any  function,  or 
administers  any  office  or  agency :  as  to 
magistrates,  Rom.  13  :  4,  6 ;  to  gospel 
teachers,  Rom.  15:16;  1  Cor.  5:5;  4:1; 
and  to  teachers  of  error,  2  Cor.  11  : 15. 
Christ  came  to  minister,  not  to  be  min 
istered  unto ;  and  is  called  in  another 
sense  a  minister  "of  the  circumcision," 
Rom.  15  :  8,  and  of  the  heavenly  sanc 
tuary,  Heb.  8:2. 

MIN'NI,  a  kingdom  summoned  to  a 
war  against  Babylon,  with  Ararat  and 
Ashchenaz,  Jer.  51 :  27  ;  supposed  to  de 
note  Armenia,  or  a  portion  of  it. 

MIN'NITH,  a  town  of  the  Ammonites 
285 


MIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIR 


in  the  time  of  Jephthah,  Judg.  11 :  33 
four  miles  north-east  of  Heshbon.  I 
furnished  fine  wheat  for  the  market  o 
Tyre,  Ezek.  27:]  7. 


MINT,  a  garden  herb,  sufficiently 
known.  The  Pharisees,  desiring  to  dis 
tinguish  themselves  by  a  most  scrupu 
lous  and  literal  observation  of  the  law, 
gave  tithes  of  mint,  anise,  and  cummin, 
Matt.  23:23.  Our  Saviour  does  not  cen 
sure  this  exactness,  but  complains,  that 
while  they  were  so  precise  in  these  lesser 
matters,  they  neglected  the  essential 
commandments  of  the  law — making 
their  punctiliousness  about  easy  and  ex 
ternal  duties  an  excuse  for  disregarding 
their  obligations  to  love  God  supremely, 
to  be  regenerated  in  heart,  and  just  and 
beneficent  in  life. 

MIR'ACLE,  also  called  a  sign,  wonder, 
or  mighty  work,  Acts  2 : 32 ;  a  work  so  su 
perseding  in  its  higher  forms  the  estab 
lished  laws  of  nature  as  to  evince  the  spe 
cial  interposition  of  God.  A  miracle  is  to 
be  distinguished  from  wonders  wrought 
by  designing  men  through  artful  decep 
tions,  occult  sciences,  or  laws  of  nature 
unknown  except  to  adepts.  The  mira 
cles  wrought  by  Christ,  for  example, 
were  such  as  God  only  could  perform ; 
were  wrought  in  public,  before  numer 
ous  witnesses,  both  friends  and  foes ; 
were  open  to  the  most  perfect  scrutiny ; 
had  an  end  in  view  worthy  of  divine 
sanction  ;  were  attested  by  witnesses 
whose  character  and  conduct  establish 
their  claim  to  our  belief;  and  are  further 
confirmed  by  institutions  still  existing, 
intended  to  commemorate  them,  and 
dating  from  the  period  of  the  miracles. 


Christ  appealed  to  his  mighty  works  as 
undeniable  proofs  of  his  divinity  and 
Messiahship,  Matt.  9:6  ;  11:4,  5,  23,  24; 
John  10:24-27  ;  20:29,  31.  The  decep 
tions  of  the  magicians  in  Egypt,  and  of 
false  prophets  in  ancient  and  in  modern 
times,  Deut.  13:1  ;  Matt.  24:24  ;  2  Thess. 
2:9  ;  Kev.  13:13,  14,  would  not  bear  the 
above  tests.  By  granting  to  any  man 
the  power  to  work  a  miracle,  God  gave 
the  highest  attestation  to  the  truth  he 
should  teach  and  the  message  he  should 
bring,  1  Kin.  18  :  38,  39;  this  is  God's 
own  seal,  not  to  be  affixed  to  false 
hoods  ;  and  though  the  lying  wonders 
of  Satan  and  his  agents  were  so  plau 
sible  as  to  "  deceive  if  possible  the  very 
elect,"  no  one  who  truly  sought  to  know 
and  do  the  will  of  God  could  be  deluded 
by  them. 

The  chief  object  of  miracles  having 
been  to  authenticate  the  revelation  God 
has  made  of  his  will,  these  mighty  works 
ceased  when  the  Scripture  canon  was 
completed  and  settled,  and  Christianity 
was  fairly  established.  Since  the  close 
of  the  first  century  from  the  ascension 
of  Christ,  few  or  no  undoubted  miracles 
have  been  wrought ;  and  whether  a  suf 
ficient  occasion  for  new  miracles  will  ever 
arise  is  known  only  to  God. 

The  following  list  comprises  most  of 
the  miracles  on  record  in  the  Bible,  not 
including  the  supernatural  visions  and 
revelations  of  himself  which  God  vouch 
safed  to  his  ancient  servants,  nor  those 
numerous  wonders  of  his  providence 
which  manifest  his  hand  almost  as  in 
disputably  as  miracles  themselves.  See 
also  PROPHECY. 

OLD  TESTAMENT  MIRACLES. 

The  creation  of  all  things,  Gen.  1. 

The  deluge,  comprising  many  miracles, 
Gen.  6-8. 

The  destruction  of  Sodom,  etc.,  Gen.  19. 

The  healing  of  Abimelech,  Gen.  20  :17, 18. 

The  burning  bush,  Ex.  3  : 2-4. 

Moses'  rod  made  a  serpent,  and  restored, 
Ex.  4:3,  4;  7:10. 

Moses'  hand  made  leprous,  and  healed.  Ex. 
4:6,7. 

Water  turned  into  blood,  Ex.  4:9,  30. 

The  Nile  turned  into  blood,  Ex.  7  .20. 

Frogs  brought,  and  removed,  Ex.  8  :6, 13. 

Lice  brought,  Ex.  8  :17. 

Flies  brought,  and  removed,  Ex.  8  : 21-31. 

Murrain  of  beasts,  Ex.  9:3-6. 

Boils  and  blains  brought,  Ex.  9  :10, 11. 

Hail  brought,  and  removed,  Ex.  9  .-23,  33. 

Locusts  brought,  and  removed,  Ex.  10  :13, 

Darkness  brought,  Ex.  10  :22. 
First-born  destroyed,  Ex.  10:29. 
286 


MIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MIS 


The  Red  sea  divided,  Ex.  14  :21,  22. 

Egyptians  overwhelmed,  Ex.  14  : 26-28. 

Waters  of  Marah  sweetened,  Ex.  15  :28. 

Quails  and  manna  sent,  Ex.  16. 

Water  from  the  rock,  in  Horeb,  Ex.  17  :6. 

Amalek  vanquished,  Ex.  17  : 11-13. 

Pillar  of  cloud  and  fire,  Num.  9  : 15-23. 

Leprosy  of  Miriam,  Num.  \'Z  :10. 

Destruction  of  Korah,  etc.,  Num.  16  : 28-35, 
46-50. 

Aaron's  rod  budding,  Num.  17  :8. 

Water  from  the  rock,  in  Kadesh,  Num. 
20-11. 

Healing    by    the    brazen    serpent,    Num. 
21:8,9. 

Balaam's  ass  speaks,  Num.  22  :28. 

Plague  in  the  desert,  Num.  25  :1,  9. 

Waters  of  Jordan  divided,  Josh.  3  : 10-17. 

Jordan  restored  to  its  course,  Josh.  4  : 18. 

Jericho  taken,  Josh.  6:6-20. 

Achan  discovered,  Josh.  7  : 14-21. 

Sun  and  moon  stand  still,  Josh.  10  : 12-14. 

Gideon's  fleece  wet,  Judg.  6  :36-40. 

Midianites  destroyed.  Judg.  7  : 16-22. 

Exploits  of  Samson,  Jadg.  14-16. 

House  of  Dagon  destroyed,  Judg.  16  :30. 
Dagon  falls  before  the  ark,  etc.,  1  Sam.  5. 
Return  of  the  ark,  1  Sam.  6  :12. 
Thunder  and  rain  in  harvest,  1  Sam.  12  :18. 
Jeroboam's    hand    withered,   etc.,    1  Kin. 
13 : 4,  6. 

The  altar  rent,  1  Kin.  13  : 5. 
Drought  caused,  1  Kin.  17  :6. 
Elijah  fed  by   ravens,  1  Kin.  17  :6. 
Meal  and  oil  supplied,  1  Kin.  17  : 14-16. 
Child  restored  to  life,  1  Km.  17  : 22,  23. 
Sacrifice  consumed  by  fire,  1  Kin.  18 :  36,  38. 
Rain  brought,  1  Kin.  18  : 41-45. 
Men  destroyed  by  fire,  2  Kin.  1 : 10-12. 
Waters  of  Jordan  divided,  2  Kin.  2  : 14. 
Noxious  waters  healed,  2  Kin.  2 :21,  22. 
Children  torn  by  bears,  2  Kin.  2 :24. 
Waters  brought,  2  Kin.  3  :l!>-20. 
Oil  supplied,  2  Kin.  4  : 1-7. 
Child  restored  to  life,  2  Kin.  4  : 32-35. 
Naaman  healed,  2  Kin.  5  :10,  14. 
Gehazi's  leprosy,  2  Kin.  5  :27. 
Iron  caused  to  swim,  2  Kin.  6:6. 
Syrians  smitten  blind,  etc.   2  Kin.  6  :18,  20. 
A  man  restored  to  life,  2  Kin.  13  : 21. 
Syrians  destroyed,  2  Kin.  19  .-35. 
Hezekiah  healed  *2  Kin.  20  :7. 
Shadow  put  back,  2  Kin.  20  :11. 
Pestilence  in  Israel,  1  Chr.  21  :14. 
Jonah  preserved  by  a  fish,  Jonah  1:17; 
2  -.10. 

NEW  TESTAMENT  MIRACLES. 

The  star  in  the  east,  Matt.  2  :3. 

The  Spirit  like  a  dove.  Matt.  3  :16. 

Christ's  fast  and  temptations,  Matt.  4  -.1-11. 

Many  miracles  of  Christ,  Matt.  4  : 23,  24  ; 
8:16;  14:14,  36;  15:30;  Mark  1:34;  Luke 
6:17-19. 

Lepers  cleansed,  Matt.  8  :3,  4  ;  Luke  17  :14. 

Centurion's  servant  healed,  Matt.  8  -5-13. 

Peter's  wife's  mother  healed,  Matt.  8  :14. 

Tempests  stilled,  Matt.  8  : 23-26  ;  14  :32. 

Devils  cast  out,  Matt.  8:28-32;  9:32,  33- 
15:22-28;  17:14-18. 

Paralytics  healed,  Matt.  9:2-6;  Mark  2  :3- 
12. 

Issue  of  blood  healed,  Matt.  9  r  20-22.      . 

Jairus'  daughter  raised  to  life,  Matt.  9 -.18, 


Sight  given  to  the  blind,  Matt.  9  :  27-30  ; 
20  :b4  ;  Mark  8  :  22-25  ;  John  9:1-7. 

The  dumb  restored,  Matt.  9  :32,  33  ;  12  :22  ; 
Mark  7  :  o3-35. 

Miracles  by  the  disciples,  Matt.  10  :1,  8. 

Multitudes  fed,  Matt.  14:15-^1  ;  15:35-38. 

Christ  walking  on  the  sea,  Matt.  14  :  25-27. 

Peter  walking  on  the  sea,  Matt.  14:29. 

Christ's  transfiguration,  etc.,  Matt.  17  :l-8. 

Tribute  from  a  fish's  mouth,  Matt.  17  :27. 

The  fig-tree  withered,  Matt.  21  :19. 

Miracles  at  the  crucifixion,  Matt.  27  :  51-53, 

Miracles  at  the  resurrection,  Matt.  28  :l-7  : 
Luke  24  :  6. 

Draught  of  fishes,  Luke  5:4-6;  John  21  :6. 

Widow's  son  raised  to  life,  Luke  7  :14,  15. 

Miracles  before  Johns  messengers,  Luke 
7:21,22. 

Miracles  by  the  seventy,  Luke  10  :9,  17. 

Woman  healed  of  infirmity,  Luke  13  :  11-13. 

Dropsy  cured,  Luke  14  :2-4. 

Malchus'  ear  restored,  Luke  22  :50,  51. 

Wrater  turned  into  wine,  John  2  :C-10. 

Nobleman's  son  healed,  John  4  :  46-53. 

Impotent  man  healed,  John  5  :5-9. 

Sudden  crossing  of  the  sea,  John  6  :21. 

Lazarus  raised  from  the  dead,  John  11  :43, 
44. 

Christ's  coming  to  his  disciples,  John  20:  19, 

Wonders  at  the  Pentecost,  Acts  2  :  1-11. 
Miracles  by  the  apostles,  Acts  2  :43  ;  5  :12. 
Lame  man  cured,  Acts  o  :  7. 
Death  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  Acts  5:5, 
10. 

Many  sick  healed,  Acts  5  :15,  16. 
Apostles  delivered  from  prison,  Acts  5  :19. 
Miracles  by  Stephen,  Acts  6  :8. 
3Iiracles  by  Philip,  Acts  8  :6,  7,  13. 
./Eneas  made  whole,  Acts  9  :34. 
Dorcas  restored  to  life,  Acts  9  :40. 
Peter  delivered  from  prison,  Acts  12  :T6-10. 
Elymas  struck  blind,  Acts  13  :11. 
Miracles  by  Paul  and  Barnabas,  Acts  14  :& 
Lame  man  cured,  Acts  14  :10. 
Unclean  spirit  cast  out,  Acts  16  :  18. 
Paul  and  Silas  delivered,  Acts  16  :25,  26. 
Special  miracles,  Acts  19  :11,  12. 
Eutychus  restored  to  life,  Acts  20  :  10-12. 
Viper's  bite  made  hafinless,  Acts  28  :5. 
Father  of  Publius,  etc.  ,  healed,  Acts  28  :  8,  9. 

MIR'IAM,  the  sister  of  Moses  and  Aa 
ron,  probably  the  one  who  watched  over 
Moses  in  the  ark  of  bulrushes,  Ex.  2  :  4, 
5;  Num.  26:59;  Mic.  6:4.  As  a  proph 
etess,  she  led  the  women  of  Israel  in 
their  song  of  worship  and  thanksgiving 
to  God  on  the  drowning  of  the  Egyp 
tians,  Ex.  15  :  20,  21.  Her  jealous  mur 
murs  against  Moses  and  hi3  Cushite  wife 
were  punished  by  a  temporary  leprosy, 
Num.  12  ;  Deut.  24:9  ;  but  she  was  for 
given  and  restored,  and  near  the  close  of 
the  wanderings  of  Israel,  died  at  Kadesh- 
barnea,  Num.  20:1. 

MIR'ROB.     See  LOOKING-GLASS. 

MISH'AEL,  or  ME'SHACH,  a  fellow-cap 
tive  with  Daniel  in  Babylon.  See  ABED- 


287 


MIT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOA 


THE   ROMAN  AS. 


MfTE,  a  small  piece  of  money,  two  of 
which  made  a  kodr antes,  or  the  fourth 
part  of  the  Roman  as.  The  as  was  equal 
to  three  and  one-tenth  farthings  ster 
ling,  or  about  one  and  one-half  cents. 
The  mite,  therefore,  would  be  equal  to 
about  two  mills,  Luke  12:59;  21:2. 


MI'TRE,  the  sacred  turban  or  bonnet 
of  the  Jewish  high-priest,  made  of  a  piece 
of  fine  linen  many  yards  long,  wound 
about  the  head,  and  having  in  front,  se 
cured  with  blue  lace,  a  plate  of  pure  gold 
on  which  was  inscribed,  ' '  HOLINESS  UNTO 
THE  LORD,"  Ex.  28  :  4,  36-38;  39:28-31. 

MIT'YLENE,  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  island  of  Lesbos ;  a  seaport  on  the 
east  side  of  the  island,  towards  Asia  Mi 
nor.  Paul  touched  there  on  his  way  from 
Greece  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  20  :  14.  The 
island  is  now  called  Mitelino ;  and  the 
ruins  of  the  city  still  exist  near  Castro. 

MIZ'PAH,  or  MIZ'PEH,  a  watch-tower,  I., 
a  town  in  Gilead,  Hos.  5:1;  so  named 
from  the  stone-heap  cast  up  by  Jacob 
and  Laban,  Gen.  31  : 49 ;  supposed  by 
many  to  be  the  place  mentioned  in  the 
history  of  Jephthah,  Judg.  10:17  ;  11:11, 
29,  34. 

II.  A  city  of  Benjamin,  a  central  gath 
ering-place  of  the  tribes  in  the  period  of 
the  judges,  Josh.  18:26;  Judg.  20:1,  3; 
21:1.  Here  Samuel  sacrificed  and  judg 
ed,  and  here  Saul  was  designated  as  king, 
288 


1  Sam.  7:5-16 ;  10:17.  It  was  fortified 
by  Asa  as  a  defence  against  Israel,  1  Kin. 
15 : 22,  was  the  residence  of  the  governor, 
under  Nebuchadnezzar,  Jer.  40  :  6,  and 
was  reoccupied  after  the  captivity,  Neh. 
3:19.  Its  name  indicates  that  it  occu 
pied  an  elevated  site,  and  it  was  near 
Ramah ;  hence  Dr.  Robinson  identifies 
it  with  the  modern  place  called  Neby 
Samwil,.  four  or  five  miles  north-north 
west  of  Jerusalem. 

III.  A  town  in  the  plain  of  Judah, 
Josh.  15:38. 

IV.  A  valley  near  mount  Hermon, 
towards  Zidon,  Josh.  11:3,  8. 

MIZ'RAIM,  a  son  of  Ham,  and  father 
of  various  African  races,  Gen.  10:6,  but 
particularly  of  the  Egyptians,  to  whom 
his  name  was  given.  Mizraim  is  also  the 
Hebrew  word  for  Egypt  in  the  Bible,  and 
this  country  is  still  called  Misr  in  Arabic. 

MNA'SON  of  Cyprus,  "an  old  disci 
ple"  with  whom  Paul  lodged  at  Jerusa 
lem,  Acts  21:16. 

MOABITES,  descendants  of  Moab  the 
son  of  Lot,  Gen.  19:30-38.  The  land  of 
Moab  lay  east  and  south-east  of  the  Dead 
sea,  and  chiefly  south  of  the  river  Arnon. 
At  one  period,  however,  it  extended 
north  as  far  as  the  Jabbok,  and  for  a 
long  time  the  region  beyond  the  Jordan 
opposite  Jericho  retained  the  name  of 
"the  plains  of  Moab,"  Num.  22:1 ;  Deut. 
1:5  ;  29:1 ;  Josh.  13:32.  The  Moabites 
had  dispossessed  a  race  of  giants  called 
Emim,  Deut.  2  :  11,  and  had  themselves 
been  expelled  by  the  Amorites  from  the 
territory  north  of  the  Arnon,  Nam. 
21  :  13,  26  ;  Judg.  11 :  13-18,  which  was 
again  conquered  by  Moses,  and  assigned 
to  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  »,0n  the  approach 
of  Israel  from  Egypt,  the  Moabites  acted 
with  great  inhumanity,  Num.  22-24 ; 
Deut.  2:8,  9 ;  and  though  God  spared 
them  from  conquest,  he  excluded  them 
and  their  seed  even  to  the  tenth  genera 
tion  from  the  peculiar  privileges  of  his 
people,  Deut.  23:3-6.  They  were  gross 
idolaters,  worshipping  Chemosh  and 
Baal-peor  with  obscene  rites,  Num.  25, 
and  sometimes  with  human  sacrifices, 
2  Kin.  3  :  27.  See  MOLOCH.  At  times, 
as  in  the  days  of  Ruth,  there  was  peace 
between  them  and  Israel ;  but  a  state  of 
hostility  was  far  more  common,  as  in  the 
time  of  Eglon,  Judg.  3:12-30;  of  Saul, 
1  Sam.  14:47  ;  of  David,  2  Sam.  8:2,  12 ; 
of  Joram  and  Jeroboam,  2  Kin.  3  ;  13:20  ; 
14  :  25.  They  aided  Nebuchadnezzar 


MOL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MON 


against  the  Jews,  2  Kin.  24  :  2  ;  Ezek. 
25  :  6-11 ;  and  after  these  began  to  be 
carried  captive,  appear  to  have  regained 
their  old  possessions  north  of  the  Arnon, 
Isa.  15 ;  16.  The  Jewish  prophets  re 
corded  many  threatenings  against  these 
hereditary  enemies  of  God  and  his  peo 
ple,  Num.  24:17;  Psa.  60:8;  83:6;  Jer. 
25:9-21 ;  48;  Amos  2:1-3  ;  and  all  trav 
ellers  concur  in  attesting  the  fulfilment 
of  these  predictions.  Desolation  and 
gloom  brood  over  the  mountains  of 
Moab,  and  its  fruitful  valleys  are  for  the 
most  part  untilled.  It  is  under  Turkish 


government,  but  is  inhabited  chiefly  by 
migratory  Arabs,  Zeph.  2:8,  9.  Few 
travellers  have  ventured  to  traverse  it 
in  modern  times.  They  describe  it  as 
abounding  in  ruins,  such  as  shattered 
tombs,  cisterns,  walls,  temples,  etc., 
proving  that  it  was  once  densely  popu 
lated.  See  ' '  Keith  on  Prophecy. ' ' 

MOLE,  a  small  animal,  which  burrows 
obscurely  in  the  ground,  Isa.  2:20.  It  is 
common  in  some  parts  of  Palestine,  and 
is  mentioned  as  unclean  in  Lev.  11:  CO  ; 
or,  according  to  Bochart,  in  ver.  29,  in 
the  word  translated  "weasel." 


MO'LECH,  MO'LOCH,  or  MIL'COM,  a  king, 
I  Kin.  11:5,  7 ;  Acts  7:43  ;  supposed  also 
to  be  intended  by  Malcham,  or  "their 
king,"  in  Jer.  49:1;  Amos  1:15;  Zeph. 
1:5,  the  name  of  a  heathen  deity,  wor 
shipped  by  the  Ammonites.  The  Israel 
ites  also  introduced  the  worship  of  this 
idol,  both  during  their  wanderings  in 
the  desert,  and  after  their  settlement  in 
Palestine,  2  Kin.  23:10;  Ezek.  20:26,  31. 
The  principal  sacrifices  to  Moloch  were 
human  victims,  namely,  children  who 
were  cast  alive  into  the  red-hot  arms  of 
his  statue.  See  HINNOM.  Compare  Lev 
18:21;  20:2;  Deut.  12:31;  Psa.  106:37, 
38  ;  Jer.  7:31 ;  19:2-6  ;  32:35.  Accord 
ing  to  some  of  these  passages,  Moloch 
would  seem  to  be  another  name  for 
13 


Baal ;  and  we  find  that  the  Phoenicians, 
whose  chief  god  was  Baal,  and  the  Car 
thaginians  their  colonists,  worshipped 
his  image  with  similar  horrid  sacrifices, 
as  the  Romans  did  their  god  Saturn. 

MON'EY.     See  next  page. 

MONTH.  The  Hebrew  months  were 
lunar  months,  that  is,  from  one  new 
moon  to  another.  These  lunar  months 
were  each  reckoned  at  twenty-nine  days 
and  a  half;  or  rather,  one  was  of  thirty 
days,  the  following  of  twenty-nine,  and 
so  on  alternately  :  that  which  had  thirty 
days  was  called  a  full  or  complete  month  ; 
that  which  had  but  twenty-nine  days 
was  called  incomplete.  The  new  moon 
was  always  the  beginning  of  the  month, 
and  this  day  they  called  new-moon  day, 
289 


MON 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MON 


or  new  month.  The  Hebrews  usually 
designated  the  months  only  as  first,  sec 
ond,  etc. ;  and  the  names  by  which  they 
are  now  known  are  believed  to  be  of 
Persian  origin,  and  to  have  been  adopted 
by  the  Jews  during  the  captivity.  At 
the  exodus  from  Egypt,  which  occurred 
in  April,  God  ordained  that  that  month — 
the  seventh  of  the  civil  year — should  be 
the  first  of  the  sacred  year,  according  to 
which  the  religious  festivals  were  to  be 
reckoned  ;  and  from  that  time  both  these 
modes  of  numbering  the  months  contin 
ued  to  be  employed. 

As  the  Jewish  months  were  governed 
by  the  moon,  while  ours  entirely  disre 
gard  it,  the  two  systems  cannot  wholly 
coincide.  It  is  generally  agreed,  how 
ever,  that  their  month  Nisan  answers 
most  nearly  to  our  April,  lyar  to  our 
May,  etc.,  as  in  the  following  table. 


HebrewMonths. 

Nearly  corre 
sponding  with 
our 

Months 
of  the 
Sacred 
Year. 

Months 
of  the 
Civil 
Year. 

Sea 
sons. 

Abib,  or  Nisan, 
Ex.  12:2,18. 
"     13:4. 
Esth.  3  :  7, 

April. 

1st 

7th. 

LATTER  R.  DRY  SEASON.  KARLY  R.  RAINY  SEASON. 

lyar,  or  Zif. 
1  Kin.  6  :  1. 

May. 

2d. 

8th. 

Sivan, 
Esth.  8  :  9. 

June. 

3d. 

9th. 

Tammuz, 
Ezek.  8  :  14. 

July. 

4th. 

10th. 

Ab. 

August. 

5th. 

llth. 

Elul, 
Neh.  6:15. 

September. 

6th. 

12th. 

Ethanim,  or 
Tishri, 
1  Kin.  8  :  2. 

October. 

7th. 

1st. 

Marcheshvan, 
or  Bui, 
1  Kin.  6:38. 

November. 

8th. 

2d. 

Chisleu, 
Zech,  7:1. 

December. 

9th. 

3d. 

Tebeth, 
Esth.  2  :  16. 

January. 

10th. 

4th. 

Shebat, 
Zech.  1  :  7. 

February. 

llth. 

5th. 

Adar, 
Esth.  3  :  7. 

March. 

12th. 

6th. 

Twelve  lunar  months  making  but  three 
hundred   and   fifty-four    days   and    six 
290 


hours,  the  Jewish  year  was  short  of  the 
Roman  by  twelve  days.  To  recover  the 
equinoctial  points,  from  which  this  dif 
ference  of  the  solar  and  lunar  year  would 
separate  the  new  moon  of  the  first  month, 
the  Jews  every  three  years  intercalated  a 
thirteenth  month,  which  they  called  Ve- 
adar,  the  second  Adar.  By  this  means 
their  lunar  year  nearly  equalled  the 
solar.  See  YEAR. 

MON'EY  was  anciently  weighed,  and 
did  not  at  first  exist  in  the  form  of  coins. 
The  most  ancient  commerce  was  con 
ducted  by  barter,  or  exchanging  one  sort 
of  merchandise  for  another.  One  man 
gave  what  he  could  spare  to  another, 
who  gave  him  in  return  part  of  his  su 
perabundance.  Afterwards,  the  more 
precious  metals  were  used  in  traffic,  as  a 
value  more  generally  known  and  stated, 
and  the  amount  agreed  upon  was  paid 
over  by  weight,  Gen.  23:16  ;  43:21 ;  Ex. 
30:24.  Lastly  they  gave  this  metal,  by 
public  authority,  a  certain  mark,  a  cer 
tain  weight,  and  a  certain  degree  of  alloy, 
to  fix  its  value,  and  to  save  buyers  and 
sellers  the  trouble  of  weighing  and  exam 
ining  the  coins.  The  first  regular  coin 
age  among  the  Jews  is  supposed  to  have 
been  in  the  time  of  Simon  Maccabaeus, 
less  than  a  century  and  a  half  before 
Christ.  The  coins  were  the  shekel,  and 
a  half,  a  third,  and  a  quarter  of  a  shekel. 
The  Jewish  coins  bore  an  almond  rod 
and  a  vase  of  manna,  but  no  image  of 
any  man  was  allowed.  Compare  Matt. 
22  : 16-22.  Many  Greek  and  Roman 
coins  circulated  in  Judea  in  New  Testa 
ment  times.  See  Tables  at  the  end  of 
the  volume ;  also  MITE,  PENNY,  SHEKEL. 

Volney  says,  "The  practice  of  weigh 
ing  money  is  general  in  Syria,  Egypt, 
and  all  Turkey.  No  piece,  however  ef 
faced,  is  refused  there :  the  merchant 
draws  out  his  scales  and  weighs  it,  as  in 
the  days  of  Abraham,  when  he  purchased 
his  sepulchre.  In  considerable  payments, 
an  agent  of  exchange  is  sent  for,  who 
counts  paras  by  thousands,  rejects  pieces 
of  false  money,  and  weighs  all  the  se 
quins,  either  separately  or  together." 
This  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  phrase, 
"current  money  with  the  merchant," 
Gen.  23  :  16  ;  and  the  references  to  "di 
vers  weights  " — a  large  one  to  weigh  the 
money  received,  and  a  small  one  for  that 
paid  out ;  and  to  ' '  wicked  balances, ' ' 
Deut.  25:13;  Amos  8:5;  Mic.  6:11. 
Our  Saviour  alludes  to  a  class  of  "  ex- 


MOO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOS 


changers,"  who  appear  to  have  taken 
money  on  deposit,  and  so  used  it  that 
the  owner  might  afterwards  receive  his 
own  with  interest,  Matt.  25  :  27.  There 
were  also  money  brokers  who  had  stands 
in  the  outer  court  of  the  temple,  proba 
bly  to  exchange  foreign  for  Jewish  coins  ; 
and  to  accommodate  those  who  wished 
to  pay  the  yearly  half-shekel  tax,  Ex. 
30  : 15,  or  to  present  an  offering.  They 
were  expelled  by  the  Lord  of  the  temple, 
not  only  for  obtruding  a  secular  business 
within  the  house  of  prayer,  but  also  for 
pursuing  it  dishonestly,  Mark  11:15-17. 

In  1  Tim.  6  :  10,  Paul  speaks  of  the 
" love  of  money"  as  a  root  of  all  evils  ; 
censuring  not  money  itself,  but  the  love 
of  it — a  prevailing  form  of  human  selfish 
ness  and  covetousness.  This  passion,  to 
which  so  many  crimes  are  chargeable, 
may  infest  the  heart  of  a  poor  man  as 
well  as  that  of  the  rich  ;  for  the  one  may 
have  as  much  of  "the  love  of  money" 
as  the  other. 

MOON.  This  beautiful  and  stately 
ruler  of  the  night,  Gen.  1 :  16,  is  one  of 
the  chief  witnesses  to  mankind  of  the 
goodness,  wisdom,  and  power  of  the 
Creator,  Psa.  8:3;  and  as  receiving  all 
its  light  from  the  sun,  and  reflecting  it 
on  all  around,  it  is  a  striking  image  of 
the  church  of  Christ.  In  the  clear  sky 
of  the  East,  the  moon  shines  with  pecul 
iar  brilliancy;  and  it  was  worshipped 
by  most  nations  of  antiquity,  either 
directly,  or  as  an  idol-goddess  under  the 
name  of  Ashtoreth,  Artemis,  Diana,  Hec 
ate,  Meni,  Mylitta,  Maja,  etc.  The  He 
brews  were  specially  cautioned  against 
this  form  of  idolatry,  Dent.  4:19  ;  17:3  ; 
and  yet  fell  into  it,  2  Kin.  21  :  3 ;  Isa. 
65:11;  Jer.  7:18;  8:2;  19:13;  44:17- 
25.  See  LUNATIC  and  NEAV  MOON. 

MOR'DECAI,  the  uncle  of  Esther,  who 
rose  to  dignity  and  honor  in  the  court  of 
Ahasuerus.  See  the  book  of  Esther. 

MORI' AH,  the  hill  on  which  the  tem 
ple  of  Jerusalem  was  built,  2  Chr.  3  : 1. 
See  JERUSALEM.  It  seems  to  have  been 
the  same  place  where  Abraham  was 
about  to  offer  up  Isaac,  Gen.  22 : 1,  2 ; 
and  where  David  interceded  for  his  peo 
ple  at  the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah, 
2  Sam.  24:16-25. 

MOR'TAR.  This  well-known  utensil 
was  employed  by  the  Hebrews  in  prepar 
ing  manna  for  use,  Num.  11  :  8.  Large 
iron  mortars,  for  pounding  grain,  have 
been  used  by  the  Turks  in  the  execution 


of  criminals ;  but  it  is  not  known  that 
the  Jews  ever  practised  this  mode  of 
punishment.  To  this  day  a  favorite 
article  of  food  in  Syria  is  prepared  by 
pounding  meat  for  hours  in  an  iron  mor 
tar,  and  adding  grain  and  spice  while  the 
process  of  "braying"  goes  on,  Prov. 
27:22. 

MO'SES,  the  name  of  the  illustrious 
prophet  and  legislator  of  the  Hebrews, 
who  led  them  from  Egypt  to  the  prom 
ised  land.  Having  been  originally  im 
posed  by  a  native  Egyptian  princess,  the 
word  is  no  doubt  Egyptian  in  its  ori 
gin,  and  Josephus  gives  its  true  deriva 
tion — from  the  two  Egyptian  words,  MO, 
water,  and  USE,  saved.  With  this  accords 
the  Septuagint  form,  Mouses.  The  He 
brews  by  a  slight  change  accommodat 
ed  it  to  their  own  language,  as  they  did 
also  in  the  case  of  some  other  foreign 
words ;  calling  it  MOSIIE,  from  the  verb 
MASIIA,  to  draw.  See  Ex.  2  :  10.  Moses 
was  born  about  1571  B.  c.,  the  son  of 
Amram  and  Jochebed,  of  the  tribe  of 
Levi,  and  the  younger  brother  of  Miriam 
and  Aaron.  His  history  is  too  extensive 
to  permit  insertion  here,  and  in  general 
too  well  known  to  need  it.  It  is  enough 
simply  to  remark,  that  it  is  divided  into 
three  periods,  each  of  forty  years.  The 
first  extends  from  his  infancy,  when  he 
was  exposed  in  the  Nile,  and  found  and 
adopted  by  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  to 
his  flight  to  Midian.  During  this  time 
he  lived  at  the  Egyptian  court,  and  "  was 
learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyp 
tians,  and  was  mighty  in  words  and  in 
deeds,"  Acts  7:22.  This  is  no  unmean 
ing  praise;  the  "wisdom"  of  the  Egyp 
tians,  and  especially  of  their  priests,  was 
then  the  profoundcst  in  the  world.  The 
second  period  was  from  his  flight  till 
his  return  to  Egypt,  Acts  7  :  30,  during 
the  whole  of  which  interval  he  appears 
to  have  lived  in  Midian,  it  may  be  much 
after  the  manner  of  the  Bedaween  sheikhs 
of  the  present  day.  Here  he  married 
Zipporah,  daughter  of  the  wise  and  pious 
Jethro,  and  became  familiar  with  life  in 
the  desert.  What  a  contrast  between 
the  former  period,  spent  amid  the  splen 
dors  and  learning  of  a  court,  and  this 
lonely  nomadic  life.  Still  it  was  in  this 
way  that  God  prepared  him  to  be  the 
instrument  of  deliverance  to  His  people 
during  the  third  period  of  his  life,  which 
extends  from  the  exodus  out  of  Egypt  to 
his  death  on  mount  Nebo.  In  this  in- 
291 


MOS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOT 


terval  how  much  did  he  accomplish,  as 
the  immediate  agent  of  the  Most  High. 

The  life  and  institutions  of  Moses  pre 
sent  one  of  the  finest  subjects  for  the  pen 
of  a  Christian  historian,  who  is  at  the 
same  time  a  competent  biblical  antiqua 
ry.  His  institutions  breathe  a  spirit  of 
freedom,  purity,  intelligence,  justice, 
and  humanity,  elsewhere  unknown ;  and 
above  all,  of  supreme  love,  honor,  and 
obedience  to  God.  They  moulded  the 
character  of  the  Hebrews,  and  transform 
ed  them  from  a  nation  of  shepherds  into 
a  people  of  fixed  residence  and  agricul 
tural  habits.  Through  that  people,  and 
through  the  Bible,  the  influence  of  these 
institutions  has  been  extended  over  the 
world ;  and  often  where  the  letter  has  not 
been  observed,  the  spirit  of  them  has  been 
adopted.  Thus  it  was  in  the  laws  estab 
lished  by  the  pilgrim  fathers  of  New 
England ;  and  no  small  part  of  what  is  of 
most  value  in  the  institutions  which  they 
founded,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  influence 
of  the  Hebrew  legislator. 

The  name  of  this  servant  of  God  oc 
curs  repeatedly  in  Greek  and  Latin  writ 
ings,  and  still  more  frequently  in  those 
of  the  Arabs  and  the  rabbinical  Jews. 
Many  of  their  statements,  however,  are 
mere  legends  without  foundation,  or  else 
distortions  of  the  Scripture  narrative. 
By  the  Jews  he  has  always  been  espe 
cially  honored,  as  the  most  illustrious 
personage  in  all  their  annals,  and  as  the 
founder  of  their  whole  system  of  laws 
and  institutions.  Numerous  passages 
both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
show  how  exalted  a  position  they  gave 
him,  Psa.  103:7;  105:26;  106:16:  Isa. 
63:12  ;  Jer.  15  :  1 ;  Dan.  9  :  11 ;  Matt. 
8:4;  John  5:45  ;  9  :  28 :  Acts  7:20,  37  ; 
Rom.  10:5,  19;  Heb.  3;  11:23. 

In  all  that  he  wrought  and  taught,  he 
was  but  the  agent  of  the  Most  High  ;  and 
yet  in  all  his  own  character  stands  hon 
orably  revealed.  Though  naturally  lia 
ble  to  anger  and  impatience,  he  so  far 
subdued  himself  as  to  be  termed  the 
meekest  of  men,  Num.  12  :  3  ;  and  his 
piety,  humility,  and  forbearance,  the 
wisdom  and  vigor  of  his  administration, 
his  unfailing  zeal  and  faith  in  God,  and 
his  disinterested  patriotism  are  worthy 
of  all  imitation.  Many  features  of  his 
character  and  life  furnish  admirable 
illustrations  of  the  work  of  Christ — as 
the  deliverer,  ruler,  and  guide  of  his  peo 
ple,  bearing  them  on  his  heart,  interced- 
292 


ing  for  them,  rescuing,  teaching,  and 
nourishing  them  even  to  the  promised 
land.  All  the  religious  institutions  of 
Moses  pointed  to  Christ;  and  he  him 
self,  on  the  mount,  two  thousand  years 
after  his  death,  paid  his  homage  to  the 
Prophet  he  had  foretold,  Deut.  18  :  15- 
19,  beheld  "that  goodly  mountain  and 
Lebanon,"  Deut.  3:25,  and  was  admit 
ted  to  commune  with  the  Saviour  on  the 
most  glorious  of  themes,  the  death  He 
should  accomplish  at  Jerusalem,  Luke 
9:31. 

Moses  was  the  author  of  the  Penta 
teuch,  as  it  is  called,  or  the  first  five 
books  of  the  Bible.  In  the  composition 
of  them  he  was  probably  assisted  by 
Aaron,  who  kept  a  register  of  public 
transactions,  Ex.  17:14;  24:4,  7  ;  34:27  ; 
Num.  33:1,  2;  Deut,  31:24,  etc.  Some 
things  were  added  by  a  later  inspired 
hand ;  as  for  example,  the  last  chapter 
of  Deuteronomy.  The  ninetieth  Psalm 
also  is  ascribed  to  him;  and  its  noble 
and  devout  sentiments  acquire  a  new 
significance,  if  received  as  from  his  pen 
near  the  close  of  his  pilgrimage. 

MOTH.  The  common  moth  is  an  in 
sect  destructive  to  woollen  cloths.  The 
egg  is  laid  by  a  small  white  miller,  and 
produces  a  small  shining  worm  ;  which 
by  another  transformation  becomes  a 
miller.  Allusions  to  the  moth,  as  de 
vouring  clothes,  and  as  a  frail  and  fee 
ble  insect,  are  frequent  in  Scripture,  Job 
4:19;  13  :  28 ;  27  :  18  ;  Isa.  50  :  9  ;  Hos. 
5:12;  Matt.  6:19,  20.  See  GARMENTS. 

The  insects  called  in  general  moths, 
of  which  the  above  is  only  one  species, 
are  exceedingly  numerous.  The  main 
genus  is  called  by  naturalists  Phalcena, 
and  contains  more  than  fifteen  hundred 
species.  Moths  fly  abroad  only  in  the 
evening  and  night ;  differing  in  this 
respect  from  the  tribe  of  butterflies, 
which  fly  only  by  day.  Their  larva:,  or 
the  worms  from  which  they  spring,  are 
active  and  quick  in  motion,  mostly 
smooth,  and  prey  voraciously  on  the 
food  adapted  to  them ;  the  common 
moth  on  cloths,  others  on  furs,  the 
leaves  of  plants,  etc. 

MOTH'ER.  The  Hebrew  words  AM  and 
AB,  mother  and  father,  are  simple  and 
easy  sounds  for  infant  lips,  like  mamma 
and  papa  in  English.  See  ABBA.  ';  Be 
fore  the  child  shall  have  knowledge  to 
cry,  My  father,  and  My  mother,"  Isa. 
8:4.  In  addition  to  the  usual  meaning 


MOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOU 


of  "  mother,"  AM  sometimes  signifies" in 
the  Bible  grandmother,  1  Kin.  15:10,  or 
some  remote  female  ancestor,  Gen.  3:20. 
It  is  put  for  a  chief  city,  2  Sam.  20  : 19  ; 
for  a  benefactress,  Judg.  5:7;  for  a  na 
tion,  as  in  the  expressive  English  phrase, 
"  the  mother  country, ' '  Isa.  3 : 12 ;  49 : 23. 
The  fond  affection  of  a  mother  is  often 
referred  to  in  Scripture ;  and  God  has 
employed  it  to  illustrate  his  tender  love 
for  his  people,  Isa.  49  : 15.  Mothers  are 
endowed  with  an  all-powerful  control 
over  their  offspring ;  and  most  men  of 
eminence  in  the  world  have  acknowledg 
ed  their  great  indebtedness  to  maternal 
influence.  When  Buonaparte  asked  Ma 
dame  Campan  what  the  French  nation 
most  needed,  she  replied  in  one  word, 
"Mothers."  The  Christian  church  al 
ready  owes  much,  and*  will  owe  infinitely 
more,  to  the  love,  patience,  zeal,  and 
self-devotion  of  mothers  in  training  their 
children  for  Christ. 

MOUN'TAINS  are  among  the  most 
sublime  and  impressive  of  the  Creator's 
works  on  earth,  and  form  the  noblest 
and  most  enduring  monuments  of  great 
events.  Most  of  the  mountains  of  Scrip 
ture  thus  stand  as  witnesses  for  God — 
every  view  of  their  lofty  summits,  and 
every  recurrence  to  them  in  thought  re 
minding  us  of  the  sacred  facts  and  truths 
connected  with  them.  Thus  mount  Ar 
arat  is  a  standing  memorial  of  the  del 
uge — of  man's  sin,  God's  justice,  and 
God's  mercy.  Mount  Sinai  asserts  the 
terrors  of  the  divine  law.  Mount  Car- 
mel  summons  us,  like  the  prophet  Eli 
jah  of  old,  not  to  "halt  between  two 
opinions;"  but  if  Jehovah  is  God,  to 
love  and  serve  him.  The  mount  of  the 
Transfiguration  still  shines  with  the 
glory  of  the  truths  there  taught,  and 
mounts  Ebal  and  Gerizim  still  echo  the 
curses  and  the  blessings  once  so  solemn 
ly  pronounced  from  them.  So  mount 
Hor,  Nebo,  Lebanon,  and  Gilboa  have 
been  signalized  by  striking  events ;  mount 
Zion,  Moriah,  and  Olivet  are  covered 
with  precious  memories ;  and  the  moun 
tains  about  Jerusalem  and  all  other 
"everlasting  hills"  are  sacred  witnesses 
of  the  eternal  power  and  faithfulness  of 
God. 

Judea  was  eminently  a  hilly  country  ; 
and  the  sacred  poets  and  prophets  drew 
from  the  mountains  around  them  many 
beautiful  and  sublime  illustrations  of  di 
vine  truth.  Thus  a  kingdom  is  termed 


a  mountain,  Psa.  30 :  7,  especially  tie 
kingdom  of  Christ,  Isa.  2:2;  11:9; 
Dan.  2 :  35.  Thus  also  difficulty  is  a 
"great  mountain,"  Zech.  4:7.  A  revo 
lution  is  the  "carrying  of  mountains 
into  the  midst  of  the  sea,"  Psa.  46  :  3. 
God  easily  and  speedily  removes  every 
obstacle — "hills  melt  like  wax  at  the 
presence  of  the  Lord,"  Psa.  97  :  5.  The 
integrity  of  the  divine  nature  is  sure  and 
lasting — "Thy  righteousness  is  like  the 
great  mountains,"  Psa.  36:6.  The  eter 
nity  of  God's  love  is  pictured  out  by  this 
comparison:  "For  the  mountains  shall 
depart,  and  the  hills  be  removed ;  but 
my  kindness  shall  not  depart  from  thee, 
neither  shall  the  covenant  of  my  peace 
be  removed,  saith  the  Lord  that  hath 
mercy  on  thee,"  Isa.  54:10.  When  Da 
vid  wishes  to  express  the  stability  of  his 
kingdom,  he  says,  "Lord,  by  thy  favor 
thou  hast  made  my  mountain  to  stand 
strong,"  Psa.  30  :  7.  The  security  and 
protection  afforded  by  God  to  his  people 
are  thus  beautifully  delineated :  "  As  the 
mountains  are  round  about  Jerusalem, 
so  the  Lord  is  round  about  his  people 
from  henceforth,  even  for  ever,"  Psa. 
125  :  2.  When  the  prophet  would  ex 
press  his  faith  in  God,  how  pure  it  was, 
and  what  confidence  it  inspired,  far  above 
any  assurance  which  could  arise  from 
earthly  blessing  or  defence,  he  sings, 
"Truly  in  vain  is  salvation  hoped  for 
from  the  hills,  and  from  the  multitude 
of  mountains:  truly  in  the  Lord  our  God 
is  the  salvation  of  Israel,"  Jer.  3:23. 

The  hills  of  Judea  were  anciently  cul 
tivated  to  the  top,  with  scores  of  terra 
ces,  and  covered  with  vines,  olives,  figs, 
etc.  Hence  the  expression,  alluding  to 
the  vine  of  God's  planting,  "The  hills 
were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it," 
Psa.  80:10;  and  others  of  the  same 
kind.  Travellers  say  it  is  a  rare  thing  to 
pass  a  mountain,  even  in  the  wild  parts 
of  Judea,  which  does  not  show  that  it  was 
formerly  terraced  and  made^o  flow  with 
oil  and  wine,  though  it  may  now  be  des 
olate  and  bare.  Says  Paxton,  "There 
are  many  districts  that  are  sadly  encum 
bered  with  rock,  yet  the  soil  among  these 
rocks  is  of  a  very  superior  kind:  and 
were  the  rock  somewhat  broken  up,  the 
large  pieces  piled,  and  the  small  mixed 
with  the  soil,  it  might  be  made  very 
productive.  There  is  very  striking  proof 
of  this  in  some  districts,  as  that  about 
Hebron,  which  abounds  with  rock,  and 
293 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOU 


yet  is  covered  with  the  most  productive 
vineyards.  As  to  such  a  rocky  country 
being  so  spoken  of  in  the  days  of  the 
patriarchs,  I  suppose  that  it  was  in  truth, 
at  that  time,  the  finest  of  lands ;  that 
the  rock  which  now  lies  bare  in  so  many 
places,  was  then  all  covered  with  earth 
of  the  richest  kind." 

"Even in  those  parts  where  all  is  now 
desolate,"  remarks  Dr.  Robinson,  "there 
are  everywhere  traces  of  the  hand  of  the 
men  of  other  days.  .  .  .  Most  of  the 
hills  indeed  exhibit  the  remains  of  terra 
ces  built  up  around  them,  the  undoubted 
signs  of  former  cultivation."  Again, 
when  travelling  towards  Hebron,  he  ob 
serves,  "Many  of  the  former  terraces 
along  the  hill  sides  are  still  in  use  ;  and 
the  land  looks  somewhat  as  it  may  have 
done  in  ancient  times." 

"We  often  counted  forty,  fifty,  sixty, 


and  even  seventy  terraces  from  the  bot 
tom  of  the  valley  up  to  the  summit  of 
the  mountain.  .  .  .  What  a  garden  of 
delights  this  must  have  been,  when,  in 
stead  of  grass  making  green  the  surface, 
verdant  and  luxuriant  vines  were  their 
clothing.  .  .  .  We  could  understand  how 
the  words  of  Joel  shall  yet  be  literally 
true,  'The  mountains  shall  drop  down 
new  wine,'  when  every  vine  on  these 
hills  shall  be  hanging  its  ripe  clusters 
over  the  terraces.  In  observing  too  the 
singular  manner  in  which  the  most 
rocky  mountains  have  at  one  time  been 
made,  through  vast  labor  and  industry, 
to  yield  an  abundant  return  to  the  hus 
bandman,  we  saw  clearly  the  meaning  of 
the  promise  in  Ezekiel,  '  But  ye,  0  moun 
tains  of  Israel,  ye  shall  shoot  forth  your 
branches,  and  yield  your  fruit.'  "  Nar 
rative  of  a  Mission. 


MOURN'ING.  The  Hebrews,  at  the 
death  of  their  friends  and  relations,  made 
striking  demonstrations  of  grief  and 
mourning.  They  wept,  tore  their  clothes, 
smote  their  breasts,  threw  dust  upon 
their  heads,  Josh.  7:6,  and  lay  upon  the 
ground,  went  barefooted,  pulled  their 
hair  and  beards,  or  cut  them,  Ezra  9:3, 
Isa.  15  :  2.  and  made  incisions  on  their 
breasts,  or  tore  them  with  their  nails, 
Lev.  19  :  28  ;  21  :  5 ;  Jer.  16  :  6  ;  48  :  37. 
The  time  of  mourning  was  commonly 
seven  days,  1  Sam.  31:11-13  ;  but  it  was 
lengthened  or  shortened  according  to  cir 
cumstances,  Zech.  12:10.  That  for  Mo- 
294 


ses  and  Aaron  was  prolonged  to  thirty 
days,  Num.  20:29  ;  Deut.  34:8  ;  and  that 
for  Jacob  to  seventy  days,  Gen.  50:3. 

During  the  time  of  their  mourning, 
the  near  relations  of  the  deceased  con 
tinued  sitting  in  their  houses,  and  fasted, 
2  Sam.  12  : 16,  or  ate  on  the  ground. 
The  food  they  took  was  thought  unclean, 
and  even  themselves  were  judged  im 
pure.  "Their  sacrifices  shall  be  unto 
them  as  the  bread  of  mourners  ;  all  that 
.eat  thereof  shall  be  polluted,"  Hos.  9:4. 
Their  faces  were  covered,  and  in  all  that 
time  they  could  not  apply  themselves  to 
any  occupation,  nor  read  the  book  of  the 


MOU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MOU 


law,  nor  offer  their  usual  prayers.  They 
did  not  dress  themselves,  nor  make  their 
beds,  nor  uncover  their  heads,  nor  shave 
themselves,  nor  cut  their  nails,  nor  go 
into  the  bath,  nor  salute  any  body.  No 
body  spoke  to  them  unless  they  spoke 
first,  Job  2  :  11-13.  Their  friends  com 
monly  went  to  visit  and  comfort  them, 
John  11 :  19,  39,  bringing  them  food, 
2  Sam.  3 : 35 ;  Jer.  16:7.  They  also  went 
up  to  the  roof,  or  upon  the  platform  of 
their  houses,  to  bewail  their  misfortune  : 
"They  shall  gird  themselves  with  sack 
cloth  ;  on  the  tops  of  their  houses,  and 
in  their  streets,  every  one  shall  howl, 
weeping  abundantly, ' '  Isa.  15:3;  Jer. 
48:38.  The  mourning  dress  among  the 
Hebrews  was  not  fixed  either  by  law  or 
custom.  We  only  find  in  Scripture  that 
they  used  to  tear  their  garments,  a  cus 
tom  still  observed  ;  but  now  they  tear  a 
small  part  merely,  and  for  form's  sake, 
2  Sam.  13:19;  2  Chr.  34:27;  Ezra  9:3; 
Job  2  :  12  ;  Joel  2  : 13.  Anciently,  in 
times  of  mourning,  they  clothed  them 
selves  in  sackcloth,  or  hair-cloth,  that  is, 
in  clothes  of  coarse  brown  or  black  stuff, 
2  Sam.  3:31;  1  Kin.  21:27;  Esth.  4:1; 
Psa.  35:13;  69:11. 

They  hired  women  to  weep  and  wail, 
and  also  persons  to  play  on  instruments, 
at  the  funerals  of  the  rich  or  distinguish 
ed,  Jer.  9  :  17.  In  Matt.  9  :  23,  we  ob 
serve  a  company  of  minstrels  or  players 
on  the  flute,  at  the  funeral  of  a  girl  of 
twelve  years  of  age.  All  that  met  a 
funeral  procession  were  accustomed  to 
join  them  for  a  time,  to  accompany  them 
on  their  way,  sometimes  relieving  the 
bearers  of  the  bier,  and  mingling  their 
tears  with  those  of  the  mourners,  Horn. 
12:15. 

The  custom  of  hiring  women  to  weep 
and  wail  has  come  down  to  modern 
times.  The  following  account  of  such  a 
scene  at  Nablous,  the  ancient  Shechem, 
is  from  Dr.  Jowett.  The  governor  of 
the  city  had  died  the  very  morning  of 
Dr.  Jowett's  arrival.  "On  coming  with 
in  sight  of  the  gate,  we  perceived  a  nu 
merous  company  of  females,  who  were 
singing  in  a  kind  of  recitative,  far  from 
melancholy,  and  beating  time  with  their 
hands.  If  this  be  mourning,  I  thought, 
it  is  of  a  strange  kind.  It  had  indeed 
sometimes  more  the  air  of  angry  defi 
ance.  But  on  our  reaching  the  gate,  it 
was  suddenly  exchanged  for  most  hide 
ous  plaints  and  shrieks,  which,  with  the 


feeling  that  we  were  entering  a  city  at 
no  time  celebrated  for  its  hospitality, 
struck  a  very  dismal  impression  upon 
my  mind.  They  accompanied  us  a  few 
paces;  but  it  soon  appeared  that  the 
gate  was  their  station,  to  which,  having 
received  nothing  from  us,  they  returned. 
We  learned,  in  the  course  of  the  even 
ing,  that  these  were  only  a  small  detach 
ment  of  a  very  numerous  body  of  '  cun 
ning  women,'  who  were  filling  the 
whole  city  with  their  cries,  '  taking  up  a 
wailing,'  with  the  design,  as  of  old,  to 
make  the  eyes  of  all  the  inhabitants 
'  run  down  with  tears,  and  their  eye 
lids  gush  out  with  waters, '  Jer.  9:17,  18. 
For  this  good  service,  they  would,  the 
next  morning,  wait  upon  the  govern 
ment  and  principal  persons,  to  receive 
some  trifling  fee." 

Some  of  the  Jewish  forms  of  mourn 
ing  are  the  appropriate  and  universal 
language  of  grief;  others,  to  our  modern 
and  occidental  taste,  savor  of  extrava 
gance.  None  of  these  were  enjoined  by 
their  religion,  which  rather  restricted 
than  encouraged  them,  Lev.  10: 6;  19 : 27; 
21:1-11;  Num.  6:7  ;  Deut.  14:1.  They 
were  the  established  customs  of  the  times. 
Sorrow  finds  some  relief  in  reversing  all 
the  usages  of  ordinary  life.  Christianity, 
however,  moderates  and  assuages  our 
grief;  shows  us  a  Father's  hand  holding 
the  rod,  and  the  dark  valley  itself  pene 
trated  by  the  heavenly  light  into  which 
it  emerges,  1  Cor.  15  :  53-55 ;  1  Thess. 
4:14-18:  Rev.  7:13-17;  14:13. 


THE  FIELD-MOUSE. 

MOUSE,  in  the  Scriptures,  is  used 
chiefly  of  the  field-mouse,  but  probably 
includes  various  species  of  these  animals, 
some  of  which  were  eaten.  Moses,  Lev. 
11 :  29,  declared  it  to  be  unclean,  yet  it 
was  sometimes  eaten  ;  and  Isaiah,  66:17, 
reproaches  the  Jews  with  this  practice. 
295 


MOD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MUR 


The  hamster  and  the  dormouse,  as  well 
as  the  jerboa,  are  sometimes  used  for 
food  by  the  modern  Arabs.  Mice  made 
great  havoc  in  the  fields  of  the  Philis 
tines,  after  that  people  had  taken  the 
ark  of  the  Lord ;  which  induced  them 
to  send  it  back  with  mice  and  emerods 
of  gold,  1  Sam.  5:6,  9,  11;  6:4,  5.  The 
field-mice  are  equally  prevalent  in  those 
regions  at  the  present  day.  See  HAMATII. 

MOUTH  is  sometimes  used  in  Scripture 
for  speaker,  Ex.  4:16;  Jer.  15:19.  God 
spoke  with  Moses  "mouth  to  mouth," 
Num.  12:8,  that  is,  condescendingly  and 
clearly.  The  law  was  to  be  "in  the 
mouth  of  the  Hebrews,  Ex.  13:9,  often 
rehearsed  and  talked  of.  •' '  The  rod  of  his 
mouth,"  Isa.  11:4,  and  the  sharp  sword, 
Rev.  1:16,  denote  the  power  of  Christ's 
word  to  convict,  control,  and  judge ; 
compare  Isa.  49  :  2  ;  Heb.  4  :  12.  The 
Hebrew  word  for  mouth  is  often  trans 
lated  "command,"  Gen.  45:21;  Job 
39:27;  Eccl.  8:2;  and  the  unclean  spir 
its  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  dragon,  Eev. 
16:14,  are  the  ready  executers  of  his 
commands. 

MULBERRY-TREE.  The  word  trans 
lated  mulberry-tree  signifies  literally 
tveeping,  and  indicates  some  tree  which 
distils  balsam  or  gum.  The  particular 
species  is  not  known  ;  though  some  think 
the  poplar,  or  aspen,  may  be  intended, 
2  Sam.  5:23,  24;  1  Chr.  14:14,  15. 

MULE,  a  mixed  animal,  the  offspring 
of  a  horse  and  an  ass.  A  mule  is  small 
er  than  a  horse,  and  has  long  cars,  though 
not  so  long  as  those  of  an  ass.  It  is  a 
remarkably  hardy,  patient,  obstinate, 
sure  footed  animal,  lives  twice  as  long  as 
a  horse,  and  is  much  more  easily  and 
cheaply  fed.  Mules  are  much  used  in 
Spain  and  South  America,  for  transport 
ing  goods  across  the  mountains.  So  also 
in  the  Alps,  they  are  used  by  travellers 
among  the  mountains,  where  a  horse 
would  hardly  be  able  to  pass  with  safety. 
There  is  no  probability  that  the  Jews 
bred  mules,  because  it  was  forbidden  to 
couple  creatures  of  different  species,  Lev. 
19  : 19.  But  they  were  not  forbidden  to 
obtain  them  from  abroad  and  u$e  them, 

1  Kin.  10  :  25 ;  Ezek.  27  : 14.     Thus  we 
may   observe,   especially  after   David's 
time,  that  mules,  male  and  female,  were 
common  among  the  Hebrews;  formerly 
they  used  only  male  and  female  asses, 

2  Sam.  13:29;  18:9;  1  Kin.  1:33;  10:25; 
18:5;  Esth.  8:10,  14. 

296 


In  Gen.  36  : 24,  Anah  is  said  to  have 
found  "mules"  in  the  desert;  but  the 
Hebrew  word  here  probably  means  hot 
springs.  See  ANAH. 

MUNITIONS,  implements  of  war. 
"  Munitions  of  rocks ' '  seems  to  mean,  a 
rocky  fortress  or  strong-hold.  The  strong 
tower  of  the  righteous  is  impregnable 
and  inaccessible  to  their  foes,  Isa.  33:16. 

MUR'DER,  the  designed  and  malevo 
lent  taking  of  human  life,  was  by  the 
original  appointment  of  God  a  crime  to 
be  punished  by  death.  Cain,  the  first 
murderer,  recognized  it  as  such,  Gen, 
4 : 14.  The  ground  for  the  death-penalty 
for  murder  is  the  eminent  dignity  and 
sacredness  of  man  as  a  child  of  God,  Gen. 
9:5,  6.  Like  the  Sabbath  and  marriage, 
it  is  a  primeval  and  universal  institution 
for  mankind,  and  all  nations  have  so 
recognized  it,  Acts  28  :  4.  The  Mosaic 
code  reenacted  it,  Lev.  24:17  ;  and  while 
providing  for  the  unintentional  homicide 
a  safe  retreat,  declares  that  deliberate 
murder  must  be  punished  by  death,  from 
which  neither  the  city  of  refuge  nor 
the  altar  of  God  could  shield  the  crim 
inal,  Ex.  21  :  12-14  ;  Num.  35  :  9-34 ; 
Deut.  19  : 1-13  ;  1  Kin.  2  :  5,  6,  28-34. 
Death  was  usually  inflicted  by  stoning, 
upon  the  testimony  of  at  least  two  wit 
nesses,  Num.  35  :  30.  If  a  corpse  were 
found  in  the  open  fields,  and  the  murder 
er  could  not  be  discovered,  the  town 
nearest  to  the  spot  was  obliged  to  purge 
itself  by  a  solemn  ceremony,  lest  it 
should  become  liable  to  the  judgments  of 
God,  Deut.  21  :  1-9.  In  various  ways 
God  is  represented  as  specially  abhorring 
this  crime,  and  securing  its  punishment, 
Deut.  32  :  43  ;  2  Sam.  21 :  1 ;  Psa.  9  :  12 ; 
55  :  23  ;  Hos.  1:4;  Rev.  22  :  15.  Our 
Saviour  instructs  us  that  one  may  be 
guilty,  in  the  sight  of  God,  of  murder  in 
the  heart,  without  any  overt  act,  Matt. 
5:21,22;  1  John  3 : 15.  Nothing  is  said 
specially  in  the  law  respecting  self-mur 
der,  and  only  the  cases  of  Saul,  Ahitho- 
phel,  and  Judas  are  described  in  the  Bi 
ble,  1  Sam.  31  :  4 ;  2  Sam.  17  :  23  ;  Acts 
1  :  18.  Of  all  murders,  that  of  the  soul 
is  incomparably  the  most  awful,  John 
8:44,  and  many  plunge  not  only  them 
selves  but  others  into  the  second  death. 

MUR'RAIN,  a  special  mortality, 
wrought  by  miraculous  agency,  among 
the  cattle  of  the  Egyptians,  while  those 
of  the  Hebrews  in  the  same  region  were 
unharmed,  Ex.  9:3. 


MUS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MUS 


MU'SIC.  The  ancient  Hebrews  had  a 
great  taste  for  music,  which  they  used  in 
their  religious  services,  in  their  public 
and  private  rejoicings,  at  their  weddings 
and  feasts,  and  even  in  their  mournings. 
We  have  in  Scripture  canticles  of  joy,  of 
thanksgiving,  of  praise,  of  mourning ; 
also  mournful  elegies  or  songs,  as  those 
of  David  on  the  death  of  Saul  and  Ab- 
ner,  and  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah 
on  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  so,  too, 
songs  of  victory,  triumph,  and  gratula- 
tion,  as  that  which  Moses  sung  after  pass 
ing  the  Red  sea,  that  of  Deborah  and 
Barak,  and  others.  The  people  of  God 
went  up  to  Jerusalem  thrice  a  year, 
cheered  on  their  way  with  songs  of  joy, 
Psalms  84;  122;  Isa.  30:29.  The  book 
of  Psalms  comprises  a  wonderful  variety 
of  inspired  pieces  for  music,  and  is  an 
inexhaustible  treasure  for  the  devout  in 
all  ages. 

Music  is  perhaps  the  most  ancient  of 
the  fine  arts.  Jubal,  who  lived  before  the 
deluge,  was  the  "father"  of  those  who 
played  on  the  harp  and  the  organ,  Gen. 
4:21;  31:26,27.  Laban  complains  that 
his  son-in-law  Jacob  had  left  him,  with 
out  giving  him  an  opportunity  of  send 
ing  his  family  away  ' '  with  mirth  and 
with  songs,  with  tabret  and  with  harp." 
Moses,  having  passed  through  the  Red 
sea,  composed  a  song,  and  sung  it  with 
the  Israelitish  men,  while  Miriam,  his 
bister,  sung  it  with  dancing,  and  playing 
on  instruments,  at  the  head  of  the  wom 
en,  Ex.  15:20,  21.  He  caused  silver 
trumpets  to  be  made,  to  be  sounded  at 
solemn  sacrifices,  and  on  religious  festi-  I 
vals.  David,  who  had  great  skill  in 
music,  soothed  the  perturbed  spirit  of 
Saul  by  playing  on  the  harp,  1  Sam. 
16  : 16,  23 ;  and  when  he  was  himself  I 
established  on  the  throne — seeing  that 
the  Levites  were  not  employed,  as  for 
merly,  in  carrying  the  boards,  veils,  and 
vessels  of  the  tabernacle,  its  abode  being 
fixed  at  Jerusalem — appointed  a  great 
part  of  them  to  sing  and  to  play  on  in 
struments  in  the  temple,  1  Chr.  25.  Da 
vid  brought  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  with 
triumphant  and  joyful  music,  1  Chr. 
13:8 ;  15  :  16-28  ;  and  in  the  same  man 
ner  Solomon  was  proclaimed  king,  1  Kin. 
1  :  39,  40.  The  Old  Testament  prophets 
also  sought  the  aid  of  music  in  their  ser 
vices,  1  Sam.  10:5;  2  Kin.  3:15. 

Asaph,  Heman,  and  Jeduthun  were 
chiefs  of  the  music  of  the  tabernacle  un 


der  David,  and  of  the  temple  under  Sol* 
omon.  Asaph  had  four  sons,  Jeduthun 
six,  and  Heman  fourteen.  These  twen 
ty-four  Levites,  sons  of  the  three  great 
masters  of  the  temple-music,  were  at  the 
head  of  twenty-four  bands  of  musicians, 
which  served  in  the  temple  by  turns. 
Their  number  thsre  was  always  great, 
but  especially  at  the  chief  solemnities. 
They  were  ranged  in  order  about  the 
altar  of  burnt-sacrifices.  As  the  whole 
business  of  their  lives  was  to  learn  and 
to  practise  music,  it  must  be  supposed 
that  they  understood  it  well,  whether  it 
were  vocal  or  instrumental,  2  Chr.  29:25. 

The  kings  also  had  their  music.  Asaph 
was  chief  master  of  music  to  David.  In 
the  temple,  and  in  the  ceremonies  of  re 
ligion,  female  musicians  were  admitted 
as  well  as  male ;  they  generally  were 
daughters  of  the  Levites.  Ezra,  in  his 
enumeration  of  those  whom  he  brought 
back  with  him  from  the  captivity,  reck 
ons  two  hundred  singing  men  and  sing 
ing  women,  2  Sam.  19 : 35 ;  Ezra  2  :  65  ; 
Neh.  7:67. 

As  to  the  nature  of  their  music,  we 
can  judge  of  it  only  by  conjecture,  be 
cause  it  has  been  long  lost.  Probably  it 
was  a  unison  of  several  voices,  of  which 
all  sung  together  the  same  melody,  each 
according  to  his  strength  and  skill ; 
without  musical  counterpoint,  or  those 
different  parts  and  combinations  which 
constitute  harmony  in  our  music.  Prob 
ably,  also,  the  voices  were  generally  ac 
companied  by  instrumental  music.  If 
we  may  draw  any  conclusions  in  favor 
of  their  music  from  its  effects,  its  mag 
nificence,  its  majesty,  and  the  lofty  sen 
timents  contained  in  their  songs,  we 
must  allow  it  great  excellence.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  temple  musicians  were, 
sometimes  divided  into  two  or  more  sep-? 
arate  choirs,  which,  with  a  general  cho 
rus,  sung  in  turn  responsive  to  each  other, 
each  a  small  portion  of  the  Psalm.  The 
structure  of  the  Hebrew  Psalms  is  emi 
nently  adapted  to  this  mode  of  singing, 
and  very  delightful  and  solemn  effects 
might  thus  be  produced.  Compare 
Psalms  24,  136,  148,  150. 

Numerous  musical  instruments  are 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  it  has  been 
found  impossible  to  affix  •  their  names 
with  certainty  to  specific  instruments 
now  in  use.  By  a  comparison,  however, 
of  the  instruments  probably  held  in  com 
mon  by  the  Jews  with  the  Greeks,  Ro- 
297 


HUB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MUS 


mans,  and  Egyptians,  a  degree  of  proba 
bility  as  to  most  of  them  has  been  secur 
ed.  They  were  of  three  kinds: 


I.  Stringed  instruments: 

1.  KINNOK,  "the  harp,"  Gen.  4:21. 
Frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and 
probably  a  kind  of  lyre. 

2.  NEBEL,  ' 'the psaltery, "  1  Sam.  10:5. 
It  appears  to  have  been  the  name  of  vari 
ous  large  instruments  of  the  harp  kind. 

3.  ASOR,  signifying  ten-stringed.     In 
Psa.  92  : 4,  it  apparently  denotes  an  in 
strument  distinct  from  the  NEBEL;   but 
elsewhere  it  seems  to  be  simply  a  de 
scription  of  the  NEBEL  as  ten-stringed. 
See  Psa.  33:2;  144:9. 

4.  GITTITH.     It  occurs  in  the  titles  of 
Psalms  8,  81,  84,  etc.     From  the  name, 
it  is  supposed  that  David  brought  it  from 
Gath.     Others  conclude  that  it  is  a  gen 
eral  name  for  a  stringed  instrument. 

5.  MINNIM,  strings,  Psa.  150:4.    Prob 
ably  another  kind  of  stringed  instru 
ment. 

6.  SABECA,  "sackbut,"  Dan.  3:5,  7, 
10,  15.     A  kind  of  lyre. 

7.  PESANTERIN,     "psaltery,"     occurs 
Dan.  3:7,  and  is  supposed  to  represent 
the  NEBEL. 

8.  MACHALATH.     Found  in  the  titles 
of  Psalms  53  and  88 ;  supposed  to  be  a 
lute  or  guitar. 

See  illustrations  in  HARP. 
II .    Wind  instruments  : 

9.  KEREN,  ."horn,"  Josh.  6:5.  Cornet. 

10.  SHOPHAR,  "trumpet, "Num.  10:10. 
Used  synonymously  with  KEREN. 

11.  CHATZOZERAH,  the  straight  trum 
pet,  Psa.  98:6. 

298 


12.  JOBEL,   or  KEREN  JOBEL,  horn  of 
jubilee,  or  signal  trumpet,   Josh.   6  :  4. 
Probably  the  same  with  9  and  10. 

13.  CHALIL,  "pipe"  or  "flute."    The 
word  means  bored  through,  1  Sam.  10:5. 

14.  MISHROKITHA,     Dan.     3 :  5,     etc. 
Probably   the    Chaldean   name   for  the 
flute  with  two  reeds. 

15.  UGAB,    "organ"   in  our  version, 
Gen.  4:21.     It  means  a  double  or  mani 
fold  pipe,  and  hence  the  shepherd's  pipe ; 
probably  the  same  as  the  syrinx  or  Pan's 
pipe ;   or  perhaps  resembling  the  bag 
pipe,  numbered  16  in  the  cut. 


III.  Instruments  which  gave  out  sound  on 
being  struck : 


MUS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MYR 


17.  TOPH,  Gen.  31:27,  the  tambourine 
and  all  instruments  of  the  drum  kind. 

18.  PHAAMON,    "bells,"    Ex.    28:33. 
Attached  to  the  hem  of  the  high-priest's 
garment. 

19.  TZELTZKLIM,      "cymbals,"     Psalm 
150  .  5.     A  word  frequently  occurring. 
There  were  probably  two  kinds,  hand- 
cymbals  and  ringer -cymbals. 

20.  SHALISHIM,  1  Sam.  18  :  6.     In  our 
version,  "instruments  of  music."     Mar 
gin,  "three-stringed  instruments."  Most 
writers  identify  it  with  the  triangle. 

21.  MENAANEIM,    "cymbals,"   2  Sam. 
6:5.     Probably  the    sistrum.      The  He 
brew  word  means  to  shake.    The  sistrum 
was  generally  about  sixteen  or  eighteen 
inches  long,  occasionally  inlaid  with  sil 
ver,  and  being  held  upright,  was  shaken, 
the  rings  moving  to  and  fro  on  the  bars. 


Further  particulars  concerning  some  of 
these  may  be  found  under  the  names 
they  severally  bear  in  our  English  Bible. 

MUS'TARD.  A  species  of  this  annual 
shrub  is  found  in  Palestine,  growing  to 
the  height  of  seven  to  nine  feet,  and  with 
a  stem  one  inch  thick.  Prof.  Hackat, 
while  examining  a  field  of  these  plants, 
saw  a  bird  of  the  air  come  and  lodge  in 
the  branches  before  him,  Matt.  13  :  31, 
32 ;  Mark  4  :  31,  32.  Others  suppose  a 
tree  is  meant,  called  Salvadora  Persica. 
It  is  found  in  Palestine,  and  bears  ber 
ries  containing  small,  mustard-like  seeds. 
' '  A  grain  of  mustard ' '  was  used  prover 
bially  to  denote  any  thing  extremely 
small,  Matt.  17:20. 

MUZ'ZLE.     See  THRESHING. 

MY'RA,  a  town  of  Lycia,  where  Paul 
embarked  for  Rome,  on  board  a  ship  of 
Alexandria,  Acts  27:5. 

MYRRH,  a  precious  gum  yielded  by  a 
tree  common  in  Africa  and  Arabia,  which 
is  about  eight  or  nine  feet  high;  its 
wood  ha'rd,  and  its  trunk  thorny.  It 


was  of  several  kinds,  and  various  de 
grees  of  excellence.  The  best  was  an 
ingredient  in  the  holy  ointment,  Ex. 
30 :  23.  It  was  also  employed  in  per 
fumes,  Esth.  2 : 12 ;  Psa.  45 : 8  ;  Song  4:6; 
5:5,  13;  and  in  embalming,  to  preserve 
the  body  from  corruption,  John  19  :  39. 
The  magi,  who  came  from  the  East  to 
worship  Christ,  offered  him  myrrh,  Matt. 
2:11. 

In  Mark  15 :  23,  is  mentioned  "wine 
mingled  with  myrrh,"  which  was  offered 
to  Jesus  previous  to  his  crucifixion, 
and  intended  to  deaden  the  anguish  of 
his  sufferings.  It  was  a  custom  among 
the  Hebrews  to  give  such  stupefying 
liquors  to  persons  who  were  about  to  be 
capitally  punished,  Prov.  31  :  6.  Some 
have  thought  that  the  myrrhed  wine  of 
Mark  is  not  the  same  as" the  "vinegar 
mingled  with  gall"  of  Matt.  27:34. 
They  suppose  the  myrrhed  wine  was 
given  to  our  Lord  from  a  sentiment  of 
sympathy,  to  prevent  him  from  feeling 
too  sensibly  the  pain  of  his  sufferings ; 
while  the  potation  mingled  with  gall,  of 
which  he  would  not  drink,  was  given 
from  cruelty.  But  the  other  explanation 
is  the  more  probable.  See  GALL. 

MYR'TLE,  a  beautiful  and  fragrant 
evergreen  tree,  growing  wild  throughout 
the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  the  north 
of  Africa,  and  the  temperate  parts  of 
Asia ;  principally  on  the  sea-coast.  The 
leaves  are  of  a  rich  and  polished  ever 
green;  the  flowers  white,  with  some 
times  a  tinge  of  red  externally  ;  and  the 
berries  are  of  the  size  of  a  small  pea,  vio 
let  or  whitish,  sweetish,  and  with  the 
299 


MYS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAB 


aromatic  flavor  which  distinguishes  the 
whole  plant.  These  are  used  for  spices 
in  the  Levant.  It  furnishes  a  useful 
tonic  medicine,  Neh.  8  : 15 ;  Isa.  41 : 19  ; 
65:13;  Zech.  1:8,  10,  11. 

MYS'IA,  a  province  in  the  north-west 
corner  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  north  by 
the  Propontis,  west  by  the  JEgean  sea, 
south  by  Lydia,  and  east  by  Bithynia. 
Paul  preached  in  this  country  on  his 
first  journey  to  Europe,  Acts  16:7,  8. 

MYS'TERY  means  strictly  a  secret,  and 
is  so  used  when  spoken  of  the  heathen 
"  mysteries"  or  secret  rites,  which  were 
full  of  all  manner  of  abominations.  In 
the  Scriptures  the  word  ' '  mystery  ' '  de 
notes  those  truths  of  religion  which, 
without  a  revelation  from  God,  would 
have  remained  unknown  to  man.  Our 
Saviour  says  to  his  disciples,  that  they 
are  peculiarly  happy,  because  God  has 
revealed  to  them  ' '  the  mysteries  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,"  Matt.  16  :  17  ; 
11  :  25  ;  Luke  10  :  21-24.  Paul  explains 
the  word  in  Eph.  3  :  1-9 ;  and  often 
speaks  of  the  mystery  of  the  gospel,  of 
the  mystery  of  the  cross  of  Christ,  of  the 
mystery  of  Christ  which  was  unknown 
to  former  ages,  of  the  mystery  of  the 
incarnation,  the  resurrection,  etc.,  Rom. 
11:25;  1  Cor.  2:7-10  ;  4:1;  13:2;  15:51; 
1  Tim.  3:9,  16.  These,  then,  were  call 
ed  mysteries,  not  only'  because  they 
included  some  things  which  stretch 
beyond  all  human  thought,  and  others 
which  would  never  have  been  known  if 
the  Son  of  God  and  his  Holy  Spirit  had 
not  revealed  them,  but  also  because  they 
were  not  opened  indifferently  to  every 
one  ;  according  to  the  advice  of  Christ  to 
his  apostles,  "Give  not  that  which  is 
holy  unto  the  dogs,  neither  cast  ye  your 
300 


pearls  before  swine, ' '  1  Cor.  2 : 14.  In  one 
place  ' '  mystery ' '  seems  to  denote  the 
whole  cycle  of  God's  secret  plan  in  the 
administration  of  the  gospel,  gradually 
unfolded  even  to  the  end,  Rev.  10 :  7  ; 
11:15. 

Mystery  signifies  also  an  allegory,  that 
is,  a  mode  of  information  under  which 
partial  instruction  is  given,  a  partial  dis 
covery  is  made,  but  there  is  still  a  cover 
of  some  kind,  which  the  person  who  de 
sires  to  know  the  whole  must  endeavor 
to  remove.  So  the  mystery  of  the  seven 
stars,  Rev.  1 :  20,  is  an  allegory  repre 
senting  the  seven  Asiatic  churches  under 
the  symbol  of  seven  burning  lamps.  So 
the  mystery,  "Babylon  the  Great,"  is 
an  allegorical  representation  of  the  spir 
itual  Babylon,  idolatry,  spiritual  fornica 
tion,  etc.,  "I  will  tell  thee  the  mystery 
of  the  woman  ;' '  that  is,  I  will  explain  to 
thee  the  allegory  of  this  figure,  Rev. 
17:5,  7. 


NA'AMAN,  the  highly  esteemed  gen 
eral  of  Ben-hadad,  king  of  Damascene 
Syria  in  the  time  of  Joram  king  of  Israel. 
He  was  afflicted  with  the  leprosy  ;  but 
was  miraculously  cured,  on  washing  sev 
en  times  in  the  Jordan,  Lev.  14  :  7,  ac 
cording  to  the  direction  of  Elisha,  2  Kin. 
5;  Luke  4  :  27.  He  had  found  all  his 
honor  and  power  valueless,  and  all  phy 
sicians  of  no  avail  for  his  cure ;  was  led  to 
renounce  his  pride,  and  avail  himself  of 
the  simple  remedy  prescribed ;  and  being 
cured,  was  grateful  not  only  to  the  proph 
et,  but  to  the  prophet's  God.  He  frank 
ly  yielded  to  the  evidence  which  proved 
that  Jehovah  was  the  living  and  true 
God ;  and  took  h6me  with  him  two 
mule-loads  of  earth,  for  an  altar  to  the 
Lord,  Ex.  20  :  24.  With  respect  to  his 
attending  Ben-hadad  while  in  the  temple 
of  Rimmon,  the  prophet  gave  him  no 
precise  rule ;  discerning,  we  may  sup 
pose,  a  growing  fear  and  love  of  God 
which  would  preserve  him  from  all  even 
outward  homage  to  the  idol. 

NA'BAL,  foolish,  a  descendant  of  Ca 
leb,  owner  of  a  large  property  in  lands 
and  flocks,  at  Maon  and  Carmel  in  the 
south  of  Judah.  He  was  under  great 
obligations  to  David,  for  protecting  him 
from  the  robbers  of  the  desert ;  and  yet, 
in  the  very  hour  most  suggestive  of  a 


NAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


MAI 


grateful  generosity,  he  churlishly  refused 
David's  modest  request  of  provisions  for 
his  needy  troop.  Indignant  at  this  in 
gratitude  and  inhospitality,  David  was 
soon  on  his  way  to  put  him  and  his  men 
to  the  sword.  Happily,  the  discreet  in 
tervention  of  Abigail  averted  this  catas 
trophe.  Ten  days  after,  the  Lord  smote 
him,  and  he  died,  1  Sam.  25.  See  ABI 
GAIL 

NA'BOTH,  an  Israelite  at  Jezreel,  who 
declined  selling  his  ancestral  vineyard  to 
Ahab,  Lev.  25  :  23,  24 ;  and  was  in  con 
sequence  murdered,  on  a  false  charge  of 
blasphemy  contrived  by  Jezebel  the 
queen.  Ahab  took  immediate  posses 
sion  of  the  coveted  vineyard — perhaps  as 
being  legally  forfeited  to  the  govern 
ment,  construing  blasphemy  as  treason  ; 
or  it  may  be,  that  the  heirs  were  deter 
red  from  asserting  their  claim  by  a  dread 
of  the  unscrupulous  arts  of  Jezebel.-  Eli 
jah,  however,  did  not  fear  to  denounce 
against  the  king  and  queen  the  ven 
geance  of  One  "higher  than  they," 

1  Kin.  21 ;  2  Kin.  9  :  24-20,   86  ;  Eccl. 
5:8. 

NA'DAB,  I.,  the  oldest  son  of  Aaron, 
slain  by  the  Lord  for  presumptuously 
offering  strange  lire  on  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering,  Lev.  10.  See  ABIIIU. 

II.  Son  of  Jeroboam  I.  king  of  Israel. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  B.  c.  954,  and 
reigned  but  two  years,  being  assassinat 
ed,  while  besieging  Gibbethon,  by  Baa- 
sha,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  who  usurp 
ed  his  kingdom.  Nadab  did  evil  in  the 
sight  of  the  Lord  ;  and  with  him  perish 
ed  his  children,  and  the  race  of  Jerobo 
am,  as  God  had  foretold,  1  Kin.  15:25-30. 

NA'HASH,  I.,  a  king  of  the  Ammon 
ites,  defeated  by  Saul  while  besieging 
Ramoth-gilead,  1  Sam.  11.  He,  or  as 
some  think,  his  son  of  the  same  name, 
was  on  friendly  terms  with  David,  2  Sam. 
10:2. 

II.  The  father  of  Zeruiah  and  Abigail, 
David's  half-sisters,  2  Sam.  17:25  ;  1  Chr. 

2  : 13-16.     Nahash,  however,  may  have 
been  another  name  for  Jesse  ;  or  possibly 
the  name  of  his  wife. 

NA'HOR,  I. ,  son  of  Serug,  and  father 
of  Terah,  Gen.  11:22-25;  Luke  3:34. 

II.  Son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of  Abra 
ham  and  Haran.  He  married  Milcah 
his  niece  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  Gen. 
11:26,  29,  but  seems  to  have  transferred 
his  residence  to  Haran,  Gen.  24  : 10 ; 
27:43.  He  had  twelve  sons,  and  among 


them  Bethuel  the  father  ox  Reb-jkah, 
Gen.  22:20-24. 

NAH'SHON,  or  NAAS'SON,  one  of  our 
Lord's  ancestors,  Matt.  1:4  ;  Luke  3:82; 
chief  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the  desert, 
Num.  1:7;  2:3 ;  7:  12;  and  brother-in- 
law  of  Aaron,  Ex.  6  :  23  ;  Ruth  4  :  20 ; 
IChr.  2:10. 

NA'HUM,  consolation,  the  seventh  of 
the  twelve  minor  prophets.  The  cir 
cumstances  of  Nahum's  life  are  un 
known,  except  that  he  tvas  a  native  of 
Elkosh,  which  probably  was  a  village  in 
Galilee.  His  prophecy  consists  of  three 
chapters,  which  form  one  discourse,  in 
which  he  foretells  the  destruction  of  Nin- 
eveh  in  so  powerful  and  vivid  a  manner, 
that  he  might  seem  to  have  been  on  the 
very  spot.  The  native  elegance,  fire, 
and  sublimity  of  his  style  are  universally 
admired. 

Opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  time  in 
which  Nahum  prophesied.  The  best 
interpreters  adopt  Jerome's  opinion,  that 
he  foretold  the  destruction  of  Nineveh 
in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  after  the  war 
of  Sennacherib  in  Egypt,  mentioned  by 
Berosus.  Compare  Isa.  20  : 6,  and  Nah. 
3  :  8.  Nahum  speaks  of  the  taking  of 
No-ammon,  of  the  haughtiness  of  Rab- 
shakeh,  and  of  the  defeat  of  Sennache 
rib,  as  things  that  were  past.  He  implies 
that  the  tribe  of  Judah  were  still  in  their 
own  country,  and  that  they  there  cele 
brated  their  festivals.  He  notices  also 
the  captivity  and  dispersion  of  the  ten 
tribes. 

NAIL.  The  "nail"  with  which  Jael 
killed  Sisera  was  rather  a  tent-pin,  such 
as  is  driven  into  the  ground  in  order  to 
fasten  the  cords  of  the  tent,  Ex.  27:19; 
Judg.  4:21,  22.  Sometimes  the  Hebrew 
word  is  used  for  the  wooden  pins  or  iron 
spikes  firmly  inwrought  into  the  walls 
of  a  building,  Ezra  9:8;  Ezek.  15 :  3. 
The  word  implies  fixedness,  Isa.  22 : 23 ; 
and  a  firm  support,  Zech.  10:4.  Anoth 
er  Hebrew  word  describes  the  golden  and 
ornamental  nails  of  the  temple,  etc., 
2  Chr.  3:9  ;  Eccl.  12:11 ;  Isa.  41:7  ;  Jer. 
10:4. 

NA'IN,  where  Christ  performed  one  of 
bis  chief  miracles,  in  raising  to  life  a 
widow's  only  son,  Luke  7:11-17,  was  a 
small  village  in  Galilee,  three  miles  south 
by  west  of  mount  Tabor.  It  is  now  a 
petty  hamlet,  called  Nein. 

NAI'OTH,  the  abode  of  Samuel,  and 
lis  pupils  in  a  "school  of  the  prophets," 
301 


NAK 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAT 


1  Sam.  19  : 18-24;  20  : 1.     It  appears  to 
have  been  a  suburb  of  Ramah ;  and  Da 
vid,  having  sought  refuge  there  with 
Samuel,  was  pursued  by  Saul. 

NA'KED,  in  the  Bible,  often  means 
no  more  than  ' '  not  fully  dressed. ' '  So 
in  John  21:7,  Peter  is  said  to  have  been 
"naked,"  that  is,  he  had  laid  off  his 
outer  garment,  and  had  on  only  his  in 
ner  garment  or  tunic.  See  GARMENTS. 
So  probably  in  Isa.  20:2;  Mic.  1:8;  Acts 
19: 16.  Sometimes  poorness  and  insuffi 
ciency  of  clothing  are  meant,  as  in  James 
2:15.  So  in  Isa.  58:7  ;  2  Cor.  11:27.  A 
nation  is  said  to  be  "naked,"  when  strip 
ped  of  its  defences,  wealth,  etc.,  Gen. 
42:9;  Ex.  32:25;  2  Chr.  28:19. 

"Nakedness"  is  also  put  for  shame. 
To  "uncover  the  nakedness"  denotes 
an  unlawful  or  incestuous  union,  Lev. 
20:19. 

NAMES  among  the  Hebrews  were  fre 
quently  significant ;  sometimes  of  a  fam 
ily  trait,  and  sometimes  of  circumstan 
ces  attending  the  birth  of  a  child  ;  often 
too  they  were  assumed  afterwards  to 
commemorate  some  striking  occurrence 
in  one's  history.  Compare  the  cases 
of  Ishmael,  Esau,  and  Jacob,  Moses,  Ich- 
abod,  etc.,  Gen.  16  :  21 ;  25  :  25,  26 ;  Ex. 

2  : 10  ;  1  Sam.  4 :  21.     Compound  names 
were  frequent ;  and  often  a  part  of  the 
name  of  God,  JAH,  EL,  JEHO,  etc.,  was 
employed,  as  in  Eliezer,  Ex.  18  :  4,  Sam 
uel,    Josiah,    Adonijah.      Sometimes    a 
whole  phrase  was  formed  into  a  name ; 
as  Elioenai,  to  Jehovah  are  mine  eyes,  1  Chr. 
4 :  36.      The  New  Testament  names  are 
chiefly  ancient  and  family  names  perpet 
uated,  Luke  1:61.     The  men  of  the  East 
change   their  names  for   slight  causes ; 
and  hence  many  persons  occur  in  the 
Bible  bearing  two  or  more  names,  Ruth 
1:20;  2  Sam.  23:8;  John  1:42.      Kings 
often  changed  the  names  of  those  to 
whom  they  gave  offices,  Dan.  1:6,  7  ; 
hence  the  honor  and  privilege  implied  in 
a  "new  name,"  Rev.  2:17.    Many  slight 
inflections  of  the  same  Hebrew  name  give 
it  a  very  different  appearance  to  an  Eng 
lish  eye,  as  Geshem  and  Gashmu,  Neh. 
6:1,  6.     A  Hebrew  name  was  sometimes 
transferred  to  the  Greek,  with  but  little 
change :  Elijah  became  Elias,  or  Elie. 
But  sometimes  it  was  exchanged  for  the 
Greek  word  of  the  same  meaning,  though 
very  different  in  form ;  Thomas  became 
Didyrnus,    and   Tabitha,  Dorcas.      The 
' '  name ' '  of  God  is  put  for  God  himself, 

302 


or  for  his  perfections.  To  "raise  up  the 
name  of  the  dead,"  is  explained  in  Ruth 
4;  while  to  "put  out"  one's  name, 
means  to  extinguish  his  family,  Psa.  9:5. 

NAO'MI,  wife  of  Elimelech,  and  moth 
er-in-law  of  Ruth.  See  RUTH. 

NAPH'TALI,  the  sixth  son  of  Jacob, 
by  Bilhah,  Rachel's  handmaid,  Gen. 
30  :  8.  We  know  but  few  particulars  of 
the  life  of  Naphtali.  His  sons  were  four, 
Gen.  46 : 24.  The  patriarch  Jacob,  when 
he  gave  his  blessing,  said,  as  it  is  in  the 
English  Bible,  "Naphtali  is  a  hind  let 
loose;  he  giveth  goodly  words,"  Gen. 
49  :  21.  For  an  illustration  of  this  pas 
sage,  see  HIND. 

The  tribe  of  Naphtali,  called  Nephtalim 
in  Matt.  4:15,  were  located  in  a  rich  and 
fertile  portion  of  northern  Palestine; 
having  Asher  on  the  west,  the  upper  Jor 
dan  and  part  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias  on  the 
east ;  •  and  running  north  into  the  Leba 
non  range,  some  lower  offshoots  of  which 
prolonged  to  the  south  formed  the 
"mountains  of  Naphtali,"  Josh.  19:32- 
39  ;  20 : 7.  They  attended  in  force  at  the 
coronation  of  David,  1  Chr.  12  :  34 ;  and 
are  mentioned  with  honor  in  the  wars 
of  the  Judges,  Judg.  1:33;  5:18;  6:35; 
7  :  23  ;  as  much  reduced  by  the  Syrians, 
1  Kin.  15  :  20 ;  and  as  among  the  first 
captives  to  Assyria,  2  Kin.  15  :  29 ;  Isa. 
9:1.  Our  Saviour  spent  much  time  in 
the  southern  part  of  this  region.  Matt. 
4:13-15. 

NARCIS'SUS,  a  Roman,  many  of  whose 
household  Paul  salutes  as  Christians, 
Rom.  16  :  11.  Two  men  of  this  name 
are  mentioned  in  Roman  histories  of  that 
time;  one,  executed  three  or  four  years 
before  Paul  wrote,  was  a  favorite  of  the 
emperor  Claudius ;  the  other,  of  Nero 
his  successor. 

NA'THAN,  I.,  a  Hebrew  prophet, 
Zech.  12  :  12,  a  friend  and  counsellor  of 
David.  He  approved  the  king's  purpose 
of  building  a  temple  to  the  Lord,  but  by 
divine  direction  transferred  its  accom 
plishment  to  Solomon,  2  Sam.  7 : 1-17. 
By  a  fine  parable,  pointedly  applied,  he 
convicted  David  of  his  guilt  in  respect  to 
Uriah  and  Bathsheba,  2  Sam.  12 ;  Psa. 
51 ;  and  his  bold  fidelity  here  seems  to 
have  been  appreciated  by  David,  see 
NATHAN  II. ,  and  is  worthy  of  everlasting 
remembrance.  Solomon  was  probably 
educated  under  his  care,  2  Sam.  12  :  25; 
and  was  effectually  aided  by  him  in  his 
peaceful  succession  to  the  throne,  1  Kin. 


NAT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAZ 


1.  He  wrote  some  memorials,  long  since 
lost,  of  both-  David  and  Solomon,  1  Chr. 
29:29 ;  2  Chr.  9:29.  How  long  he  lived 
under  the  reign  of  Solomon  is  unknown  ; 
but  two  of  his  sons  were  high  officers  at 
court,  1  Kin.  4:5. 

II.  A  son  of  David,  by  Bathsheba, 
1  Chr.  3:5  ;  14:4  ;  an  ancestor  of  Christ, 
Luke  3 : 21.  See  GENEALOGY. 

NATHAN' AEL,  a  disciple  of  Christ, 
probably  the  same  as  BARTHOLOMEW, 
which  see.  He  was  a  native  of  Cana  in 
Galilee,  John  21  :  2,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  to  recognize  the  Messiah,  who  at 
their  first  interview  manifested  his  per 
fect  acquaintance  with  Nathanael's  secret 
heart  and  life,  John  1 : 45-51.  He  was 
introduced  by  Philip  to  Jesus,  who  on 
seeing  him  pronounced  that  remarkable 
eulogy  which  has  rendered  his  name 


almost  another  word  for  sincerity:  "  Be 
hold  an  Israelite  indeed,  in  whom  is  no 
guile."  He  was  one  of  the  disciples  to 
whom  Christ  appeared  at  the  sea  of  Tibe 
rias  after  his  resurrection,  John  21 :  2 ; 
and  after  witnessing  the  ascension,  re- 
"turned  with  the  other  apostles  to  Jeru 
salem,  Acts  1:4,  12,  13. 

NAZARENE',  an  epithet  applied  to 
Christ,  and  usually  translated  "of  Naza 
reth,"  as  in  Matt.  21  :  11 ;  Acts  2 :  .22 ; 
4:10.  It  was  foretold  in  prophecy,  Psa. 
22  :  7,  8,  Isa.  53  :  2,  that  the  Messiah 
should  be  despised  and  rejected  of  men  ; 
and  this  epithet,  which  came  to  be  used 
as  a  term  of  reproach,  showed  the  truth 
of  these  predictions,  Matt.  2  :  23  ;  Acts 
24 : 5.  Nazareth  was  a  small  town,  in  a 
despised  part  of  Palestine.  See  GALILEE, 
and  NAZARETH. 


MODERN  NAZARETH, 

NAZ'ARETH,  a  city  of  lower  Galilee, 
about  seventy  miles  north  of  Jerusalem, 
in  the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun. 
It  was  situated  on  the  side  of  a  hill  over 
looking  a  rich  and  beautiful  valley,  sur 
rounded  by  hills,  with  a  narrow  outlet 
towards  the  south.  At  the  mouth  of 
this  ravine  the  monks  profess  to  show 
the  place  where  the  men  of  the  city  were 
about  to  cast  Jesus  from  the  precipice, 
Luke  4:29.  Nazareth  is  about  six  miles 


SEEN   FROM  THE   EAST. 

west-north-west  of  mount  Tabor,  and 
nearly  half  way  from  the  Jordan  to  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  said  in  the  New 
Testament  to  be  "  the  city  of  Jesus,"  be 
cause  it  was  the  place  of  his  usual  resi 
dence  during  the  first  thirty  years  of  his 
life,  Matt.  2:23  ;  Luke  1:26  ;  2:51  ;  4:16. 
He  visited  it  during  his  public  ministry, 
but  did  not  perform  many  miracles  there 
because  of  the  unbelief  of  the  people, 
Matt.  13  :  54-58.  It  is  not  even  named 
303 


NAZ 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NAZ 


in  the  Old  Testament,  nor  by  Josephus ; 
and  appears  to  have  been  a  small  place, 
of  no  very  good  repute,  John  1:46.  The 
modern  town,  en-Nasirah,  is  a  secluded 
village  of  about  three  thousand  inhab 
itants,  most  of  whom  are  Latin  and  Greek 
Christians.  It  lies  about  eight  hundred 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and  is 
one  of  the  pleasantest  towns  in  Syria. 
Its  houses  are  of  stone,  two  stories  high, 
with  flat  roofs.  It  contains  a  mosque,  a 
large  Latin  convent,  and  two  or  three 
chapels.  The  traditionary  "mount  of 
the  Precipitation ' '  is  nearly  two  miles 
from  the  town,  too  remote  to  have  an 
swered  the  purpose  of  the  enraged  Naza- 
renes ;  while  there  were  several  precipi 
tous  spots  close  at  hand,  where  the  fall 
is  still  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet. 

From  the  summit  of  the  hill  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  which  Nazareth  lies,  is 
a  truly  magnificent  prospect.  Towards 
the  north,  the  eye  glances  over  the 
countless  hills  of  Galilee,  and  reposes  on 
the  majestic  and  snow-crowned  Hermon. 
On  the  east,  the  Jordan  valley  may  be 
traced,  and  beyond  it  the  dim  heights 
of  ancient  Bashan.  Towards  the  south, 
spreads  the  broad  and  beautiful  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  with  the  bold  outline  of 
mount  Tabor,  and  parts  of  Little  Her 
mon  and  Gilboa  visible  on  its  eastern 
border,  and  the  hills  of  Samaria  on  the 
south,  while  Carmel  rises  on  the  west  of 
the  plain,  and  dips  his  feet  in  the  blue 
waters  of  the  Mediterranean.  Says  Dr. 
Robinson  in  his  "Biblical  Researches  in 
Palestine,"  "  I  remained  for  some  hours 
upon  this  spot,  lost  in  the  contemplation 
of  the  wide  prospect  and  of  the  events 
connected  with  the  scenes  around.  In 
the  village  below,  the  Saviour  of  the 
world  had  passed  his  childhood ;  and 
although  we  have  few  particulars  of  his 
life  during  those  early  years,  yet  there 
are  certain  features  of  nature  which  meet 
our  eyes  now,  just  as  they  once  met  his. 
He  must  often  have  visited  the  fountain 
near  which  we  had  pitched  our  tent ;  his 
feet  must  frequently  have  wandered  over 
the  adjacent  hills,  and  his  eyes  have 
doubtless  gazed  upon  the  splendid  pros 
pect  from  this  very  spot.  Here  the 
Prince  of  peace  looked  down  upon  the 
great  plain,  where  the  din  of  battles  so 
oft  had  rolled,  and  the  garments  of  the 
warrior  been  dyed  in  blood ;  and  he  look 
ed  out,  too,  upon  that  sea  over  which 
the  swift  ships  were  to  bear  the  tidings 
304 


of  his  salvation  to  nations  and  to  conti 
nents  then  unknown.  How  has  the 
moral  aspect  of  things  been  changed! 
Battles  and  bloodshed  have  indeed  not 
ceased  to  desolate  this  unhappy  country, 
and  gross  darkness  now  covers  the  peo 
ple  ;  but  from  this  region  a  light  went 
forth,  which  has  enlightened  the  world 
and  unveiled  new  climes  ;  and  now  the 
rays  of  that  light  begin  to  be  reflected 
back  from  distant  isles  and  continents, 
to  illuminate  anew  the  darkened  land 
where  it  first  sprung  up." 

NAZ'ARITE,  under  the  ancient  He 
brew  law,  a  man  or  woman  engaged  by  a 
vow  to  abstain  from  wine  and  all  intoxi 
cating  liquors,  and  from  the  fruit  of  the 
vine  in  any  form ;  to  let  the  hair  grow  ; 
not  to  enter  any  house  polluted  by  having 
a  dead  body  in  it,  nor  to  be  present  at 
any  funeral.  If  by  accident  any  one  died 
in  their  presence,  they  recommenced  the 
whole  of  their  consecration  and  Naza- 
riteship.  This  vow  generally  lasted 
eight  days,  sometimes  only  a  month, 
and  sometimes  during  their  whole  lives. 
When  the  time  of  Nazariteship  expired, 
the  person  brought  a  number  of  sacri 
fices  and  offerings  to  the  temple ;  the 
priest  then  cut  off  his  hair  and  burnt 
it ;  after  which  he  was  free  from  his 
vow,  Num:  6;  Amos  2:11,  12.  Perpet 
ual  Nazarites  wrere  consecrated  as  such 
by  their  parents  from  their  birth,  as  was 
proposed  by  the  mother  of  Samuel,  1  Sam. 
1:11,  and  continued  all  their  lives  in  this 
state,  neither  drinking  wine,  nqr  cutting 
their  hair.  Such  were  Samson  and  John 
the  Baptist,  Judg.  13:4,  5  ;  Luke  1  :  15  ; 
7:33. 

As  the  cost  of  the  offerings  required  at 
the  expiration  of  the  term  of  Nazarite 
ship  was  very  considerable  for  the  poor, 
they  were  often  relieved  by  persons  not 
Nazarites,  who  assumed  these  charges 
for  them  for  the  sake  of  performing  an 
act  of  piety  and  charity.  Paul  availed 
himself  of  this  custom  to  disarm  the  jeal 
ousy  of  those  who  represented  him  as 
hostile  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers.  He 
took  four  Christian  Jews  whose  vow  of 
Nazariteship  was  accomplished,  assumed 
the  expense  of  their  offerings,  and  with 
them  went  through  the  customary  ser 
vices  and  purifications  at  the  temple, 
Acts  21 :  20-26.  There  is  also  in  Acts 
18  :  18  an  unexplained  allusion  to  some 
similar  vow  made  by  Paul  himself,  or 
perhaps  by  Aquila,  probably  in  view  of 


NEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NEB 


some  danger  escaped  or  some  blessing 
received. 

NEAP'OLIS,  now  called  Napoli,  Acts 
16  : 11,  a  maritime  city  of  Macedonia, 
near  the  borders  of  Thrace,  whither  Paul 
came  from  the  isle  of  Samothracia.  From 
Neapolis  he  went  to  Philippi. 

NEBAI'OTH,  a  son  of  Ishmael,  Gen. 
25:13,  whose  posterity  occupied  the  pas 
ture  grounds  of  Arabia  Deserta,  Isa.  60:7, 
and  ultimately  possessed  themselves  of 
Edom.  They  are  thought  to  have  been 
the  Nabathaaans  of  profane  history.  See 
IDUJLEA. 

NE'BO,  I.,  a  town  in  the  vicinity  of 
Bethel  and  Ai,  Ezra  2:29  ;  Neh.  7:33. 

II.  A  city  of  Reuben,  Num.  32  :  38, 
taken  by  the  Moabites,  who  held  it  in 
the  time  of  Jeremiah,  Isa.  15  :  2 ;  Jer. 
48:1. 

III.  A  mountain  of  Moab,   whence 
Moses  had  a  view  of  the  promised  land, 
and  where  he  died.     It  is  a  summit  of 
the  range  Abarim,   "over  against  Jeri 
cho."     Seetzen,  Burckhardt,  etc.,  iden 
tify  it  with  mount  Attarus,  about  ten 
miles  north  of  the  Arnon.      Travellers 
do  not  observe  any  very  prominent  sum 
mit  in  the  range  immediately  opposite 
Jericho ;   but  it  has  not  yet  been  fully 
explored,  Deut.  32:49;  34. 

IV.  An  idol  of  the  Babylonians,  Isa. 
46:1.     In  the  astrological  mythology  of 
the  Babylonians,  this  idol  probably  rep 
resented   the  planet   Mercury.      It  was 
also  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Arabians. 
The  extensive  prevalence  of  this  worship 
among  the  Chaldeans  and  Assyrians,  is 
evident  from  the  many  compound  proper 
names  occurring  in  the   Scriptures,    of 
which  this  word  forms  part ;  as  Nebu 
chadnezzar,  Nebuzaradan,  Nebushasban, 
Jer.  39  :  9,  13  ;  and  also  in  the  classics, 
as  Naboned,  Nabonassar,  Nabopolassar, 
etc. 

NEBUCHADNEZ'ZAR,  called  in  Jere 
miah  Nebuchadrezzar,  the  son  and  suc 
cessor  of  Nabopolassar,  succeeded  to  the 
kingdom  of  Chaldea  about  600  B.  c.  He 
had  been  some  time  before  associated  in 
the  kingdom,  and  sent  to  recover  Car- 
chemish,  which  had  been  wrested  from 
the  empire  by  Necho  king  of  Egypt. 
Having  been  successful,  he  marched 
against  the  governor  of  Phoenicia,  and 
Jehoiakim  king  of  Judah,  tributary  to 
Necho  king  of  Egypt.  He  took  Jehoia 
kim,  and  put  him  in  chains  to  carry  him 
captive  to  Babylon :  but  afterwards  he 


left  him  in  Judea,  on  condition  of  hi« 
paying  a  large  annual  tribute.  He  took 
away  several  persons  from  Jerusalem; 
among  others,  Daniel,  Hananiah,  Mi- 
shael,  and  Azariah,  all  of  the  royal  fam 
ily,  whom  the  king  of  Babylon  caused 
to  be  carefully  educated  in  the  language 
•and  learning  of  the  Chaldeans,  that  they 
might  be  employed  at  court,  2  Kin.  24: 1 ; 
2Chr.  36:6;  Dan.  1:1. 

Nabopolassar  dying,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
who  was  then  either  in  Egypt  or  in  Ju 
dea,  hastened  to  Babylon,  leaving  to  his 
generals  the  care  of  bringing  to  Chaldea 
the  captives  taken  in  Syria,  Judea,  Phoe 
nicia,  and  Egypt ;  for  according  to  Bero- 
sus,  he  had  subdued  all  these  countries. 
He  distributed  these  captives  into  seve 
ral  colonies,  and  in  the  temple  of  Belus 
he  deposited  the  sacred  vessels  of  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  other  rich 
spoils.  Jehoiakim  king  of  Judah  con 
tinued  three  years  in  fealty  to  Nebuchad 
nezzar,  and  then  revolted ;  but  after 
three  or  four  years,  he  was  besieged  and 
taken  in  Jerusalem,  put  to  death,  and 
his  body  thrown  to  the  birds  of  the  air, 
according  to  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah, 
chap.  22. 

His  successor,  Jehoiachin,  or  Jeconiah, 
king  of  Judah,  having  revolted  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  was  besieged  in  Jeru 
salem,  forced  to  surrender,  and  taken, 
with  his  chief  officers,  captive  to  Baby 
lon  ;  also  his  mother,  his  wives,  and  the 
best  workmen  of  Jerusalem,  to  the  num 
ber  of  ten  thousand  men.  Among  the 
captives  were  Mordecai,  the  uncle  of  Es 
ther,  and  Ezekiel  the  prophet,  Esth.  2:6. 
Nebuchadnezzar  also  took  ail  the  vessels 
of  gold  which  Solomon  made  for  the 
temple  and  the  king's  treasury,  and  set 
up  Mattaniah,  Jeconiah' s  uncle  by  the 
father's  side,  whom  he  named  Zedekiah. 
Zedekiah  continued  faithful  to  Nebu 
chadnezzar  nine  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  he  rebelled,  and  confeder 
ated  with  the  neighboring  princes.  The 
king  of  Babylon  came  into  Judea,  re 
duced  the  chief  places  of  the  country, 
and  besieged  Jerusalem;  but  Pharaoh 
Hophra  coming  out  of  Egypt  to  assist 
Zedekiah,  Nebuchadnezzar  went  to  meet 
him,  and  forced  him  to  retire  to  his  own 
country.  This  done,  he  resumed  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  three  hun 
dred  and  ninety  days  before  the  place. 
In  the  eleventh  year  of  Zedekiah,  B.  c 
588,  the  city  was  taken,  and  Zedekiah, 
303 


NEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


NEB 


being  seized,  was  brought  to  Nebuchad 
nezzar,  who  was  then  at  Kiblah  in  Syria. 
The  king  of  Babylon  condemned  him  to 
die,  caused  his  children  to  be  put  to 
death  in  his  presence,  and  then  bored 
out  his  eyes,  loaded  him  with  chains, 
and  sent  him  to  Babylon,  2  Kin.  24  ;  25  ; 
2  Chr.  36. 

During  the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
the  city  of  Babylon  and  the  kingdom  of 
Babylonia  attained  their  highest  pitch 
of  splendor.  He  took  great  pains  in 
adorning  Babylon ;  and  this  was  one 
great  object  of  his  pride.  ' '  Is  not  this, ' ' 
said  he,  "great  Babylon,  that  I  have 
built  for  the  house  of  my  kingdom,  by 
the  might  of  my  power,  and  for  the 
honor  of  my  majesty?"  But  God  van 
quished  his  pride,  and  he  was  reduced 
for  a  time  to  the  condition  of  a  brute, 
according  to  the  predictions  of  Daniel. 
See  Dan.  1-4.  An  inscription  found 
among  the  ruins  on  the  Tigris,  and  now 
in  the  East  India  House  at  London, 
gives  an  account  of  the  various  works  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  at  Babylon  and  Borsip- 
pa.  Abruptly  breaking  off,  the  record 
says  the  king's  heart  was  hardened 
against  the  Chaldee  astrologers.  "He 
would  grant  no  benefactions  for  religious 
purposes.  He  intermitted  the  worship 
of  Merodach,  and  put  an  end  to  the  sac 
rifice  of  victims.  He  labored  under  the  effects 
of  enchantment."  Nebuchadnezzar  is  sup 
posed  to  have  died  B.  c.  562,  after  a  reign 
of  about  forty  years. 

One  of  the  famous  structures  ascribed 
to  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  in  which  no 
doubt  he  took  much  pride,  was  the  fa 
mous  ' '  hanging  gardens, ' '  which  he  is 
said  to  have  erected  to  gratify  the  wish 
of  his  queen  Amytis  for  elevated  groves 
such  as  she  was  accustomed  to  in  her 
native  Media.  This  could  only  be  done, 
in  a  country  so  level  as  Babylonia,  by 
constructing  an  artificial  mountain ;  and 
accordingly  the  king  caused  one  to  be 
made,  four  hundred  feet  square  and  over 
three  hundred  feet  high.  The  successive 
terraces  were  supported  on  ranges  of  reg 
ular  piers,  covered  by  large  stones,  on 
which  were  placed  thick  layers  of  mat 
ting  and  of  bitumen  and  two  courses  of 
stones,  which  were  again  covered  with  a 
solid  coating  of  lead.  On  such  a  plat 
form  another  similar,  but  smaller,  was 
built,  etc.  The  various  terraces  were 
then  covered  with  earth,  and  furnished 
with  trees,  shrubbery,  and  flowers.  The 
306 


whole  was  watered,  from  the  Euphrates 
which  flowed  at  its  base,  by  machinery 
within  the  mound.  These  gardens  occu 
pied  but  a  small  portion  of  the  prodig 
ious  area  of  the  palace,  the  wall  inclos 
ing  the  whole  being  six  miles  in  circum 
ference.  Within  this  were  two  other 
walls  and  a  great  tower,  besides  the  pal 
ace  buildings,  courts,  gardens,  etc.  All 
the  gates  were  of  brass,  which  agrees 
with  the  language  used  by  Isaiah  in  pre 
dicting  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus, 
Isa.  45 :  12.  The  ruins  of  the  hanging 
gardens  are  believed  to  be  found  in  the 
vast  irregular  mound  called  Kasr,  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Euphrates,  eight  hun 
dred  yards  by  six  hundred  at  its  base 
The  bricks  taken  from  this  mound  are 
of  fine  quality,  and  are  all  stamped  with 
the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

Another  labor  of  this  monarch  was 
that  the  ruins  of  which  are  now  called 
Birs  Nimroud,  about  eight  miles  south 
west  of  the  above  structure.  See  BABEL. 
The  researches  of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson 
have  shown  that  this  was  built  by  Neb 
uchadnezzar,  on  the  platform  of  a  ruin 
ous  edifice  of  more  ancient  days.  It  con 
sisted  of  six  distinct  terraces,  each  twen 
ty  feet  high,  and  forty-two  feet  less  hor 
izontally  than  the  one  below  it.  On  the 
top  was  the  sanctum  and  observatory  of 
the  temple,  now  a  vitrified  mass.  Each 
story  was  dedicated  to  a  different  planet, 
and  stained  with  the  color  appropriated 
to  that  planet  in  their  astrological  sys 
tem.  The  lowest,  in  honor  of  Saturn, 
was  black ;  that  of  Jupiter  was  orange, 
that  of  Mars  red,  that  of  the  sun  yellow, 
that  of  Venus  green,  and  that  of  Mer 
cury  blue.  The  temple  was  white,  prob 
ably  for  the  moon.  In  the  corners  of 
this  long -ruined  edifice,  recently  ex 
plored,  were  found  cylinders  with  arrow- 
headed  inscriptions,  in  the  name  of  Neb 
uchadnezzar,  which  inform  us  that  the 
building  was  named  "The  Stages  of  the 
Seven  Spheres  of  Borsippa ;"  that  it  had 
been  in  a  dilapidated  condition ;  and 
that,  moved  by  Merodach  his  god,  he 
had  reconstructed  it  with  bricks  enrich 
ed  with  lapis  lazuli,  "without  changing 
its  site  or  destroying  its  foundation  plat 
form."  This  restoration  is  also  stated  to 
have  taken  place  five  hundred  and  four 
years  after  its  first  erection  in  that  form 
by  Tiglath  Pileser  I.,  1100  B.  c.  If  not 
actually  on  the  site  of  the  tower  of  Babel 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  the  temple  of 


NEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NEC 


Belus  described  by  Herodotus,  this  build 
ing  would  seem  to  have  been  erected  on 
the  same  general  plan.  Every  brick  yet 
taken  from  it  bears  the  impress  of  Neb 
uchadnezzar.  Borsippa  would  seem  to 
have  been  a  suburb  of  ancient  Babylon. 

NEB'UZAR-ADAN,  a  general  of  king 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  his  agent  in  the 
sacking  and  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
IKin.  25:8-20;  Jer.  39:9;  40:1;  52:12- 
30. 

NE'CHO,  or  PHARAOH-NECHO,  an  Egyp 
tian  king,  mentioned  not  only  in  Scrip 
ture,  but  by  Herodotus,  who  says  that 
he  was  son  of  Psammetichus,  king  of 
Egypt ;  and  that,  having  succeeded  him 
in  the  kingdom,  he  raised  great  armies, 
and  sent  out  great  fleets,  as  well  on  the 
Mediterranean  as  the  Red  sea ;  that  he 
expended  a  vast  sum  and  many  thou 
sands  of  lives  in  a  fruitless  effort  to  unite 
the  Nile  and  the  Red  sea  by  a  canal ;  and 
that  he  was  the  first  to  send  a  ship  whol 
ly  around  Africa.  Josiah  king  of  Judah 


being  tributary  to  the  king  of  Babylonv 
opposed  Necho  on  his  first  expedition 
against  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  gave  him 
battle  at  Megiddo,  where  he  received  the 
wound  of  which  he  died ;  and  Necho 
pressed  forward,  without  making  any 
long  stay  in  Judea.  On  his  return  from 
the  Euphrates,  where  he  had  taken  and 
garrisoned  the  city  of  Carchemish,  B.  c. 
610,  he  halted  at  Riblah  in  Syria ;  and 
sending  for  Jehoahaz,  king  of  the  Jews, 
he  deposed  him,  loaded  him  with  chains, 
and  sent  him  into  Egypt.  Then  coming 
to  Jerusalem,  he  set  up  Eliakim,  or  Je- 
hoiakim,  in  his  place,  and  exacted  the 
payment  of  one  hundred  talents  of  sil 
ver  and  one  talent  of  gold.  The  accom 
panying  cut,  from  the  great  "Tomb  of 
the  Kings ' '  in  Egypt,  explored  by  Bel- 
zoni,  is  believed  to  represent  four  Jewish 
hostages  or  captives  of  distinction  pre 
sented  before  Pharaoh-Necho.  One  of 
them  may  be  meant  for  Jehoahaz.  They 
were  colored  white ;  and  with  them  were 


four  red,  four  black,  and  four  others 
white,  supposed  to  represent  Babyloni 
ans,  Ethiopians,  etc.  They  were  led  be 
fore  the  king,  seated  on  his  throne,  by  one 
of  the  hawk-headed  figures  so  frequent 
on  Egyptian  monuments.  Jeremiah, 
46  :  2,  acquaints  us  that  Carchemish  was 
retaken  by  Nabopolassar  king  of  Baby 
lon,  in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim  king 
of  Judah ;  so  that  Necho  did  not  retain 


his  conquests  in  Syria  more  than  four 
years,  2  Kin.  23:29  to  24:7  ;  2Chr.  35:20 
to  36: 6. 

NECK.  The  phrases  to  "harden  the 
neck,"  Prov.  29:1,  and  to  be  "stiff- 
necked,"  like  a  headstrong  brute,  illus 
trate  the  wilful  obstinacy  of  sinners 
against  the  instructions  and  commands 
of  God.  The  tyrants  of  ancient  days 
sometimes  put  their  feet  on  the  pros- 
307 


NEC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


NE1 


trate  necks  of  princes,  in  token  of  their 
subjugation,  trampling  them  in  the  dust. 
Their  mischief  sometimes  returned  upon 
their  own  heads,  Josh.  10:24  ;  Psa.  18:40. 

NEC'ROMANCER,  one  who  pretended 
to  discover  unknown  and  future  events 
by  summoning  and  interrogating  the 
dead,  Deut.  18  :  10,  11,  a  crime  punish 
able  by  stoning  to  death,  Lev.  20  :  27. 
See  SORCERER.  No  good  reason  can  be 
given  for  believing  that  such  pretended 
communications  with  departed  spirits 
are  less  offensive  to  God  now  than  in  the 
time  of  Moses. 

NEES'ING,  translated  sneezing  in 
2  Kin.  4 :  35  ;  used  in  Job  41  :  18  to  de 
scribe  the  violent  breathing  of  the  en 
raged  leviathan,  or  crocodile. 

NEG'INOTH,  Hab.  3:19,  a  general 
name  for  Hebrew  stringed  instruments. 
Psalms  4,  6,  54,  55,  and  76,  are  addressed 
to  the  leader  of  the  music  on  that  class 
of  instruments. 

NEHEMI'AH,  the  son  of  Hachaliah, 
was  born  at  Babylon  during  the  captiv 
ity.  He  was,  according  to  some,  of  the 
race  of  the  priests  ;  according  to  others, 
of  the  royal  family  of  Judah.  He  sus 
tained  the  office  of  cup-bearer  to  the 
Persian  king  Artaxerxes  Longimanus. 
Touched  with  the  calamitous  state  of 
the  colony  of  Jews  which  had  formerly 
returned  to  Jerusalem,  he  besought  the 
king  of  Persia  to  permit  him  to  go  to 
Jerusalem  and  aid  in  rebuilding  it.  He 
was  accordingly  sent  thither  as  govern 
or,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes, 
about  444  B.  c.  He  directed  his  atten 
tion  chiefly  to  rebuilding  the  walls  of 
the  city.  The  enmity  of  the  Samaritans, 
under  which  the  colony  had  formerly 
suffered,  was  now  increased ;  and  under 
Sanballat,  the  governor  of  the  country, 
they  cast  all  possible  hinderances  in  the 
way  of  the  Jews.  They  even  went  so 
far  as  to  attack  the  laborers  at  their 
work ;  so  that  Nehemiah  had  to  cause 
them  to  labor  with  arms  in  their  hands  ; 
yet  in  one  year  their  task  was  completed. 
In  this  great  work,  and  in  his  whole  ad 
ministration,  his  pious  zeal  and  disinter 
estedness,  his  love  for  the  people  and 
city  of  God,  and  his  prayerful  reliance 
on  divine  aid  were  crowned  with  suc 
cess.  Pie  had  the  cooperation  of  faithful 
friends,  especially  of  Ezra,  Neh.  8  :  1,  9, 
13  ;  12  :  36,  and  instituted  many  excel 
lent  civil  improvements.  About  432 
a.  c.,  though  perhaps  not  for  the  first 
308 


time,  he  returned  to  his  post  at  the 
court  of  Babylon,  Neh.  2:6  ;  5: 14  ;  13:6  ; 
but  after  a  few  years,  was  recalled  to 
Jerusalem  to  reform  certain  growing 
irregularities — neglect  of  the  temple  ser 
vice,  breaches  of  the  Sabbath,  marriages 
with  the  heathen,  etc.  He  required  of 
those  Jews  who  had  married  heathen 
wives,  that  they  should  either  abandon 
them,  or  else  themselves  quit  the  coun 
try.  This  voluntary  exile  of  a  number 
of  discontented  priests,  may  have  given 
occasion  to  the  building  of  the  temple 
on  mount  Gerizim,  and  the  establish 
ment  of  the  Samaritan  worship.  See 
SANBALLAT. 

The  BOOK  OF  NEHEMIAH  contains  the 
history  of  all  these  transactions,  written 
by  himself  near  the  close  of  his  long 
life,  B.  c.  434.  It  is  a  sort  of  a  continu 
ation  of  the  book  of  Ezra,  and  was  called 
by  some  of  the  fathers  the  Second  book 
of  Ezra.  Some  portions  of  it,  as  chap 
ters  8  and  9,  and  12  :  1-26,  appear  to  be 
compilations  from  public  registers,  etc. 
With  it  the  historical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  close. 

NE'HILOTH,  supposed  to  mean  flutes 
or  wind  instruments  ;  found  only  in  the 
title  of  the  fifth  Psalm,  which  is  addressed 
to  the  leader  of  this  class  of  instruments, 
as  though  intended  to  be  sung  with  this 
accompaniment  only. 

NEHUSH'TA,  wife  of  Jehoiakim,  and 
mother  of  the  young  king  Jechoniah, 
with  whom  she  was  probably  associated 
in  the  government,  as  she  is  in  the  re 
proaches  of  Jeremiah,  2  Kin.  24:8  ;  Jer. 
13:18;  29:2. 

NEHUSH'TAN,  brazen,  a  name  given 
by  Hezekiah  king  of  Judah  to  the  brazen 
serpent  that  Moses  had  set  up  in  the  wil 
derness,  Num.  21:8,  and  which  had  been 
preserved  by  the  Israelites  to  that  time. 
The  superstitious  people  having  made 
an  idol  of  this  serpent,  Hezekiah  caused 
it  to  be  burned,  arid  in  derision  gave  it 
the  name  of  Nehushtan,  a  mere  piece  of 
brass,  2  Kin.  18  :  4.  Memorials,  relics, 
and  other  outward  aids  to  devotion  which 
men  rely  upon,  have  the  opposite  effect ; 
the  visible  emblem  hides  the  Saviour  it 
ought  to  reveal,  John  3:14-16. 

NEIGHBOR.  At  the  time  of  our  Sav 
iour,  the  Pharisees  had  restrained  the 
meaning  of  the  word  ' '  neighbor ' '  to 
those  of  their  own  nation,  or  to  their 
own  friends ;  holding,  that  to  hate  their 
enemy  was  not  forbidden  by  the  law, 


NER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


NEW 


Matt.  5  :  43.  But  our  Saviour  informed 
them  that  the  whole  world  were  neigh 
bors  ;  that  they  ought  not  to  do  to  an 
other  what  they  would  not  have  done  to 
themselves ;  and  that  this  charity  ex 
tended  even  to  enemies.  See  the  beau 
tiful  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan,  the 
real  neighbor  to  the  distressed,  Luke 
10  29. 

NER'GAL,  one  of  the  gods  of  the  Cuth- 
ite  heathen  who  were  transplanted  into 
Palestine,  2  Kin  17:30.  This  idol  prob 
ably  represented  the  planet  Mars,  which 
was  ever  the  emblem  of  bloodshed  Mars 
is  named,  by  the  Zabians  and  Arabians, 
ill-luck,  misfortune,  He  was  represented 
as  holding  in  one  hand  a  drawn  sword, 
and  in  the  other,  by  the  hair,  a  human 
head  just  cut  off;  his  garments  were 
blood  red,  as  the  light  of  the  planet  is 
also  reddish.  His  temple  among  the 
Arabs  was  painted  red  ;  and  they  offered 
to  him  garments  sprinkled  with  blood, 
and  also  a  warrior,  (probably  a  prisoner,) 
who  was  cast  into  a  pool.  The  name 
Nergal  appears  in  the  proper  names  Ner- 
galsharezer,  Neriglassar,  Jer.  39:3,  13. 

NETS  are  often  referred  to  in  Scrip 
ture,  Prov.  1:17;  Eccl.  7:26;  Isa.  19:8, 
9;  Hab.  1:15,  16,  particularly  in  connec 
tion  with  the  first  disciples  of  Christ, 
Matt.  4 :  18  ;  13  :  47-50  ;  Luke  5  : 1-10. 
Before  the  invention  of  tire-arms,  nets 
were  much  used  in  hunting  and  fowling, 
and  possibly  in  catching  men,  as  rob 
bers,  etc.,  Job  19  :  6  ;  Psa.  140  :  5  ;  Mic. 
7:2.  Among  the  ancient  Romans  there 
was  a  gladiatorial  game,  in  which  one 
man  wras  armed  with  sword  and  shield, 
and  his  antagonist  with  a  net,  by  casting 
which  he  strove  to  entangle  the  other  so 
that  he  might  easily  dispatch  him  with 
his  dagger. 

NETH'ER,  lower ;  as  the  lower  stone 
of  a  handmill,  Deut.  24  :  6  ;  the  foot  of 
Sinai,  Exod.  19  : 17  ;  the  regions  of  the 
dead,  Ezek.  32:18. 

NETH'INIM,  given,  or  consecrated,  a 
term  first  applied  to  the  Levites,  Num. 
8 :  19 ;  but  after  the  settlement  in  Ca 
naan,  to  servants  dedicated  to  the  ser 
vice  of  tbe  tabernacle  and  temple,  to 
perform  the  most  laborious  offices,  as 
carrying  of  wood  and  water.  At  first 
the  Gibeonites  were  destined  to  this  sta 
tion,  Judg.  9  :  27  ;  afterwards,  other  Ca- 
naanites  who  surrendered  themselves, 
and  whose  lives  were  spared.  Many  of 
them  appear  to  have  been  first  assigned 


to  David,  Solomon,  and  other  princes, 
and  by  them  transferred  to  the  temple 
service,  1  Kin.  9:20,  21 ;  Ezra  2:58,  70  ; 
8 :  20  ;  Neh.  11 :  3.  It  is  probable  that 
they  became  proselytes,  Neh.  10:28,  and 
that  many  of  them  could  cordially  unite 
with  David  in  saying,  ' '  I  had  rather  be 
a  doorkeeper  in  the  house  of  my  God, 
than  to  dwell  in  the  tents  of  wicked 
ness,"  Psa.  84:10,  The  Nethinim  were 
carried  into  captivity  with  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  and  great  numbers  were  placed 
not  far  from  the  Caspian  sea,  whence 
Ezra  brought  two  hundred  and  twenty 
of  them  into  Judea,  Ezra  8:17. 

NETO'PHAH,  a  town  near  Bethlehem, 
of  which  little  more  than  the  name  is 
known,  2  Sam.  23:28,  29  ;  2  Kin.  25:23 ; 
Ezra  2: 22;  Neh.  7:26. 

NET'TLE,  a  well-known  stinging 
plant,  growing  in  neglected  grounds, 
Isa.  34  :  13  ;  Hos.  9:6.  A  different  He 
brew  word,  in  Job  30:  7,  Prov.  24  :  31, 
Zeph.  2  :  9,  seems  to  indicate  a  larger 
species. 

NEW  MOON.  The  new  moon  was  the 
commencement  of  each  of  the  Hebrew 
months.  See  MONTH,  The  Hebrews  had 
a  particular  veneration  for  the  first  day 
of  every  month,  for  which  Moses  ap 
pointed  peculiar  sacrifices,  Num.  28:11- 
15  ;  but  he  gave  no  orders  that  it  should 
be  kept  as  a  holy  day,  nor  can  it  be 
proved  that  the  ancients  observed  it  as 
such  :  it  was  a  festival  of  merely  volun 
tary  devotion.  It  appears  that  even 
from  the  time  of  Saul,  they  made  on 
this  day  a  sort  of  family  entertainment ; 
since  David  ought  then  to  have  been  at 
the  king's  table,  and  Saul  took  his  ab 
sence  amiss,  1  Sam.  20  :  5,  18.  Moses 
implies  that,  besides  the  national  sacri 
fices  then  regularly  offered,  every  pri 
vate  person  had  his  particular  sacrifices 
of  devotion,  Num.  10  :  10.  The  begin 
ning  of  the  month  was  proclaimed  by 
sound  of  trumpet,  Psa.  81  :  3,  and  the 
offering  of  solemn  sacrifices.  But  the 
most  celebrated  ' '  new  moon ' '  was  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  civil  year,  or 
first  day  of  the  month  Tishri,  Lev.  23 : 24. 
This  was  a  sacred  festival,  on  which  no 
servile  labor  was  performed,  Amos  8  :  5. 
In  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes,  it 
seems  to  have  been  a  custom  of  the  peo 
ple  to  visit  the  prophets  at  the  new 
moons,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  them 
presents,  and  hearing  their  instructions, 
2  Kin.  4  :  23.  Ezekiel  says,  45  :  17,  (see 
309 


NIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NIL 


also  1  Chr.  23  :  31 ;  2  Chr,  8  :13,)  that 
the  burnt-offerings  offered  on  the  day  of 
the  new  moon  were  to  be  provided  at  the 
king's  expense.  The  observance  of  this 
festival  was  discontinued  soon  after  the 
establishment  of  Christianity,  Gal.  4:9, 
10,  CoL  2  : 16,  though  the  Jews  take 
some  notice  of  the  day  even  now. 

NIB'HAZ,  a  god  of  the  Avites,  2  Kin. 
17: 31.  Jewish  interpreters  say  the  name 
means  barker,  and  affirm  that  this  idol 
had  the  shape  of  a  dog.  Historical  traces 
have  also  been  found  of  the  ancient  wor 
ship  of  idols  in  the  form  of  dogs  among 
the  Syrians.  In  the  Zabian  books,  Nib- 
haz  occurs  as  the  "lord  of  darkness;" 
which,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
Assyrian  -  Chaldean  mythology,  would 
point  to  an  evil  planetary  demon. 

NICA'NOR,  one  of  the  first  seven  dea 
cons,  who  were  chosen  and  appointed  at 
Jerusalem  soon  after  the  pentecostal  de 
scent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Acts  6:1-6. 

NICODE'MUS,  a  member  of  the  Jew 
ish  Sanhedrim,  at  first  a  Pharisee,  and 
afterwards  a  disciple  of  Jesus.  He  was 
early  convinced  that  Christ  came  from 
God,  but  was  not  ready  at  once  to  rank 
himself  among  His  followers.  In  John 
3  :  1-20,  he  first  appears  as  a  timid  in 
quirer  after  the  truth,  learning  the  great 
doctrines  of  regeneration  and  atonement. 
In  John  7  :  45-52,  we  see  him  cautiously 
defending  the  Saviour  before  the  Sanhe 
drim.  At  last,  in  the  trying  scene  of 
the  crucifixion,  he  avowed  himself  a  be 
liever,  and  came  with  Joseph  of  Arima- 
thea  to  pay  the  last  duties  to  the  body 
of  Christ,  which  they  took  down  from 
the  cross,  embalmed,  and  laid  in  the  sep 
ulchre,  John  19:39. 

NICOLA'ITANS,  heretical  persons  or 
teachers,  mentioned  in  Rev.  2  :  6,  15. 
Whether  they  were  the  same  as  the  Nic- 
olaitans  of  the  second  century  and  later 
is  very  doubtful.  Some  suppose  them  to 
be  followers  of  Nicolas  the  deacon,  but 
there  is  no  good  evidence  that  he  ever 
became  a  heretic. 

NIC'OLAS,  a  proselyte  of  Antioch, 
that  is,  one  converted  from  paganism  to 
the  religion  of  the  Jews.  He  afterwards 
embraced  Christianity,  and  was  among 
the  most  zealous  of  the  first  Christians  ; 
so  that  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  first 
seven  deacons  of  the  church  at  Jerusa 
lem,  Acts  6: 5. 

NICOP'OLIS,  a  city  where  Paul  spent 
probably  the  last  winter  of  his  life,  hav- 
310 


ing  previously  written  to  Titus,  at  Crete, 
to  meet  him  there,  Tit.  3 : 12.  He  is  sup- 
posed  to  refer  to  the  Nicopolis  of  Thrace, 
situated  on  the  river  Nestus,  near  the 
borders  of  Macedonia,  and  hence  called, 
in  the  subscription  to  the  epistle,  Nicop 
olis  of  Macedonia.  Others,  however, 
suppose  him  to  have  meant  Nicopolis  in 
Epirus,  which  stood  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Ambracian  gulf,  opposite  to  Acti- 
um,  and  which  was  built  by  Augustus 
in  honor  of  his  decisive  victory  over 
Antony. 

NIGHT.  The  ancient  Hebrews  began 
their  artificial  day  at  evening,  and  ended 
it  the  next  evening,  so  that  the  night 
preceded  the  day.  This  usage  may  prob 
ably  be  traced  to  the  terms  employed  in 
describing  the  creation,  Gen.  1:5,  8,  13, 
etc.,  "The  evening  and  the  morning 
were  the  first  day  "  The  Hebrews  al 
lowed  twelve  hours  to  the  night,  and 
twelve  to  the  day  ;  but  these  hours  were 
not  equal,  except  at  the  equinox.  At 
other  times,  when  the  hours  of  the  night 
were  long,  those  of  the  day  were  short, 
as  in  winter ;  and  wrhen  the  hours  of 
night  were  short,  as  at  midsummer,  the 
hours  of  the  day  were  long  in  proportion. 
See  HOURS. 

The  nights  are  sometimes  extremely 
cold  in  Syria,  when  the  days  are  very 
hot ;  and  travellers  in  the  deserts  and 
among  the  mountains  near  Palestine  re 
fer  to  their  own  sufferings  from  these 
opposite  extremes,  in  illustration  of  Ja 
cob's  words  in  Gen.  31  :  40,  "In  the  day 
the  drought  consumed  me,  and  the  frost 
by  night ;  and  my  sleep  departed  from 
mine  eyes." 

NIGHT-HAWK,  an  unclean  bird,  Lev. 
11:16;  Deut.  14:15.  Its  name  seems  to 
indicate  voracity,  and  is  therefore  thought 
by  many  to  point  out  the  Syrian  owl,  a 
more  powerful  bird  than  the  night-hawk, 
and  exceedingly  voracious  ;  it  sometimes 
attacks  sleeping  children. 

NILE,  the  celebrated  river  of  Egypt. 
It  takes  this  name  only  after  the  junc 
tion  of  the  two  great  streams  of  which 
it  is  composed,  namely,  the  Bahr  el  Abi- 
ad,  or  White  river,  which  rises  in  the 
mountains  of  the  Moon,  in  the  interior 
of  Africa,  and  runs  north-east  till  it  is 
joined  by  the  other  branch,  the  Bahr  el 
Azrek,  or  Blue  river,  which  rises  in  Abys 
sinia,  and  after  a  large  circuit  to  the 
south-east  and  south-west,  in  which  it 
passes  through  the  lake  of  Dembea,  flows 


NIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NIL 


northwards  to  join  the  White  river.  This 
Abyssinian  branch  has  in  modern  times 
been  regarded  as  the  real  Nile,  although 
the  White  river  is  much  the  largest  and 
longest,  and  was  in  ancient  times  con 
sidered  as  the  true  Nile.  The  junction 
takes  place  about  latitude  sixteen  degrees 
north.  From  this  point  the  Nile  flows 
always  in  a  northerly  direction,  with  the 
exception  of  one  large  bend  to  the  west. 
About  thirteen  hundred  miles  from  the 
sea  it  receives  its  last  branch,  the  Tacaz- 
ze,  a  large  stream  from  Abyssinia,  and 
having  passed  through  Nubia,  it  enters 
Egypt  at  the  cataracts  near  Syene,  or 
Essuan,  which  are  formed  by  a  chain  of 
rocks  stretching  east  and  west.  There 
are  here  three  falls ;  after  which  the 
river  pursues  its  course  in  still  and  silent 
majesty  through  the  whole  length  of  the 
land  of  Egypt.  Its  average  breadth  is 
about  seven  hundred  yards.  In  Lower 
Egypt  it  divides  into  several  branches 
and  forms  the  celebrated  Delta;  for 
which  see  under  EGYPT.  See  also  a  view 
of  the  river  in  AMMON. 

As  rain  very  seldom  falls,  even  in  win 
ter,  in  Southern  Egypt,  and  usually  only 
slight  and  infrequent  showers  in  Lower 
Egypt,  the  whole  physical  and  political 
existence  of  Egypt  may  be  said  to  de 
pend  on  the  Nile;  since  without  this 
river,  and  even  without  its  regular  an 
nual  inundations,  the  whole  land  would 
be  but  a  desert.  These  inundations,  so 
mysterious  in  the  view  of  ancient  igno 
rance  and  superstition,  are  caused  by  the 
regular  periodical  rains  in  the  countries 
farther  south,  around  the  sources  of  the 
Nile,  in  March  and  later.  The  river  be 
gins  to  rise  in  Egypt  about  the  middle  of 
June,  and  continues  to  increase  through 
the  month  of  July.  In  August  it  over 
flows  its  banks,  and  reaches  its  highest 
point  early  in  September ;  and  the  coun 
try  is  then  mostly  covered  with  its  wa 
ters,  Amos  8:8  ;  9:5 ;  Nah.  3:8.  In  the 
beginning  of  October,  the  inundation 
still  continues;  and  it  is  only  towards 
the  end  of  this  month  that  the  stream 
returns  within  its  banks.  From  the 
middle  of  August  till  towards  the  end  of 
October,  the  whole  land  of  Egypt  resem 
bles  a  great  lake  or  sea,  in  which  the 
towns  and  cities  appear  as  islands. 

The  cause  of  the  fertility  which  the 
Nile  imparts  lies  not  only  in  its  thus 
watering  the  land,  but  also  in  the  thick 
slimy  mud  which  its  waters  bring  down 


along  with  them  and  deposit  on  the  soil 
of  Egypt.  It  is  like  a  coat  of  rich  ma 
nure  ;  and  the  seed  being  immediately 
sown  upon  it,  without  digging  or  plough 
ing,  springs  up  rapidly,  grows  with  lux 
uriance,  and  ripens  into  abundance.  See 
EGYPT. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that 
the  Nile  spreads  itself  over  every  spot  of 
land,  and  waters  it  sufficiently  without 
artificial  aid.  Niebuhr  justly  remarks, 
' '  Some  descriptions  of  Egypt  would  lead 
us  to  think  that  the  Nile,  when  it  swells, 
lays  the  whole  province  under  water. 
The  lands  immediately  adjoining  to  the 
banks  of  the  river  are  indeed  laid  under 
water,  but  the  natural  inequality  of  the 
ground  hinders  it  from  overflowing  the 
interior  country.  A  great  part  of  the 
lands  would  therefore  remain  barren, 
were  not  canals  and  reservoirs  formed  to 
receive  water  from  the  river,  when  at  its 
greatest  height,  which  is  thus  conveyed 
everywhere  through  the  fields,  and  re 
served  for  watering  them  when  occasion 
requires."  In  order  to  raise  the  water 
to  grounds  which  lie  higher,  machines 
have  been  used  in  Egypt  from  time  im 
memorial.  These  are  chiefly  wheels  to 
which  buckets  are  attached.  One  kind 
is  turned  by  oxen  ;  another  smaller  kind, 
by  men  seated,  and  pushing  the  lower 
spokes  from  them  with  their  feet,  while 
they  pulled  the  upper  spokes  towards 
them  with  their  hands,  Deut.  11:10. 

As  the  inundations  of  the  Nile  are  of 
so  much  importance  to  the  whole  land, 
structures  have  been  erected  on  which 
the  beginning  and  progress  of  its  rise 
might  be  observed.  These  are  called 
Nilometers,  that  is,  "Nile  measures." 
At  present  there  is  one,  one  thousand 
years  old  and  half  in  ruins,  on  the  little 
island  opposite  Cairo ;  it  is  under  the 
care  of  the  government,  and  according  to 
it  the  beginning  and  subsequent  progress 
of  the  rise  of  the  Nile  were  carefully  ob 
served  and  proclaimed  by  authority.  If 
the  inundation  reached  the  height  of 
twenty-two  Paris  feet,  a  rich  harvest  was 
expected  ;  because  then  all  the  fields  had 
received  the  requisite  irrigation.  If  it 
fell  short  of  this  height,  and  in  propor 
tion  as  it  thus  fell  short,  the  land  was 
threatened  with  want  and  famine,  of 
which  many  horrible  examples  occur  in 
Egyptian  history.  Should  the  rise  of 
the  water  exceed  twenty-eight  Paris  feet, 
a  famine  was  in  like  manner  feared. 
311 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NIN 


The  annual  rise  of  the  river  also  varies 
exceedingly  in  different  parts  of  its 
course,  being  twenty  feet  greater  where 
the  river  is  narrow  than  in  Lower  Egypt. 
The  channel  is  thought  to  be  gradually 
filling  up  ;  and  many  of  the  ancient  out 
lets  at  the  Delta  are  dry  in  summer  and 
almost  obliterated.  The  drying  up  of 
the  waters  of  Egypt  would  involve  its 
destruction  as  a  habitable  land  to  the 
same  extent ;  and  this  fact  is  recognized 
in  the  prophetic  denunciations  of  this 
remarkable  country,  Isa.  11  :  15;  19  :  1- 
10;  Ezek.  29:10;  30:12. 

The  water  of  the  Nile,  although  dur 
ing  a  great  part  of  the  year  turbid,  from 
the  effects  of  the  rains  above,  yet  fur 
nishes,  when  purified  by  settling,  the 
softest  and  sweetest  water  for  drinking. 
Its  excellence  is  acknowledged  by  all 
travellers.  The  Egyptians  are  full  of  its 
praises,  and  even  worshipped  the  river 
as  a  god. 

The  Hebrews  sometimes  gave  both  to 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile  the  name  of 
"sea,"  Isa.  19  :  5 ;  Nah.  3  :  8.  In  this 
they  are  borne  out  by  Arabic  writers, 
and  also  by  the  common  people  of  Egypt, 


who  to  this  day  commonly  speak  of  the 
Nile  as  ' '  the  sea. "  It  is  also  still  cele 
brated  for  its  fish.  Compare  Num.  11:5; 
Isa.  19  :  8.  In  its  waters  are  likewise 
found  the  crocodile  or  leviathan,  and 
the  hippopotamus  or  behemoth.  See 
EGYPT,  and  SIHOR. 

NIM'RIM.     See  BETH-NIMRAH. 

NIM'ROD,  rebellion,  impiety,  a  son  of 
Gush  and  grandson  of  Ham,  proverbial 
from  the  earliest  times  as  a  mighty  hun 
ter,  Gen.  10  :  8-10  ;  1  Chr.  1 :  10.  He 
seems  to  have  feared  neither  God  nor 
man  ;  to  have  gathered  around  him  a 
host  of  adventurers,  and  extended  his 
conquests  into  the  land  of  Shinar,  where 
he  founded  or  fortified  Babel,  Erech, 
Accad,  and  Calneh.  According  to  one 
interpretation  of  Gen.  10  :  11,  he  also 
founded  Nineveh  and  the  Assyrian  em 
pire  ;  though  this  is  usually  understood 
to  have  been  done  by  Asshur,  when  ex 
pelled  by  Nimrod  from  the  land  of  Shi 
nar,  Mic.  5  :  6.  Nimrod  is  supposed  to 
have  begun  the  tower  of  Babel ;  and  his 
name  is  still  preserved  by  a  vast  ruinous 
mound,  on  the  site  of  ancient  Babylon. 
See  BABEL. 


ASD  HUMAN-HEAD    LION,   VBOM  THE   B.UI3VQ  OF  NINTEVKK. 


NIN'EVEH,  dwelling  of  ffintu,  the  me-  |  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
(tropolis  of  ancient  Assyria,  called  by  the    opposite  and  below  the  modern  Mosul. 
Greeks  and  Romans  "  the  great  Ninus  ;"  I  Its  origin  is  traced  to  the  times  near  the 
312 


NIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NIN 


flood.  See  NIMROD.  For  nearly  fifteen 
centuries  afterwards  it  is  not  mentioned. 
In  the  books  of  Jonah  and  Nahum  it  is 
described  as  an  immense  city,  three  days' 
journey  in  circuit,  containing  more  than 
one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  young 
children,  or  probably  six  hundred  thou 
sand  souls.  It  contained  "much  cattle," 
and  numerous  parks,  gardens,  groves, 
etc.  Its  inhabitants  were  wealthy,  war 
like,  and  far  advanced  in  civilization.  It 
had  numerous  strong-holds  with  gates 
and  bars ;  and  had  multiplied  its  mer 
chants  above  the  stars :  its  crowned 
princes  were  as  locusts,  and  its  captains 
as  grasshoppers.  With  this  description 
agrees  that  of  the  historian  Diodorus 
Siculus,  who  says  Nineveh  was  twenty- 
one  miles  long,  nine  miles  broad,  and 
fifty-four  miles  in  circumference ;  that 
its  walls  were  a  hundred  feet  high,  and 
so  broad  that  three  chariots  could  drive 
upon  them  abreast ;  and  that  it  had  fif 
teen  hundred  towers,  each  two  hundred 
feet  high. 

Nineveh  had  long  been  the  mistress 
of  the  East ;  but  for  her  great  luxury 
and  wickedness,  the  prophet  Jonah  was 
sent,  more  than  eight  hundred  years  be 
fore  Christ,  to  warn  the  Ninevites  of  her 
speedy  destruction.  See  also  Isa.  14  :  24, 


25.  Their  timely  repentance  delayed  for 
a  time  the  fall  of  the  city  ;  but  about  753 
B.  c.,  the  period  of  tiie  foundation  of 
Home,  it  was  taken  by  the  Medes  under 
Arbaces ;  and  nearly  a  century  and  a 
half  later,  according  to  the  predictions 
of  Nahum,  chap.  1-3,  and  Zephaniah 
2: 13,  it  was  a  second  time  taken  by  Cya- 
raxes  and  Nabopolassar ;  after  which  it 
no  more  recovered  its  former  splendor. 
Subsequent  writers  mention  it  but  sel 
dom,  and  as  an  unimportant  place ;  so 
complete  was  its  destruction,  that  for  ages 
its  site  has  been  well-nigh  lost,  and  infi 
dels  have  even  denied  that  the  Nineveh 
of  the  Bible  ever  existed.  The  mounds 
which  were  the  "grave"  of  its  ruins, 
Nah.  1  :  14,  were  so  covered  with  soil  as 
to  seem  like  natural  hills.  But  since 
1841,  Layard,  Botta,  and  others  have 
been  exploring  its  remains,  so  long  un 
disturbed.  The  mounds  chiefly  explored 
lie  at  three  corners  of  a  trapezium  about 
eighteen  miles  long,  and  twelve  miles 
wide,  and  nearly  sixty  in  circumference, 
thus  confirming  the  ancient  accounts  of 
its  vast  extent.  The  recent  excavations 
disclose  temples  and  palaces,  guarded 
by  huge  winged  bulls  and  lions  with 
human  heads.  The  apartments  of  these 
buildings  are  lined  with  slabs  of  stone. 


WARRIOR  AND  HORSES,  FROM  THE  MOUND  OF  KHORSABAD,   NINEVEH. 

covered  with  sculptures  in  bas-relief,  and  I  which  have  been  in  part  deciphered  ; 
inscriptions  in  arrow-headed  characters  |  and  these  sculptured  memorials  of  the 
14  313 


NIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NIN 


history  and  customs  of  the  Assyrians,  to 
gether  with  the  various  articles  made  of 
glass,  wood,  ivory,  and-  metals,  now 
brought  to  light  after  a  burial  of  twen 
ty-four  centuries,  furnish  invaluable  aid 
in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  and 
most  signally  confirm  its  truth.  Our 
surprise  is  equal  to  our  gratilication, 
when  we  behold  the  actual  Assyrian  ac 
count  of  events  recorded  in  Kings  and 
Chronicles.  Not  only  do  we  find  men 
tion  made  of  Jehu,  Menahem,  Hezekiah, 
Omri,  Hazael,  etc.,  and  of  various  cities 
in  Judea  and  Syria ;  but  we  discover 
Sennacherib's  own  account  of  his  inva 
sion  of  Palestine,  and  of  the  amount  of 
tribute  which  king  Hezekiah  was  forced 
to  pay  him ;  also  pictures  representing 
his  capture  of  Lachish,  2  Kin.  18:14,  and 
his  officers,  perhaps  the  railing  Rabsha- 
keh  himself,  presenting  Jewish  captives 
to  the  king,  etc.  (See  cut  and  details  in 
SENNACHERIB.)  These  mural  tablets  also 
furnish  a  graphic  comment  on  the  lan 
guage  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel ;  and  as 
he  was  a  captive  in  the  region  of  Nine 


veh,  he  had  no  doubt  heard  of,  and  had 
probably  seen  these  very  "chambers 
of  imagery,"  as  well  as  the  objects  they 
represent.  We  there  find  reproduced  to 
our  view  the  men  and  scenes  he  describes 
in  chap.  23  :  (5,  14,  15,  etc.  ;  20 :  7-12 : 
"Captains  and  rulers  clothed  most  gor 
geously,"  "portrayed  with  vermilion," 
"girded  with  girdles  upon  their  loins," 
"exceeding  in  dyed  attire  upon  their 
heads."  The  "vermilion"  or  red  color 
is  quite  prevalent  among  the  various 
brilliant  colors  with  which  these  tablets 
were  painted,  Ezek.  23 :  14,  15.  Here 
are  "horsemen  riding  upon  horses," 
' '  princes  to  look  to "  in  respect  to  war 
like  vigor  and  courage  ;  and  their  horses 
of  high  spirit,  noble  form,  and  attitudes, 
and  decked  with  showy  trappings.  (See 
cut  on  previous  page.)  Here,  in  line,  are 
the  idols,  kings,  and  warriors  of  Nine 
veh,  in  various  scenes  of  worship,  hunt 
ing,  and  war ;  fortresses  attacked  and 
taken  ;  prisoners  led  in  triumph,  im 
paled,  flayed,  and  otherwise  tortured ; 
and  sometimes  actually  held  by  cords 


attached  to  hooks  which  pierce  the  nose 
or  the  lips,  2  Kin.  19:28,  Isa.  37:29,  and 
having  their  eyes  put  out  by  the  point  of 
a  spear,  2  Kin.  25:7.  For  other  cuts  see 
NISROCH,  SENNACHERIB,  SIIALMANEZER, 
and  WAR. 

The  Christian  world  is  under  great  ob 
ligations  to  Layard  and  Botta  for  their 
enterprising  explorations,  and  to  Raw- 
linson  and  Hincks  for  their  literary  in 
vestigations  of  these  remains.  To  the 
student  of  the  Bible  especially  these  bur 
ied  treasures  are  of  the  highest  value, 
314 


and  we  may  well  rejoice  not  only  in  this 
new  accumulation  of  evidence  to  the 
truth  of  the  history  and  prophecies  of 
Scripture,  but  in  the  additional  light 
thus  thrown  on  its  meaning.  How  im 
pressive  too  the  warning  which  these 
newly  found  memorials  of  a  city  once  so 
vast  and  powerful  bring  to  us  in  these 
latter  days  and  in  lands  then  unknown, 
to  beware  of  the  luxury,  pride,  and  un 
godliness  that  caused  her  ruin. 

NI'SAN,  a  Hebrew  month,  nearly  an 
swering  to  our  April,  but  varying  some- 


NIS 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NOA 


what  from  year  to  year,  according  to  the 
course  of  the  inoon.  It  was  the  seventh 
month  of  the  civil  year ;  but  was  made 
the  first  month  of  the  sacred  year,  at  the 
coming  out  of  Egypt,  Ex.  12  :  2.  By 
Moses  it  is  called  Abib,  Ex.  13  :  4.  The 
name  Nisan  is  found  only  after  the  time 
of  Ezra,  and  the  return  from  the  captiv- 
"ity  of  Babylon.  See  MONTHS. 


NIS'ROCH,  a  god  of  the  Assyrians,  in 
whose  temple,  and  in  the  very  act  of 
idolatry,  Sennacherib  was  slain  by  his 
own  sons,  2  Kin.  19  :  37.  According  to 
the  etymology,  the  name  would  signify 
"the  great  eagle;"  and  the  earlier  As 
syrian  sculptures  recently  exhumed  at 
Nineveh  have  many  representations  of 
an  idol  in  human  form,  but  with  the  head 
of  an  eagle,  as  shown  above.  Among 
the  ancient  Arabs  also  the  eagle  occurs 
as  an  idol.  The  other  accompanying 
cut,  representing  a  winged  figure  in  a 


circle,  armed  with  a  bow,  is  frequently 
met  on  the  walls  cf  ancient  Nineveh  in 


scenes  of  worship,  and  is  believed  to  be 
an  emblem  of  the  supreme  divinity  of 
the  Assyrians. 

NI'THE,  not  the  substance  used  in 
making  gunpowder,  but  natron,  a  min 
eral  alkali  composed  of  several  salts  of 
soda.  It  effervesces  with  vinegar,  Prov. 
25 : 28,  and  is  still  used  in  washing,  Jer. 
2  :  22.  Combined  with  oil,  it  makes  a 
hard  soap.  It  is  found  deposited  in,  or 
floating  upon,  certain  lakes  west  of  the 
Delta  of  Egypt. 

NO,  or  NO-AMMON.  See  AMMON. 
NOAH,  rest,  comfort,  the  name  of  the 
celebrated  patriarch  who  was  preserved 
by  Jehovah  with  his  family,  by  means 
of  the  ark,  through  the  deluge,  and  thus 
became  the  second  founder  of  the  human 
race.  The  history  of  Noah  and  the  del 
uge  is  contained  in  Genesis,  ch.  6-9.  He 
was  the  son  of  Lamech,  and  grandson  of 
Methuselah ;  was  born  A.  M.  1056,  and 
lived  six  hundred  years  before  the  del 
uge,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  after 
it,  dying  two  years  before  Abram  was 
born.  His  name  may  have  been  given 
to  him  by  his  parents  in  the  hope  that 
he  would  be  the  promised  ' '  seed  of  the 
woman"  that  should  "bruise  the  ser 
pent's  head."  He  was  in  the  line  of  the 
patriarchs  who  feared  God,  and  was  him 
self  a  just  man,  Ezek.  14 :  14,  20,  and  a 
"preacher  of  righteousness,"  1  Pet.  3:19, 
20;  2  Pet,  2:5.  His  efforts  to  reform  the 
degenerate  world,  continued  as  some  sup 
pose  for  one  hundred  and  twenty  years, 
produced  little  effect,  Matt.  24  :  37  ;  the 
flood  did  not  "find  faith  upon  the 
earth."  Noah,  however,  was  an  exam 
ple  of  real  faith  :  he  believed  the  warn 
ing  of  God,  was  moved  by  fear,  and  pur 
sued  the  necessary  course  of  action,  Heb. 
11:7.  His  first  care  on  coming  out  from 
the  ark  was  to  worship  the  Lord,  with 
sacrifices  of  all  the  fitting  animals.  Lit. 
tie  more  is  recorded  of  him  except 
his  falling  into  intoxication,  a  sad 
instance  of  the  shame  and  misfor 
tune  into  which  wine  is  apt  to  lead. 
His  three  sons,  it  is  believed,  peopled 
the  whole  world ;  the  posterity  of 
Japheth  chiefly  occupying  Europe, 
those  of  Shem  Asia,  and  those  of 
Ham  Africa. 

Numerous  traces  of  traditions  respect 
ing  Noah  have  been  found  all  over  the 
world.  Among  the  most  accurate  is  that 
embodied  in  the  legend  of  the  Greeks 
respecting  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha.  Wfc 
315 


NOB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


NUR 


may  also  mention  the  medals  struck  at 
Apamea  in  Phrygia,  in  the  time  of  Sep 
timus  Severus,  and  bearing  the  name 
NO,  an  ark,  a  man  and  woman,  a  raven, 
and  a  dove  with  an  olive-branch  in  its 
mouth.  See  ARK. 

NOB,  a  city  of  priests,  in  Benjamin, 
near  Jerusalem;  its  inhabitants  were 
once  put  to  the  sword  by  command  of 
Saul,  for  their  hospitality  to  David, 
1  Sam.  21:2  ;  22:9-23  ;  Neh.  11:32  ;  Isa. 
10:32.  Its  site  is  unknown. 

NOD,  wandering,  a  region  cast  of  Eden, 
go  named  on  account  of  the  wanderings 
in  it  of  the  exiled  Cain,  Gen.  4:16. 

NOPH,  sometimes  called  also,  in  He 
brew,  MOPII,  Hos.  9  :  6,  the  ancient  city 
of  Memphis  in  Egypt.  The  ruins  of  it, 
though  not  to  any  great  extent,  are  still 
found  a  few  miles  above  Old  Cairo,  or 
Fostat,  Isa.  19  :  13  ;  Jer.  2  :  16  ;  44  : 1 ; 
Ezek.  30:13,  16. 

Memphis  was  the  residence  of  the  an 
cient  kings  of  Egypt  till  the  times  of  the 
Ptolemies,  who  commonly  resided  at  Al 
exandria.  Here,  it  is  supposed,  Joseph 
was  a  prisoner  and  a  ruler,  and  here  Mo 
ses  stood  before  Pharaoh .  J :  i  :  <  ophets, 
in  the  places  above  referred  to,  foretell 
the  miseries  Memphis  was  to  sulfer  from 
the  kings  of  Chaldea  and  Persia  ;  and 
threaten  the  Israelites  who  should  retire 
into  Egypt,  or  should  have  recourse 
to  the  Egyptians,  that  they  should  per 
ish  in  that  country.  In  this  city  they 
fed  and  worshipped  the  sacred  bull  Apis, 
the  embodiment  of  their  false  god  Osi 
ris  ;  and  Ezekiel  says,  that  the  Lord  will 
destroy  the  idols  of  Memphis,  Ezek. 
30  : 13,  16.  Memphis  retained  much  of 
its  splendor  till  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Arabians  in  the  eighteenth  or  nineteenth 
year  of  the  Hegira,  A.  D.  641 ;  after  which 
it  was  superseded  as  the  metropolis  of 
Egypt  by  Fostat,  now  Old  Cairo,  in  the 
construction  of  which  its  materials  were 
employed.  The  pyramids,  in  which  its 
distinguished  men  were  buried,  still  sur 
vive  ;  but  the  magnificent  city,  that 
stretched  along  for  many  miles  between 
them  and  the^  river,  has  almost  wholly 
disappeared. 

NORTH.  See  EAST.  The  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians  arc  represented  as  coming 
from  "the  north,"  because  they  invaded 
Israel  by  a  northern  route,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  desert,  Jer.  1  :  14 ;  46  :  6,  24  ; 
Zeph.  2:13.  "  Fair  weather, ' '  says  Job, 
or  golden  weather,  ' '  cometh  out  of  the 
316 


north,"  Job  37  :  22.  This  is  as  true  in 
Syria  and  Arabia  now  as  it  was  three 
thousand  years  ago.  A  traveller  there 
remarks,  ' '  Our  friends,  who  have  been 
long  residents,  informed  us  that  .we 
should  have  fair  weather  for  our  start 
on  the  morrow,  as  the  wind  wa»  from 

the  north And  m  we  have  found 

it  come  to  pass  that  the  clouds  of  a  gold 
en  hue  always  followed  upon  a  north 
wind,  and  indicated  a  clear  day  ;  and  as 
in  the  times  of  the  Saviour,  we  could 
always  say  when  it  was  evening,  'It 
will  be  fair  weather,  for  the  sky  is  red,'  " 
Matt.  16:2. 

NOSE.  Several  expressions  in  Scrip 
ture  grew  out  of  the  fact  that  anger  often 
shows  itself  by  distended  nostrils,  hard 
breathing,  and  in  animals  by  snorting, 
2  Sam.  22  :  9  ;  Job  39  :  20  ;  Psa.  18  :  8. 
Gold  rings  hung  in  the  cartilage  of  the 
nose,  or  the  left  nostril,  were  favorite 
ornaments  of  Eastern  women,  Prov. 
11 : 22  ;  Ezek.  16 : 12.  Kings  were  insert 
ed  in  the  noses  of  animals,  to  guide  and 
control  them ;  and  according  to  the  re 
cently  discovered  tablets  at  Nineveh, 
captives  among  the  Assyrians  were  some 
times  treated  in  the  same  way,  2  Kin. 
19:28;  Ezek.  38:4.  See  NINKVEII. 

NOV'ICE,  or  neophite,  one  recently 
converted  and  received  to  the  Christian 
church,  1  Tim.  3:6. 

NUM'BER,  Isa.  65:11.     See  GAD  III. 

NUM'BERS,  TIIK  BOOK  OF,  is  so  called 
because  the  first  three  chapters  contain 
the  numbering  of  the  Hebrews  and  Le- 
vites,  which  was  performed  separately, 
after  the  erection  and  consecration  of 
the  tabernacle.  The  rest  of  the  book 
contains  an  account  of  the  breaking  up  of 
the  Israelites  from  Sinai,  and  their  sub 
sequent  wanderings  in  the  desert,  until 
their  arrival  on  the  borders  of  Moab.  It 
was  written  by  Moses,  u.  c.  1451,  and  is 
the  fourth  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  See 
EXODUS. 

NURSE.  The  Bible  contains  various 
allusions  to  the  tender  and  confidential 
relation  anciently  subsisting  between  a 
nurse  and  the  children  she  had  brought 
up,  Isa.  49:22,  23  ;  1  Thess.  2:7,  8.  See 
also  the  story  of  Rebekah,  attended 
through  life  by  her  faithful  and  honored 
Deborah,  the  oak  under  which  she  was 
buried  being  called  "The  oak  of  weep 
ing,"  Gen.  24  :  59  ;  35  :  8.  The  custom 
still  prevails  in  the  better  families  of 
Syria  and  India.  Says  Roberts  in  his 


NYM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OAT 


Oriental  Illustrations,  "  How  often  have 
scenes  like  this  led  my  mind  to  the  pa 
triarchal  age.  The  daughter  is  about  for 
the  first  time  to  leave  the  paternal  roof; 
the  servants  are  all  in  confusion ;  each 
refers  to  things  long  gone  by,  each  wishes 
to  do  something  to  attract  the  attention 
of  his  young  mistress.  One  says,  'Ah, 
do  not  forget  him  who  nursed  you  when 
an  infant;'  another,  'How  often  did  I 
bring  you  the  beautiful  lotus  from  the 
distant  tank.  Did  I  not  always  conceal 
your  faults?'  Then  the  mother  comes 
to  take  leave.  She  weeps,  and  tenderly 
embraces  her,  saying,  '  My  daughter,  I 
shall  see  you  no  more  ;  forget  not  your 
mother. '  The  brother  enfolds  his  sister 
hi  his  arms,  and  promises  soon  to  come 
and  see  her.  The  father  is  absorbed  in 
thought,  and  is  only  aroused  by  the  sobs 
of  the  party.  He  then  affectionately  em 
braces  his  daughter,  and  tells  her  not  to 
fear.  The  female  domestics  must  each 
smell  of  the  poor  girl,  and  the  men  touch 
her  feet.  As  Rebekah  had  her  nurse  to 
accompany  her,  so,  at  this  day,  the  aya 
(nurse)  who  has  from  infancy  brought 
up  the  bride,  goes  with  her  to  the  new 
scene.  She  is  her  adviser,  her  assistant, 
and  friend,  and  to  her  will  she  tell  all 
her  hopes  and  all  her  fears." 

NYM'PHAS,  a  Christian  at  Laodicea, 
whom  Paul  salutes,  together  with  the 
company  of  believers  wont  to  worship 
at  his  house,  Col.  4:15. 


0. 


OAK.  As  many  as  six  varieties  of  the 
oak  are  found  in  Palestine.  Dr.  Kobin- 
son  speaks  of  one  at  Hebron  which  had 
a  trunk  twenty-two  and  a  half  feet  in 
circumference  ;  and  saw  the  crests  and 
sides  of  the  hills  beyond  the  Jordan  still 
clothed,  as  in  ancient  times,  with  mag 
nificent  oaks,  Isa.  2  :  13  ;  Zech.  11:2. 
The  oak  is  often  referred  to  in  Scripture, 
Gen.  35 : 8  ;  Isa.  44 : 14 ;  Amos  2:9.  There 
is,  however,  a  second  Hebrew  word  often 
translated  "oak,"  which  is  supposed  to 
denote  the  terebinth  or  turpentine-tree, 
called  butm  by  the  Arabs,  Gen.  35  :  4 ; 
Judg.  6:11,  19 ;  2  Sam.  18:9,  14.  It  is 
translated  "elm"  in  Hos.  4:13,  and 
"teil-tree"  in  Isa.  6: 13,  in  which  pas 
sages  the  true  oak  is  also  mentioned. 
In  many  passages  where  "plain"  or 
" plains"  occurs,  we  should  probably 


understand  "terebinth,"  or  "a  grove 
of  terebinths,"  Gen.  12:6;  13:18;  14:13; 
18  :  1 ;  Deut.  11  :  30  ;  Judg.  9  :  6.  This 
tree  was  found  in  all  countries  around 
the  Mediterranean,  and  in  Palestine 
grew  to  a  large  size.  It  was  very  long- 
lived.  For  many  ages  after  Christ,  a 
tree  of  this  kind  near  Hebron  was  su- 
perstitiously  venerated  as  one  of  those 
under  which  Abraham  dwelt  at  Mamre. 
Under  the  welcome  shade  of  oaks  and 
other  large  trees  many  public  affairs 
were  transacted ;  sacrifices  were  offered, 
courts  were  held,  and  kings  were  crown 
ed,  Josh.  24 : 26 ;  Judg.  6  :  11,  19  ;  9:6. 
See  GROVE. 

OATH,  a  solemn  affirmation,  accom 
panied  by  an  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Be 
ing.  God  has  prohibited  all  false  oaths, 
and  all  useless  and  customary  swearing 
in  ordinary  discourse  ;  but  when  the  ne 
cessity  or  importance  of  a  matter  requires 
an  oath,  he  allows  men  to  swear  by  his 
name,  Ex.  22:11;  Lev.  5:1.  To  swear  by 
a  false  god  was  an  act  of  idolatry,  Jer. 
5:7;  12:16. 

Among  the  Hebrews  an  oath  was  ad 
ministered  by  the  judge,  who  stood  up, 
and  adjured  the  party  who  was  to  be 
sworn.  In  this  manner  our  Lord  was 
adjured  by  Caiaphas,  Matt.  26:63.  Jesus 
had  remained  silent  under  long  exami 
nation,  when  the  high-priest,  rising  up, 
knowing  he  had  a  sure  mode  of  obtain 
ing  an  answer,  said,  "  I  adjure  thee  by 
the  living  God,  that  thou  tell  us  whether 
thou  be  the  Christ."  To  this  oath,  thus 
solemnly  administered,  Jesus  replied  that 
he  was  indeed  the  Messiah. 

An  oath  is  a  solemn  appeal  to  God,  as 
to  an  all-seeing  witness  that  what  we 
say  is  true,  and  an  almighty  avenger  if 
what  we  say  be  false,  Heb.  6  : 16.  Its 
force  depends  upon  our  conviction  of  the 
infinite  justice  of  God  ;  that  he  will  not 
hold  those  guiltless  who  take  his  name 
in  vain ;  and  that  the  loss  of  his  favor 
immeasurably  outweighs  all  that  could 
be  gained  by  false  witness.  It  is  an 
act  of  religious  worship ;  on  which  ac 
count  God  requires  it  to  be  taken  in  his 
name,  Deut.  10  :  20,  and  points  out  the 
manner  in  which  it  ought  to  be  admin 
istered,  and  the  duty  of  the  person  who 
swears,  Exod.  22  :  11 ;  Deut.  6:13;  Psa. 
15  :  4 ;  24  :  4.  Hence  atheists,  who  pro 
fess  to  believe  that  there  is  no  God,  and 
persons  who  do  not  believe  in  a  future 
state  of  reward  and  punishment,  cannot 
317 


OBA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OFF 


consistently  take  an  oath.  In  their 
mouths  an  oath  can  he  only  profane 
mockery. 

God  himself  is  represented  as  confirm 
ing  his  promise  by  oath,  and  thus  con 
forming  to  what  is  practised  among  men, 
Psa.  95  :  11 ;  Heb.  6  :  13,  16,  17.  The 
oaths  forbidden  in  Matt.  5  :  84,  85  ;  Jas. 
5:12,  must  refer  to  the  unthinking,  hasty, 
and  vicious  practices  of  the  Jews  ;  other 
wise  Paul  would  have  acted  against  the 
command  of  Christ,  Rom.  1:9;  Gal. 
1:20;  2  Cor.  1:23.  That  person  is  obli 
ged  to  take  an  oath  whose  duty  requires 
him  to  declare  the  truth  in  the  most  sol 
emn  and  judicial  manner;  though  un 
doubtedly  oaths  are  too  often  adminis 
tered  unnecessarily  and  irreverently,  and 
taken  with  but  slight  consciousness  of 
the  responsibility  thus  assumed.  As  we 
are  bound  to  manifest  every  possible  de 
gree  of  reverence  towards  God,  the  great 
est  care  is  to  be  taken  that  we  swear  nei 
ther  rashly  nor  negligently  in  making 
promises.  To  neglect  performance  is 
perjury,  unless  the  promise  be  contrary 
to  the  law  of  nature  and  of  God ;  in 
which  case  no  oath  is  binding.  See  COR- 
BAN,  and  Vows. 

A  customary  formula  of  taking  an  oath 
was,  "The  Lord  do  so  to  me,  and  more 
also  ;"  that  is,  the  Lord  slay  me,  as  the 
victim  sacrificed  on  many  such  occasions 
was  slain,  and  punish  me  even  more  than 
this,  if  I  speak  not  the  truth,  Ruth  1:17  ; 
1  Sam.  3:17.  Similar  phrases  are  these  : 
"As  the  Lord  liveth,"  Judg.  8:19  ;  "Be 
fore  God  I  lie  not,"  Rom.  9:1;  "I  say 
the  truth  in  Christ,"  1  Tim.  2:7  ;  "  God 
is  my  record,"  Phil.  1  :  8.  Several  acts 
are  alluded  to  as  accompaniments  of  an 
oath ;  as  putting  the  hand  under  the 
thigh,  Gen.  24  :  2  ;  47  :  29  ;  and  raising 
the  hand  towards  heaven,  Gen.  14 :  22, 
23;  Deut.  32:40;  Rev.  10:5. 

OBADI'AH,  I.,  the  chief  officer  of  king 
Ahab's  household,  who  preserved  the 
lives  of  one  hundred  prophets  from  the 
persecuting  Jezebel,  by  concealing  them 
in  two  caves  and  furnishing  them  with 
food,  1  Kin.  18:4. 

II.  The  fourth  of  the  minor  prophets, 
supposed  to  have  prophesied  about  587 
B.  c.  It  cannot  indeed  be  decided  with 
certainty  when  he  lived,  but  it  is  prob 
able  that  he  was  contemporary  with  Jer 
emiah  and  Ezekiel,  who  denounced  the 
same  dreadful  judgments  on  the  Edom- 
*tes,  as  the  punishment  of  their  pride, 
318 


violence,  and  cruel  insul tings  over  the 
Jews  after  the  destruction  of  their  city. 
The  prophecy,  according  to  Usher,  was 
fulfilled  about  five  years  after  the  de 
struction  of  Jerusalem. 

III.  Eight  or  ten  others  of  this  name 
are  mentioned  in  1  Chr.  3 : 21 ;  7 : 3  ;  8 : 38 ; 
9  :  16,  44 ;  12  :  9 .  27  :  19  ;  2  Chr.  17  :  7  ; 
34:12;  Ezra  8:9;  Neh.  10:5. 

O'BED,  son  of  Boaz  and  Ruth,  and 
grandfather  of  David,  Ruth  4  : 17.  See 
also  the  genealogies  of  Christ,  Matt.  1:5; 
Luke  3:32. 

O'BED-E'DOM,  a  Levite,  whose  special 
prosperity  while  keeper  of  the  ark  after 
the  dreadful  death  of  Uzziah  encouraged 
David  to  carry  it  up  to  Jerusalem.  Obed- 
edom  and  his  sons  were  made  doorkeep 
ers  of  the  tabernacle  at  Jerusalem,  2  Sam. 
6 : 10-12 ;  1  Chr.  15 : 18-24  ;  16 : 38  ;  26 : 4- 
8,  15. 

O'DED,  a  prophet  of  the  Lord,  who, 
being  at  Samaria  when  the  Israelites  un 
der  king  Pekah  returned  from  the  war 
against  Judah  and  brought  200,000  cap 
tives,  went  to  meet  them,  and  remon 
strated  with  them  ;  so  that  the  principal 
men  in  Samaria  took  care  of  the  prison 
ers,  gave  them  clothes,  food,  and  other 
assistance,  and  carried  the  feeble  on 
asses.  Thus  they  conducted  them  to 
Jericho,  2  Chr.  28:9,  etc. 

OFFENCE'.  This  word  answers  to 
two  different  terms  in  the  original,  the 
one  signifying  a  breach  of  the  law,  Rom. 
5 : 15,  17,  the  other  a  stumbling-block 
or  cause  of  sin  to  others,  Matt.  5  :  29 ; 
18  :  6-9 ;  or  whatever  is  perverted  into 
an  occasion  or  excuse  for  sin,  Matt.  15 : 12; 
John  6:61  ;  Rom.  9:33  ;  Gal.  5:11. 

OFFERING.  In  the  Hebrew,  an  of 
fering,  minchah,  is  distinguished  from  a 
sacrifice,  zebah,  as  being  bloodless.  In 
our  version,  however,  the  word  offering 
is  often  used  for  a  sacrifice,  as  in  the  case 
of  peace-offerings,  sin-offerings,  etc.  Of 
the  proper  offerings,  that  is,  the  unbloody 
offerings,  some  accompanied  the  sacri 
fices,  as  flour,  wine,  salt;  others  were 
not  connected  with  any  sacrifices.  Like 
the  sacrifices,  some,  as  the  first-fruits  and 
tenths,  were  obligatory  ;  others  were  vol 
untary  offerings  of  devotion.  Various 
sorts  of  offerings  are  enumerated  in  the 
books  of  Moses.  Among  these  are,  1. 
Fine  flour,  or  meal ;  2.  Cakes  baked  in 
an  oven ;  3.  Cakes  baked  on  a  plate  or 
shallow  pan  ;  4.  Cakes  cooked  in  a  deep 
vessel  by  frying  in  oil,  (English  version, 


OG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OL1 


"frying-pan,"  though  some  understand 
here  a  gridiron,  or  a  plate  with  holes  ;) 
5.  First-fruits  of  the  new  corn,  either  in 
the  simple  state,  or  prepared  by  parch 
ing  or  roasting  in  the  ear,  or  out  of  the 
ear.  The  cakes  were  kneaded  with  olive 
oil,  or  fried  in  a  pan,  or  only  dipped  in 
oil  after  they  wei-e  baked.  The  bread 
offered  for  the  altar  was  without  leaven  ; 
for  leaven  was  never  offered  on  the  altar, 
nor  with  the  sacrifices,  Lev.  2  :  11,  12. 
But  they  might  make  presents  of  com 
mon  bread  to  the  priests  and  ministers 
of  the  temple.  Honey  was  never  offered 
with  the  sacrifices,  but  it  might  be  pre 
sented  alone,  as  first-fruits,  Lev.  2:11, 12. 
Those  who  offered  living  victims  were  not 
excused  from  giving  meal,  wine,  and 
salt,  together  with  the  greater  sacrifices. 
Those  who  offered  only  oblations  of 
bread  or  of  meal,  offered  also  oil,  in 
cense,  salt,  and  wine,  which  were  in  a 
manner  their  seasoning.  The  priest  in 
waiting  received  the  offerings  from  the 
hand  of  him  who  brought  them,  laid  a 
part  on  the  altar,  and  reserved  the  rest 
for  his  own  subsistence  as  a  minister  of 
the  Lord.  Nothing  was  wholly  burned 
up  but  the  incense,  of  which  the  priest 
retained  none.  See  Lev.  2  :  2,  13,  etc. ; 
Num.  15:4,  5. 

In  some  cases  the  law  required  only 
offerings  of  corn  or  bread,  as  when  they 
offered  the  first-fruits  of  harvest,  whether 
offered  solemnly  by  the  nation,  or  as  the 
devotion  of  private  persons.  The  un 
bloody  offerings  signified,  in  general,  not 
so  much  expiation,  which  was  the  pecul 
iar  meaning  of  the  sacrifices,  as  the  con 
secration  of  the  offerer  and  all  that  he 
had  to  Jehovah.  Only  in  the  case  of  the 
poor  man,  who  could  not  afford  the  ex 
pense  of  sacrificing  an  animal,  was  an 
unbloody  offering  accepted  in  its  stead, 
Lev.  5:11.  See  SACRIFICES. 

OG,  an  Amoritish  king  of  Bashan  east 
of  the  Jordan,  defeated  and  slain  by  the 
Israelites  under  Moses.  He  was  a  giant 
in  stature,  one  of  the  last  of  the  Rephaim 
who  had  possessed  that  region ;  and  his 
iron  bedstead,  fourteen  feet  long,  was 
preserved  after  his  death  as  a  relic.  Ash- 
taroth-carnaim  and  Edrei  were  his  chief 
cities;  but  there  were  many  other  walled 
towns,  and  the  land  was  rich  in  flocks 
and  herds.  It  was  assigned  by  Moses  to 
the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  Num.  21:33; 
32:33;  Deut.  1:4;  3:1-13;  4:47;  31:4; 
Josh.  2:10;  12:4;  13:30. 


OIL  was  employed  from  the  earliest 
periods  in  the  East,  not  only  for  the 
purpose  of  consecration,  but  to  anoint 
the  head,  the  beard,  and  the  whole  per 
son  in  daily  life,  Gen.  28  : 18.  See 
ANOINTING.  It  was  also  universally  used 
for  food,  Ezek.  16:13.  Fresh  and  sweet 
olive  oil  was  greatly  preferred  to  butter 
and  animal  fat  as  a  seasoning  for  food, 
and  to  this  day  in  Syria  almost  every 
kind  of  food  is  cooked  with  oil.  It  had 
a  place  also  among  the  meat-offerings  in 
the  temple,  being  usually  mixed  with 
the  meal  of  the  oblation,  Lev.  5  :  11 ; 
6  :  21.  For  lamps,  also,  pure  olive  oil 
was  regarded  as  the  best,  and  was  used 
in  illuminating  the  tabernacle.  These 
many  uses  for  oil  made  the  culture  of 
the  olive-tree  an  extensive  and  lucrative 
business,  1  Chr.  27  :  28;  Ezek.  27  :  17  ; 
Hos.  12:1.  Oil  was  as  much  an  article 
of  storage  and  of  traffic  as  corn  and  wine, 
2  Chr.  32  :  28  ;  Ezra  3:7.  The  best  oil 
was  obtained  from  the  fruit  while  yet 
green,  by  a  slight  beating  or  pressing, 
Ex.  27:20;  29:40.  The  ripe  fruit  is  now, 
and  has  been  from  ancient  times,  crushed 
by  passing  stone  rollers  over  it.  The 
crushed  mass  is  then  subjected  to  pressure 
in  the  oil-mill,  Hebrew,  gath-shemen.  The 
olive-berries  are  not  now  trodden  with 
the  feet.  This,  however,  seems  to  have 
been  practised  among  the  Hebrews,  at 
least  to  some  extent,  when  the  berries 
had  become  soft  by  keeping,  Mic.  G :  15. 
Gethsemane,  that  is,  oil-press,  probably 
took  its  name  originally  from  some  oil- 
press  in  its  vicinity.  See  OLIVE. 

OINT'MENTS  were  much  used  by  the 
ancient  Hebrews,  not  chiefly  for  medical 
purposes  as  among  us,  but  as  a  luxury, 
Ruth 3:3;  Psa.  104:15;  Song  1:2;  Matt. 
0:17;  Luke  7:46.  Their  perfumery  was 
usually  prepared  in  olive  oil,  and  not  in 
volatile  extracts  and  essences.  The  sa 
cred  ointment  is  described  in  Ex.  oO:22- 
33.  The  ointments  of  the  rich  were 
made  of  very  costly  ingredients,  and 
their  fragrance  was  highly  extolled,  Isa. 
39  :  2  ;  Amos  6:6;  Matt.  26:7-9 ;  John 
12:5.  See  ANOINTING. 

OL'IVE.  This  is  one  of  the  earliest 
trees  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  has 
furnished,  perhaps  ever  since  the  deluge 
the  most  universal  emblem  of  peace, 
Gen.  8  : 11.  It  is  always  classed  "am  on  3 
the  most  valuable  trees  of  Palestine, 
which  is  described  as  a  land  of  oil  olivd 
and  honey,  Deut.  6:11 ;  8:8  ;  Hab.  8:17. 
319 


OL1 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OL1 


No  tree  is  more  frequently  mentioned  in 
the  Greek  and  Roman  classics.  By  the 
Greeks  it  was  dedicated  to  Minerva,  and 
employed  in  crowning  Jove,  Apollo,  and 
Hercules.  The  olive  is  never  a  very  large 
or  beautiful  tree,  and  seldom  exceeds 
thirty  feet  in  height :  its  leaves  are  dark 
green  on  the  upper  surface,  and  of  a  sil 
very  hue  011  the  under,  and  generally 
grow  in  pairs.  Its  wood  is  hard,  like 
that  of  box,  and  very  close  in  the  grain. 
It  blossoms  very  profusely,  and  bears 
fruit  every  other  year.  The  flower  is  at 
first  yellow,  but  as  it  expands,  it  becomes 
whiter,  leaving  a  yellow  centre.  The 
fruit  resembles  a  plum  in  shape  and  in 
color,  being  first  green,  then  pale,  mid 
when  ripe,  black.  It  is  gathered  by 
shaking  the  boughs  and  by  beating  them 
with  poles,  Dent.  24:20,  Isa.  17:6.  and 
is  sometimes  plucked  in  an  um*ipe  state, 
put  into  some  preserving  liquid,  and  ex 
ported.  It  is  principally  valuable  for  the 
oil  it  produces,  which  is  an  important 
article  of  commerce  in  the  East.  A  f  ull- 
sized  tree  in  full  bearing  vigor  is  said  to 
produce  a  thousand  pounds  of  oil,  Judg. 
9:8,  9  ;  2  Chr.  2: 10.  The  olive  delights 
in  a  stony  soil,  and  will  thrive  even  on 
the  sides  and  tops  of  rocky  hills,  where 
there  is  scarcely  any  earth ;  hence  the 
expression,  "oil  out  of  the  flinty  rock," 
etc.,  Deut.  82  : 13  ;  Job  29  :  6.  *It  is  an 
evergreen  tree,  and  very  long-lived,  an 
emblem  of  a  fresh  and  enduring  piety, 
Psa.  52:8.  Around  an  old  trunk  young 
plants  shoot  up  from  the  same  root,  to 
320 


adorn  the  parent  stock  when  living,  and 
succeed  it  when  dead ;  hence  the  allu 
sion  in  describing  the  family  of  the  just, 
Psa.  128  : 3.  It  is  slow  of  growth,  and 
no  less  slow  to  decay.  The  ancient  trees 
now  in  Gethsemane  are  believed  by 
many  to  have  sprung  from  the  roots  of 
those  which  witnessed  the  agony  of  our 
Lord.  The  "wild  olive-tree "  is  smaller 
than  the  cultivated,  and  inferior  in  all 

its  parts  and  products.     A  graft  upon 

it,  from  a  good  tree,  bore  good  fruit ; 

while  a  graft  from  a  "  wild' '  olive  upon 
a  good  tree,  remains  "wild"  as  before. 
Yet,  "  contrary  to  nature,"  the  sinner 
engrafted  on  Christ  partakes  of  His  nature 
and  bears  good  fruit,  Rom.  11:13-26. 

OL'IVES,  MOUNT  OF,  Ezck.  11  :  23, 
called  also  OLIVET,  2  Sam.  15:30,  a  ridge 
running  north  and  south  on  the  east  side 
of  Jerusalem,  its  summit  about  half  a 
mile  from  the  city  wall,  and  separated 
from  it  by  the  valley  of  the  Kidron.  It 
is  composed  of  a  chalky  limestone,  the 
rocks  everywhere  showing  themselves.- 
The  olive-trees  that  formerly  covered  it, 
and  gave  it  its  name,  are  now  represent 
ed  by  a  few  trees  and  clumps  of  trees 
which  ages  of  desolation  have  not  eradi 
cated.  There  are  three  prominent  sum 
mits  on  the  ridge ;  of  these  the  south 
ernmost,  which  is  lower  than  the  other- 
two,  is  now  known  as  the  "Mount  of 
Offence,"  originally  the  "Mount  of  Cor 
ruption,"  because  Solomon  defiled  it  by 
idolatrous  worship,  1  Kin.  1 1:5-7;  2  Kin. 
23  :  13.  Over  this  ridge  passes  the  road 
to  Bethany,  the  most  frequented  road  to 
Jericho  and  the  Jordan.  Ihe  sides  of 
the  mount  of  Olives  towards  the  west 
contain  many  tombs,  cut  in  the  rocks. 
The  central  summit  rises  two  hundred 
feet  above  Jerusalem,  and  presents  a 
fine  view  of  the  city,  and  indeed  of  the 
whole  region,  including  the  mountains 
of  Ephraim  on  the  north,  the  valley  of 
the  Jordan  on  the  east,  a  part  of  the 
Dead  sea  on  the  south-east,  .and  beyond 
it  Kerak  in  the  mountains  of  Moab.  Per 
haps  no  spot  on  earth  unites  so  fine  a 
view,  with  so  many  memorials  of  the 
most  solemn  and  important  eventt 
Over  this  hill  the  Saviour  often  climbed 
in  his  journeys  to  and  from  the  holy 
city.  Gethsemane  lay  at  its  foot  on  the 
west,  and  Bethany  on  its  eastern  slope, 
Matt.  24  :  3  ;  Mark  13  :  3.  It  was  prob 
ably  near  Bethany,  and  not  as  tradition 
says  on  the  middle  summit,  that  our 


OME 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OPH 


Lord  ascended  to  heaven,  Luke  24  :  50, 
Acts  1 : 12,  though  superstition  has  built 
the  "Church  of  the  Ascension"  on  the 
pretended  spot,  and  shows  the  print  of 
his  feet  on  the  rock  whence  he  ascended ! 
From  the  summit,  three  days  before  his 
death,  he  beheld  Jerusalem,  and  wept 
over  it,  recalling  the  long  ages  of  his 
more  than  parental  care,  and  grieving 
over  its  approaching  ruin.  Scarcely  any 
thing  in  the  gospels  moves  the  heart 
more  than  this  natural  and  touching 
Scene.  No  one  can  doubt  that  it  was  GOD 
who  there  spoke  ;  his  retrospect,  his  pre 
diction,  and  his  compassion  alike  proved 
it.  See  Luke  19  :  37-44,  in  connection 
with  Matt.  23  :  35-38,  spoken  the  next 
day.  The  same  spot  is  associated  with 
the  predictions  of  his  future  judgments 
in  the  earth,  Zech.  14 :  4.  See  view  of 
the  central  summit  in  GETIISEMANE. 
Also  SEPULCHRES. 

OMEGA,  the  last  letter  of  the  Greek 
alphabet.  See  letter  A. 

O'MER,  a  measure  of  capacity  among 
the  Hebrews ;  the  tenth  part  of  an 
ephah  ;  a  little  more  than  five  pints. 

OM'RI  was  general  of  the  army  of 
Elah  king  of  Israel ;  but  being  at  the 
siege  of  Gibbethon,  and  hearing  that  his 
master  Elah  was  assassinated  by  Zimri, 
who  had  usurped  his  kingdom,  he  raised 
the  siege,  and  being  elected  king  by  his 
army,  marched  against  Zimri,  attacked 
him  at  Tirzah,  and  forced  him  to  burn 
himself  and  all  his  family  in  the  palace 
in  which  he  had  shut  himself  up.  After 
his  death,  half  of  Israel  acknowledged 
Omri  for  king,  the  other  half  adhered  to 
Tibni,  son  of  Ginath,  which  division  con 
tinued  four  years.  When  Tibni  was  dead, 
the  people  united  in  acknowledging  Omri 
as  king  of  all  Israel,  who  reigned  twelve 
years,  six  years  at  Tirzah,  and  six  at  Sa 
maria,  1  Kin.  16:8-28. 

Tirzah  had  previously  been  the  chief 
residence  of  the  kings  of  Israel ;  but 
when  Omri  purchased  the  hill  of  Sho- 
meron,  1  Kin.  16  :  24,  he  built  there  a 
new  city,  which  he  called  Samaria,  from 
the  name  of  the  previous  possessor,  She- 
mer  or  Shomer,  and  there  fixed  his  royal 
seat.  From  this  time  Samaria  was  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes. 
It  appears,  under  the  name  of  Beth- 
Omri,  on  the  stone  tablets  recently  ex 
humed  by  Layard  from  the  ruins  of  Nin 
eveh. 

ON.    See  HELIOPOLIS. 
.    14*. 


ONES'IMUS  had  been  a  slave  to  Phil- 
emon  of  Colosse,  and  had  run  away 
from  him,  and  iled  to  Rome ;  but  being 
converted  to  Christianity  through  the 
preaching  of  Paul,  he  was  the  occasion 
of-  Paul's  writing  the  epistle  to  Phile 
mon,  Col.  4:9;  Phile.  10. 

ONESIPH'ORUS,  a  Christian  friend  of 
Paul  at  Ephesus,  who  came  to  Rome 
while  the  apostle  was  imprisoned  there 
for  the  faith,  and  at  a  time  when  almost 
every  one  had  forsaken  him.  This  is 
supposed  to  have  occurred  during  Paul's 
last  imprisonment,  not  long  before  his 
death.  Having  found  Paul  in  bonds, 
after  long  seeking  him,  he  assisted  him 
to  the  utmost  of  his  power,  and  without 
regard  to  danger ;  for  which  the  apostle 
implored  the  highest  benedictions  on 
him  and  his  family,  2  Tim.  1  :  10-18 ; 
4:19. 

ON'ION,  one  of  the  vegetables  of 
Egypt  for  which  the  Hebrews  murmured 
in  the  desert,  Num.  11 :  5.  Hasselquist 
says  that  the  onions  of  Egypt  are  re 
markably  sweet,  mild,  and  nutritious. 
Juvenal,  Pliny,  and  Luciaii  satirize  the 
superstitious  regard  of  the  Egyptians  for 
this  bulb. 

O'NO,  a  town  of  Benjamin,  near  Lyd- 
da,  1  Chr.  8 : 12  ;  Ezra  2 : 33.  The  ' '  plain 
of  Ono ' '  is  supposed  to  denote  a  portion 
of  the  plain  of  Sharon  near  Ono,  Neh. 
6:2;  11:35. 

ON' YCHA,  an  ingredient  of  the  sacred 
incense,  whose  fragrance  perfumed  the 
sanctuary  alone,  Ex.  30 :  34.  It  is  con 
jectured  to  mean  the  Blatta  Byzantina  of 
the  shops ;  an  article  which  consists  of 
the  cover  or  lid  of  a  species  of  muscle, 
and  when  burnt  emits  a  musky  odor. 
The  best  onycha  is  found  in  the  Red  sea, 
and  is  white  and  large. 

ON'YX,  a  nail,  the  eleventh  stone  in 
the  high-priest's  breastplate,  Ex.  28:20. 
The  modern  onyx  has  some  resemblance 
to  the  agate  ;  and  the  color  of  the  body 
of  the  stone  is  like  that  of  the  human 
nail ;  hence  its  name.  The  Hebrew  word 
so  translated  is  not  known  with  certain 
ty  to  signify  the  onyx  ;  but  denoted  some 
valuable  stone,  Gen.  2:12;  Ex.  25:7; 
28 : 9-12,  20.  A  species  of  marble  resem 
bling  the  onyx  was  known  to  the  Greeks, 
and  may  have  been  the  "onyx-stones" 
stored  up  by  David  for  the  temple, 
IChr.  29:2. 

O'PHEL,  a  quarter  of  Jerusalem  adja* 
cent  to  the  temple,  and  therefore  occu- 
321 


OPII 


LIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ORN 


pied  by  the  Nethinim,  Keh.  3  :  26,  27 ; 
11 :21.  It  appears  to  have  been  enclosed 
by  a  wall,  and  fortified  by  a  strong  tow 
er,  2  Chr.  27:3  ;  33  :  14  ;  and  is  thought 
to  be  meant  by  the  Hebrew  OPIIKL,  trans 
lated  "strong-hold,"  in  Mic.  4:8.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  name  be 
longs  to  the  lower  ridge  into  which 
mount  Moriah  sinks,  south  of  the  area 
of  the  mosque.  It  is  one  hundred  yards 
wide,  and  extends  six  hundred  yards  to 
the  south,  terminating  in  a  bluff  forty  or 
fifty  feet  high  above  the  pool  of  Siloam. 
It  is  separated  from  mount  Zion  on  the 
west  by  the  valley  called  Tyropoeon, 
and  is  now  devoted  to  the  culture  of 
olives,  figs,  and  other  fruit. 

O'PHIK,  I.,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jok- 
tan,  who  settled  in  southern  Arabia, 
Gen.  10:20-29. 

II.  A  country  to  which  the  ships  of 
Solomon  traded,  arid  which  had  for  a 
long  time  been  celebrated  for  the  pu 
rity  and  abundance  of  its  gold,  Job 
22  :  24  ;  28  : 16.  "  Gold  of  Ophir"  was 
proverbially  the  best  gold,  Psa.  45  :  9 ; 
Isa.  13  :  12.  The  only  passages  which 
give  us  any  information  as  to  the  loca 
tion  of  Ophir  are  1  Kin.  9:26-28  ;  10:11, 
22;  22:48,  with  the  parallel  passages  in 
2  Chr.  8:18  ;  9:10,  21 ;  20  :  36,  37  ;  from 
which  it  appears  that  the  so  called 
' '  ships  of  Tarshish ' '  went  to  Ophir  ; 
that  these  ships  sailed  from  Ezion-geber, 
a  port  of  the  Ked  sea ;  that  a  voyage 
was  made  once  in  three  years;  that 
the  fleet  returned  freighted  with  gold, 
peacocks,  apes,  spices,  ivory,  algum- 
wood,  and  ebony.  Upon  these  data  in 
terpreters  have  undertaken  to  determine 
the  situation  of  Ophir ;  but  they  have 
arrived  at  different  conclusions.  Jose- 
phus  places  it  in  the  peninsula  of  Malac 
ca.  Others  have  placed  it  at  Sofala,  in 
South  Africa,  where  mines  of  gold  and 
silver  have  been  found,  which  appear  to 
have  been  anciently  and  extensively 
worked.  Others  still  suppose  it  to  have 
been  Southern  Arabia. 

OPH'BAH,  I.,  a  town  of  the  Benja- 
mites,  located  by  Eusebius  five  miles  east 
of  Bethel ;  near  which  site  stands  the 
modern  village  Taiyibeh,  on  a  conical 
hill,  Josh.  18:23 ;  1  Sam.  13:17. 

II.  A  town  of  Manasseh  where  Gideon 
resided ;  and  where  after  his  death  his 
ephod  was  superstitiously  adored,  Judg. 
6:11-24;  8:27. 

OB/ACLE,  a  supernatural  cominunica- 
322 


tion  ;  applied  to  single  divine  revelations 
and  to  the  entire  word  ot  God,  Acts 
7  :  38 ;  Bom.  3:2  ;  Heb.  5:12,  etc.  It  is 
also  spoken  of  the  covering  of  the  ark 
of  the  covenant ;  as  if  God  there  sat 
enthroned,  and  delivered  his  oracles, 
2  Sam.  16:23.  See  MERCY-SEAT.  In 
other  places,  it  means  the  ' '  Holy  of  Ho 
lies"  in  the  temple,  where  the  ark  was 
placed,  1  Kin.  6:5,  16,  19;  8:6. 

Strikingly  unlike  the  true  and  living 
oracles  of  God  were  the  famous  counter 
feit  oracles  of  numerous  heathen  tem 
ples.  The  priests  who  pretended  to  con 
vey  to  applicants  the  responses  of  their 
gods,  often  gave  a  reply  capable  of  two 
opposite  interpretations,  when  neither 
private  information  nor  their  own  expe 
rience  or  sagacity  gave  them  the  clue  to 
a  safe  answer.  Thus  Pyrrhus,  king  of 
Epirus,  was  encouraged  to  a  war  with 
Home,  by  an  oracle  which  was  found 
after  his  defeat  to  foretell  defeat  as  much 
as  victory:  Aio  te,  Aeacida,  Bomanos 
vincere  posse. 

O'BEB,  and  ZE'EB,  raven  and  wolf,  two 
Midianite  chiefs,  captured  after  the  vic 
tory  of  Gideon,  and  slain  at  the  spots 
whither  they  had  fied,  and  which  were 
afterwards  called,  in  memory  of  them, 
'>tfhe  rock  of  Oreb"  and  the  wine-press 
or  cellar  of  Zeeb,  Judg.  7  :  25.  Their 
punishment  foretells  that  of  all  God's 
enemies,  Psa.  83:12;  Isa.  10:26. 

OR'GAN,  Psa.  150  : 4,  a  wind  instru 
ment  apparently  composed  of  several 
pipes.  It  cannot,  however,  mean  the 
modern  organ,  which  was  unknown  to 
the  ancients ;  but  refers  probably  to  the 
ancient  syrinx,  or  pipes,  similar  to  the 
Pandean  pipes,  a  series  of  seven  or  more 
tubes  of  unequal  length  and  size,  closed 
at  one  end,  and  blown  into  with  the 
mouth  at  the  other,  Gen.  4  : 21 ;  Job 
21:12.  See  Music. 

OBI'ON,  Job  9:9,  one  of  the  brightest 
constellations  of  the  southern  hemi 
sphere.  The  Hebrew  chesil  signifies,  ac 
cording  to  the  best  interpreters  and  the 
ancient  versions,  the  constellation  Orion, 
which,  on  account  of  its  supposed  con 
nection  with  storms  and  tempests,  Virgil 
calls  "nimbosus  Orion,"  stormy  Orion. 
In  Job  38:31,  fetters  are  ascribed  to  him  ; 
and  this  coincides  with  the  Greek  fable 
of  the  giant  Orion,  bound  in  the  heav 
ens  for  an  unsuccessful  war  against  the 
gods. 

OB'NAN.     See  ARAUNAH. 


ORP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OST 


OR'PAH,  the  Moabitess,  Naomi's 
daughter-in-law,  who  remained  with  her 
people  and  gods,  when  Ruth  followed 
Naomi  and  the  Lord,  Ruth  1 : 4-14.  The 
one  was  taken,  and  the  other  left. 

O'SEE,  the  Greek  form  of  HOSEA,  Rom. 
9:25. 

OS'PREY,  a  bird  of  the  eagle  kind, 
unlit  for  food,  Lev.  11 : 13.  It  is  thought 
to  be  the  sea-eagle,  or  the  black  eagle 
of  Egypt.  See  BIRDS. 

OS'SIFRAGE,  bone-breaker;  in  Hebrew 
PERES,  to  break;  an  unclean  bird  of  the 
eagle  family,  Lev.  11 : 13  ;  Deut.  14  :  12. 
Some  interpreters  think  the  vulture  is 
intended ;  others,  a  mountain  bird  like 
the  lammergeyer  of  the  Alps,  ^  which 
breaks  the  bones  of  wild  goats  by  hunt 
ing  them  over  precipices. 


OS'TRICH,  the  largest  of  birds,  and  a 
sort  of  connecting  link  between  fowls 
and  quadrupeds,  termed  by  the  Persians, 
Arabs,  and  by  Greeks,  the  "  camel-bird." 
It  is  a  native  of  the  dry  and  torrid  re 
gions  of  Africa  and  Western  Asia.  The 
gray  ostrich  is  seven  feet  high,  and  its 
neck  three  feet  long ;  it  weighs  nearly 
eighty  pounds,  and  is  strong  enough  to 
carry  two  men.  The  other  species,  with 
glossy  black  wings  and  white  tail,  is 
sometimes  ten  feet  high.  The  beautiful 
plumes  so  highly  valued  are  found  on 
the  wings,  about  twenty  on  each,  those 
of  the  tail  being  usually  broken  and 
worn.  There  are  no  feathers  on  the 
thighs,  or  under  the  wings  ;  and  the  neck 
is  but  scantily  clothed  with  thin  whitish 
hairs.  The  weight  of  the  body  and  the 
size  and  structure  of  the  wings  show  that 
the  animal  is  formed  for  running  rather 
than  flying. 


The  ostrich  is  described  in  Job  39:13- 
18 ;  and  in  various  places  where  our 
translation  calls  it  the  "owl,"  Job 
30:29;  Jer.  50:39;  or  "daughter  of  the 
owl,"  Isa.  13  :  21 ;  34  :  13  ;  43  :  £0 ;  Mic 
1:8.  In  these  and  other  passages  it  fig 
ures  as  a  bird  of  the  desert.  Shy  and 
timorous,  it  is  occasionally  driven  by 
hunger  to  visit  and  ravage  cultivated 
fields ;  but  is  usually  found  only  in  the 
heart  of  the  desert,  in  troops,  or  small 
groups,  or  mingling  familiarly  with  the 
herds  of  wild  asses,  gnus,  and  quaggas. 
Its  food  is  often  scarce  and  poor,  plants 
of  the  desert  "withered  before  they  are 
grown  up;"  also  snails,  insects,  and 
various  reptiles ;  for  it  has  a  voracious 
and  indiscriminating  appetite,  swallow 
ing  the  vilest  and  the  hardest  substances. 
Job  speaks  particularly  of  the  speed  of 
the  ostrich,  "  She  scorneth  the  horse  and 
his  rider."  So  Xenophon,  the  biogra 
pher  of  Cyrus,  says  of  the  ostricbes  of 
Arabia,  that  none  could  overtake  them, 
the  baffled  horsemen  soon  returning  froir 
the  chase  ;  and  the  writer  of  a  voyage  to 
Senegal  says,  "The  ostrich  sets  off  at  a 
hard  gallop;  but  after  being  excited  a 
little,  she  expands  her  wings  as  if  to 
catch  the  wind,  and  abandons  herself  to 
a  speed  so  great,  that  she  seems  not  to 
touch  the  ground.  I  am  persuaded  she 
would  leave  far  behind  the  swiftest  Eng 
lish  courser." 

She  scoops  out  for  herself  a  circular 
nest  in  the  sand,  and  lays  a  large  num 
ber  of  eggs ;  some  of  which  are  placed 
without  the  nest,  as  though  intended  for 
the  nourishment  of  the  young  brood. 
The  mother  bird,  with  the  help  of  the 
sun  in  the  tropics,  and  of  her  mate  in, 
the  cool  nights,  performs  the  process  of 
incubation  ;  but  her  timidity  is  such  that 
she  flies  from  her  nest  at  the  approach  of 
danger,  and  as  Dr.  Shaw  remarks,  "for 
sakes  her  eggs  or  her  young  ones,  to 
which,  perhaps,  she  never  returns  ;  or  if 
she  does,  it  may  be  too  late  either  to 
restore  life  to  the  one,  or  to  preserve  the 
lives  of  the  others.  Agreeably  to  this 
account,  the  Arabs  meet  sometimes  with 
whole  nests  of  these  eggs  undisturbed ; 
some  of  them  are  sweet  and  good,  others 
are  addle  and  corrupted.  They  often 
meet  with  a  few  of  the  little  ones  no 
bigger  than  well-grown  pullets,  half 
starved,  straggling  and  moaning  about, 
likfc  so  many  distressed  orphans  for  their 
mother.  In  this  manner  the  ostrich 
323 


OTH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


OX 


May  be  said  to  be  '  hardened  against  her 
young  ones,  as  though  they  were  not 
hers;  her  labor.'  in  hatching  and  attend 
ing  them  so  far,  'being  vain,  without 
fear,'  or  the  least  concern  of  what  be 
comes  of  them  afterwards.  This  want 
of  affection  is  also  recorded  in  Lam.  4: 3, 
'  The  daughter  of  my  people  is  become 
cruel,  like  the  ostriches  in  the  wilder 
ness  ;'  that  is,  apparently  by  deserting 
her  own  children,  and  receiving  others 
in  return." 

When  the  ostrich  is  provoked,  she 
sometimes  makes  a  fierce,  angry,  and 
hissing  noise,  with  her  throat  inflated, 
and  her  mouth  open  ;  at  other  times  she 
has  a  moaning  and  plaintive  cry ;  and 
in  the  night  the  male  repels  prowling 
enemies  by  a  short  roar  which  is  some 
times  taken  for  that  of  a  lion,  Mic.  1:8. 

OTH'NIEL,  son  of  Kenaz,  and  first 
judge  of  the  Israelites,  delivering  them 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  king  of  Meso 
potamia,  and  ruling  them  in  peace  forty 
years.  His  wife  Achsa.  daughter  of  his 
uncle  Caleb,  was.  the  reward  of  his  valor 
in  taking  the  city  of  Debir,  Josh.  15:17; 
Judg.  1:13;  3:9,  10. 

OUCH'ES,  sockets  in  which  precious 
stones  were  set,  Ex.  28:11,  25  ;  39:6. 

OV'EN.     See  BREAD. 


another,  Lev.  11:17;  Deut.  14  : 16 ;  Isa 
34:11,  the  ibis  or  night-heron. 


THE  SCREECH-OWL;  STRIX  FLAMMEA. 

OWL,  a  night  bird  of  prey,  unfit  for 
food.  Several  species  are  found  in  Pal 
estine,  and  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible  ; 
as  in  Lev.  11:17;  Deut.  14:16;  Isa. 
1 4 : 23  ;  34 : 15  ;  Zeph.  2 : 14.  One  of  the 
woi  Is.  however,  translated  "owl."  prpb- 
ab]  j  means  ••  OSTRICH,"  (which  see  ;)  and 
324 


THE   BULL   OF    SYRIA. 

OX,  the  male  of  the  beeve  kind  when 
grown,  synonymous  in  the  Bible  with 
BULL;  a  clean  animal,  by  the  Levitical 
la.v  ;  much  used  for  food,  1  Kin.  19  :  21, 
and  constituting  no  small  part  of  the 
wealth  of  the  Hebrews  in  their  pastoral 
life, Gen.  24:35;  Job  1:14;  42:12.  Oxen 
were  used  in  agriculture  for  ploughing, 
1  Kin.  19  :  19 ;  and  for  treading  out  the 
grain,  during  which  they  were  not  to  be 
muzzled,  1  Cor.  9  :  9,  but  well  fed,  Isa. 
30  ;  24.  The  testing  of  a  nc\v  yoke  of 
oxen  is  still  &  business  of  great  impor 
tance  in  the  East,  as  of  old,  Luke  14:19. 
A  passage  in  Campbell's  travels  in  South 
Africa  well  illustrates  the  proverbial  ex- 

sssion,  "  as  a  bullock  unaccustomed  to 
the  yoke,"  Jer.  31  : 18:  "I  had  frequent 
opportunities  of  witnessing  the  conduct  of 
oxen  when  for  the  first  time  put  into  the 
yoke  to  assist  in  dragging  the  wagons. 
On  observing  an  ox  that  had  been  in 
yoke  beginning  to  get  weak,  or  his  hoofs 
to  be  worn  down  to  the  quick  by  tread 
ing  on  the  sharp  gravel,  a  fresh  ox  was 
put  into  the  yoke  in  his  place.  When 
the  selection  fell  on  an  ox  I  had  received 
as  a  present  from  some  African  king,  of 
course  one  completely  unaccustomed  to 
the  yoke,  such  generally  made  a  strenu 
ous  struggle  for  liberty,  repeatedly  break 
ing  the  yoke,  and  attempting  to  make 
its  escape.  At  other  times  such  bullocks 
lay  down  upon  their  sides  or  back,  and 
remained  so  in  defiance  of  the  Hotten 
tots,  though  two  or  three  of  them  would 
be  lashing  them  with  their  ponderous 
whips.  Sometimes,  from  pity  to  the 
animal,  I  would  interfere,  and  beg  them 
to  be  less  cruel.  'Cruel,'  they  would 
say,  '  it  is  mercy ;  for  if  we  do  not  con- 


PAD 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAL 


quer  him  new,  he  will  require  to  be  so 
beaten  all  his  life.'  " 

The  "wild  ox,"  mentioned  in  Dent. 
14:5,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  species 
of  stag  or  antelope.  See  BULLS  OF  BA- 

B1IAN. 


P. 


PA'DAN-A'RAM,  the  plains  of  Aram  or 
Syria,  Gen.  25:20;  28:2;  31:18,  or  sim 
ply  PADAN,  Gen.  48  :  7,  the  plain,  in  dis 
tinction  from  the  "  mountains  "  of  Aram, 
Num.  23  :  7.  See  MESOPOTAMIA,  and 
SYRIA. 

PALESTINE  denotes,  in  the  Old  Tes 
tament,  the  country  of  the  Philistines, 
which  was  that  part  of  the  Land  of  Prom 
ise  extending  along  the  Mediterranean  sea 
on  the  varying  western  border  of  Simeon, 
Judah,  and  Dan,  Ex.  15:14;  Isa.  14:29, 
31  ;  Joel  3:4.  Palestine,  taken  in  later 
usage  in  a  more  general  sense,  signifies 
the  whole  country  of  Canaan,  as  well 
beyond  as  on  this  side  of  the  Jordan  ; 
though  frequently  it  is  restricted  to  the 
country  on  this  side  that  river  ;  so  that 
in  later  times  the  words  Judea  and  Pal 
estine  were  synonymous.  We  find  also 
the  name  of  Syria-  Palcstina  given  to  the 
Land  of  Promise,  and  even  sometimes 
this  province  is  comprehended  in  Coclc- 
Syria,  or  the  Lower  Syria.  Herodotus  is 
the  most  ancient  writer  known  who 
speaks  of  Syria-  Palestina.  He  places  it 
between  Phoenicia  and  Egypt.  See  CA 
NAAN. 

PALM'ER-WORM.  This  old  English 
term,  meaning  pilgrim-worm,  is  used  in 
Joel  1:4;  2  :  25  ;  Amos  4  :  9,  like  "can 
ker-worm"  and  "caterpillar,"  for  the 
locust  in  one  or  another  of  its  various 
species  or  transitions.  These  insects  are 
very  destructive  even  before  they  reach 
the  winged  state.  See  LOCUST. 

PALM-TREE,  Ex.  15  :  27.  This  tree 
is  called  in  Hebrew  tamar,  from  its 
straight,  upright,  branchless  growth,  for 
which  it  seems  more  remarkable  than 
any  other  tree  ;  it  sometimes  rises  to  the 
height  of  a  hundred  feet.  See  TAMAR. 

The  palm  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
trees  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The 
stalks  are  generally  full  of  rugged  knots, 
which  render  it  comparatively  easy-  to 
climb  to  the  top  for  the  fruit,  Song 
7:7,8.  These  projections  are  the  ves 


tiges  of  the  decayed  leaves  ;  for  the  trunk 
is  not  solid  like  other  trees,  but  its  cen 
tre  is  filled  with  pith,  round  which  is  a 
tough  bark,  full  of  strong  fibres  when 
young,  which,  as  the  tree  grows  old, 
hardens  and  becomes  ligneous.  To  this 
bark  the  leaves  are  closely  joined,  which 
in  the  centre  rise  erect,  but  after  they 
are  advanced  above  the  sheath  that  sur 
rounds  them,  they  expand  very  wide  on 
every  side  the  stem,  and  as  the  older 
leaves  decay,  the  stalk  advances  in 
height.  With  its  ever  verdant  and 
graceful  crown  continually  aspiring  tow 
ards  heaven,  it  is  an  apt  image  of  the 
soul  growing  in  grace,  Psa.  92:12.  The 
leaves,  when  the  tree  has  grown  to  a 
si^e  for  bearing  fruit,  are  six  to  eight  feet 
long,  are  very  broad  when  spread  out, 
and  are  used  for  covering  the  tops  of 
houses,  and  similar  purposes. 

The  fruit,  from  which  the  palm  is 
often  called  the  date-tree,  grows  below 
the  leaves  in  clusters  sometimes  weigh 
ing  over  fifteen  pounds,  and  is  of  a  sweet 
and  agreeable  taste.  The  diligent  na 
tives,  says  Mr.  Gibbon,  celebrate,  either 
in  verse  or  prose,  the  three  hundred 
and  sixty  uses  to  which  the  trunk,  the 
branches  or  long  leaf-stalks,  the  leaves, 
fibres,  and  fruit  of  the  palm  are  skilfully 
applied.  A  considerable  part  of  the  in 
habitants  of  Egypt,  of  Arabia,  and  Per 
sia,  subsist  almost  entirely  on  its  fruit. 
They  boast  also  of  its  medicinal  virtues. 
Their  camels  feed  upon  the  date  stone. 
From  the  leaves  they  make  couches,  bas 
kets,  bags,  mats,  and  brushes  :  from  ths 
325 


PAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAR 


branches  or  stalks,  cages  for  their  poul 
try,  and  fences  for  their  gardens;  from 
the  fibres  of  the  trunk,  thread,  ropes, 
and  rigging  ;  from  the  sap  is  prepared  a 
spirituous  liquor;  and  the  body  of  the 
tree  furnishes  fuel :  it.  is  even  said  that 
from  one  variety  of  the  palm-tree,  the 
phoenix  farinifera,  meal  has  been  extract 
ed,  which  is  found  among  the  fibres  of 
the  trunk,  and' has  been  used  for  food. 

Several  parts  of  the  Holy  Land,  no 
less  than  of  Idumasa,  that  lay  contigu 
ous  to  it,  are  described  by  the  ancients 
to  have  abounded  with  date-trees.  Ju- 
dea  particularly  is  typified  in  several 
coins  of  Vespasian  by  a  disconsolate 
woman  sitting  under  a  palm-tree,  with 
the  inscription,  JUDAEA  CAPTA.  In  Deut. 
34:3,  Jericho  is  called  the  "city  of  palm- 
trees  ;"  and  several  of  these  trees  are 
still  found  in  that  vicinity  ;  but  in  gen 
eral  they  are  now  rare  in  Palestine. 
Palm  wreaths,  and  branches  waved  in 
the  air  or  strown  on  the  road,  are  asso 
ciated  not  only  with  the  honors  paid  to 
ancient  conquerors  in  the  Grecian  games 
and  in  war,  but  with  the  triumphant 
entry  of  the  King  of  Zion  into  Jerusa 
lem,  John  12  :  12,  13,  and  with  his  more 
glorious  triumph  with  his  people  in 
heaven,  Rev.  7:9. 

PAL'SY,  or  paralysis,  strikes  some 
times  one  side  or  portion  of  the  body, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  :  affecting  the 
power  of  motion,  or  the  power  of  sen 
sation,  or  both.  It  is  one  of  the  least 
curable  of  diseases ;  but  the  Saviour 
healed  it  with  a  word,  Matt.  4  :  24 ; 
12  :  10  ;  Mark  2  :  3-12.  The  "  withered 
hand,"  Mark  3:1,  was  probably  an  effect 
of  the  palsy.  There  is  also  a  palsy  of  the 
soul,  which  the  Great  Physician  can  heal, 
and  he  alone. 

PAMPHYL'IA,  a  province  of  Asia  Mi 
nor,  having  Cilicia  east,  Lycia  west,  Pi- 
ridia north,  and  the  Mediterranean  south. 
It  is  opposite  to  Cyprus,  and  the  sea  be 
tween  the  coast  and  the  island  is  called 
the  ' '  sea  of  Pamphy lia. "  The  chief  city 
of  Pamphylia  was  Perga,  where  Paul  and 
Barnabas  preached,  Acts  13:13  ;  14:24. 

PAN'NAG,  in  Ezek.  27: 17,  is  the  He 
brew  word  for  some  unknown  product 
of  Palestine,  which  the  Jews  sold  to 
the  Tyrians.  It  is  variously  understood 
to  mean  millet,  sweetmeats,  a  delicate 
spice,  etc. 

PA'PER.  PAPYRUS.     See  BOOK. 

PA'PHOS,  a  maritime  city  on  the 
326 


western  extremity  of  the  isle  of  Cyprus. 
It  had  a  tolerable  harbor,  and  was  the 
station  of  a  Roman  proconsul.  About 
sixty  furlongs  from  the  city  was  the  cel 
ebrated  temple  of  Venus,  who  was  hence 
often  called  the  "  Paphian  goddess." 
The  infamous  rites  in  honor  of  this  god 
dess  continued  to  be  practised  hundreds 
of  years  after  Paul  and  Barnabas  intro 
duced  the  gospel  here,  though  their  la 
bors  were  blessed  with  some  fruits,  Acts 
13:6-13.  See  ELYMAS. 

PARABLE,  derived  from  a  Greek  word 
which  signifies,  to  compare  things  to 
gether,  to  form  a  parallel  or  similitude 
of  them  with  other  things.  What  we 
call  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  which  are 
moral  maxims  and  sentences,  the  Greeks 
call  the  Parables  of  Solomon.  In  like 
manner,  when  Job  answers  his  friends, 
it  is  said  he  took  up  his  "parable," 
Job  27  :  1 ;  29  :  1.  In  the  New  Testa 
ment  the  word  parable  denotes  some 
times  a  true  history,  or  an  illustrative 
sketch  from  nature ;  sometimes  a  prov 
erb  or  adage,  Luke  4:23  ;  a  truth  darkly 
or  figuratively  expressed,  Matt.  15  :  15  ; 
a  type,  Heb.  9:9;  or  a  similitude,  Matt. 
24  :  32.  The  parabolical,  enigmatical, 
figurative,  and  sententious  way  of  speak 
ing,  was  the  language  of  the  Eastern 
sages  and  learned  men,  Psa.  49:4  ;  78:2; 
and  nothing  was  more  insupportable 
than  to  hear  a  fool  utter  parables,  Prov. 
26:7. 

The  prophets  employed  parables  the 
more  strongly  to  impress  prince  and  peo 
ple  with  their  threatening^  or  their  prom 
ises.  Nathan  reproved  David  under  the 
parable  of  a  rich  man  who  had  taken 
away  and  killed  the  lamb  of  a  poor 
man,  2  Sam.  12.  See  also  Judg.  9:7-15  ; 
2  Kin.  14  :  9,  10.  Our  Saviour  frequently 
addressed  the  people  in  parables,  there 
by  verifying  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah,  6:9, 
that  the  people  should  see  without  know 
ing,  and  hear  without  understanding,  in 
the  midst  of  instructions.  This  result, 
however,  only  proved  how  inveterate 
were  their  hardness  of  heart  and  blind 
ness  of  mind  ;  for  in  no  other  way  could 
he  have  offered  them  instruction  more 
invitingly,  clearly,  or  forcibly,  than  by 
this  beautiful  and  familiar  mode.  The 
Hebrew  writers  made  great  use  of  it ; 
and  not  only  the  Jews,  but  the  Arabs, 
Syrians,  and  all  the  nations  of  the  East 
were  and  still  are  admirers  of  this  form 
of  discourse. 


PAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAR 


In  the  interpretation  of  a  parable,  its 
primary  truth  and  main  scope  are  chiefly 
to  be  considered.  The  minute  particu 
lars  are  less  to  be  regarded  than  in  a  sus 
tained  allegory  ;  and  serious  errors  are 
occasioned  by  pressing  every  detail,  and 
inventing  for  it  some  spiritual  analogy. 

The  following  parables  of  our  Lord  are 
recorded  by  the  evangelists. 

Wise  and  foolish  builders,  Matt.  7.:  24-27. 

Children  of  the  bride-chamber,  M*tt.  9  :15. 

New  cloth  and  old  garment,  Matt.  9  :16. 

New  wine  and  old  bottles,  Matt.  9  : 17. 

Unclean  spirit,  Matt.  12  :43. 

Sower,  Matt.  13  :3, 18  ;  Luke  8:5,  11. 

Tares,  Matt.  13  : 24-30,  36-43. 

Mustard -seed,  Matt.  13  : 31, 32  ;  Luke  13  :19. 

Leaven,  Matt.  13  :33. 

Treasure  hid  in  a  field,  Matt.  13  :44. 

Pearl  of  great  price,  Matt.  13  : 45-46. 

Net  cast  into  the  sea,  Matt.  13  : 47-50. 

Meats  defiling  not,  Matt.  15  : 10-15. 

Unmerciful  servant,  Matt.  18  : 23-35. 

Laborers  hired,  Matt.  20  :1-16. 

Two  sons,  Matt.  21 : 28-32. 

Wicked  husbandmen,  Matt.  21 : 33-45. 

Marriage-feast,  Matt.  22  :2-14. 

Fig  tree  leafing,  Matt.  24  : 32-34. 

Man  of  the  house  watching,  Matt.  24  :43. 

Faithful  and  evil  servants,  Matt.  24  : 45-51. 

Ten  virgins,  Matt.  25  : 1-13. 

Talents,  Matt.  25  : 14-30. 

Kingdom  divided  against  itself,  Mark  3  :24. 

House  divided  against  itself,  Mark  3  :25. 

Strong  man  armed,  Mark  3:27;  Luke 
11:21. 

Seed  growing  secretly,  Mark  4  :  26-29. 

Lighted  candle,  Mark  4:21  ;  Luke  11  :33- 
36. 

Man  taking  a  far  journey,  Mark  13  : 34-37. 

Blind  leading  the  blind,  Luke  G  :39. 

Beam  and  mote,  Luke  6  :41,  42. 

Tree  and  its  fruit,  Luke  6  : 43-45. 

Creditor  and  debtors,  Luke  7  : 41-47. 

Good  Samaritan,  Luke  10  : 30-37. 

Importunate  friend,  Luke  11 :5-9. 

Kich  fool,  Luke  12  : 16-21. 

Cloud  and  wind,  Luke  12  : 54-57. 

Barren  fig  tree,  Luke  13  :6-9. 

Men  bidden  to  a  feast,  Luke  14  :  7-11. 

Builder  of  a  tower,  Luke  14  : 28-30,  33. 

King  going  to  war,  Luke  14  : 31-33. 

Savor  of  salt,  Luke  14  :34,  35. 

Lost  sheep,  Luke  15  :3-7. 

Lost  piece  of  silver,  Luke  15  : 8-10. 

Prodigal  son,  Luke  15  : 11-32. 

Unjust  steward,  Luke  16  : 1-8. 

Kich  man  and  Lazarus,  Luke  16  : 19-31. 

Importunate  widow,  Luke  18  :l-8. 

Pharisee  and  publican,  Luke  18  :9-14. 

Pounds,  Luke  19  : 12-27. 

Good  shepherd,  John  10  :l-fi. 

Vine  and  branches,  John  15  :l-5. 

PAR'ADISE,  a  Greek  word  signifying 
a  park,  or  garden  with  trees.  The  He 
brew  word  CAN,  garden,  is  used  in  a  similar 
way,  Neh.  2:8;  Eccl.  2:5;  Song  4:13. 

The  Septuagint  uses  the  word  Para 
dise  when  speaking  of  the  garden  of 


Eden,  in  which  the  Lord  placed  Adam 
and  Eve.  This  famous  garden  is  indeed 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  "the 
terrestrial  paradise,"  and  there  is  hardly 
any  part  of  the  world  in  which  it  has  not 
been  sought.  See  EDEN. 

In  the  New  Testament,  "paradise"  is 
put,  in  allusion  to  the  paradise  of  Eden, 
for  the  place  where  the  souls  of  the 
blessed  enjoy  happiness.  Thus  our  Sav 
iour  tells  the  penitent  thief  on  the  cross, 
' '  To-day  shalt  thou  be  with  me  in  par 
adise  ;"  that  is,  in  the  state  of  the  bless 
ed,  Luke  23:43.  Paul,  speaking  of  him 
self  in  the  third  person,  says,  "I  knew 
a  man  that  was  caught  up  into  paradise, 
and  heard  unspeakable  words,  which  it 
is  not  lawful  for  a  man  to  utter, ' '  2  Cor. 
12  :  4.  And  in  Rev.  2:7;  22  :  14,  the 
natural  features  of  the  scene  where  in 
nocence  and  bliss  were  lost,  are  used  to 
depict  the  world  where  these  are  restored 
perfectly  and  for  ever. 

PA'RAN,  or  EL-PARAN,  Gen.  14 :  6,  a 
large  tract  of  desert  country  lying  south 
of  Palestine,  and  west  of  the  valley  El 
Arabah,  which  runs  from  the  Dead  sea 
to  the  gulf  of  Akaba.  It  was  in  and 
near  this  desert  region  that  the  Israel 
ites  wandered  thirty-eight  years.  See 
EXODUS.  It  extended  on  the  south  to 
within  three  days'  journey  of  Sinai,  Num. 

10  :  12,  33  ;  12  :  16,  if  not  to  Sinai  itself, 
Deut.  33  :  2  ;  Hab.  3:3.     On  the  north, 
it  included  the  deserts  of  Kadesh  and 
Zin,  Num.  13:3,  21,  27.    Here  Hagar  and 
Ishmael  dwelt,   Gen.   21  :  14,  21 ;    and 
hither  David,   and    afterwards   Hadod, 
retired  for  a  time,  1  Sam.  25  :  1 ;  1  Kin. 

11  : 18.      Burckhardt  found  it  a  dreary 
expanse  of  calcareous  soil,  covered  with 
black  flints.      Some  cities  and  cultivat 
ed  grounds,  however,  and  considerable 
patches  of  pasture  lands,  were  anciently 
found  in   this   region.     The  north-east 
part  is  traversed  "from  east  to  west  by 
ranges  of  hills. 

PARCHED  GROUND,  in  Isa.  35 : 7, 
translated  by  Lowth  "the  glowing 
sand,"  by  Henderson  "the  vapory  illu 
sion,"  and  in  German  sand-meer  and  ivas- 
serschein,  sand -sea  and  water -show,  is 
understood  to  refer  to  the  mirage,  an 
optical  illusion  described  by  almost  all 
travellers  in  tropical  deserts.  The  in 
experienced  wanderer  sees  at  a  distance 
what  he  thinks  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of 
water ;  and  imagination  clothes  the  far 
ther  shore  with  herbage,  shrubbery, 
327 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAR 


buildings,  etc.  ;  but  on  hasting  towards 
it  he  finds  the  delightful  vision  recede 
and  at  length  disappear,  and  nothing 
remains  but  the  hot  sands.  Quintus  Cur- 
tius  long  ago  gave  an  account  of  this 
wonder  in  his  Life  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  It  is  thus  described  in  St.  John's 
"Egypt  and  Nubia:" 

"I  had  been  riding  along  in  a  rev- 
ery,  when  chancing  to  raise  my  head,  I 
thought  I  perceived,  desertwards,  a  dark 
strip  on  the  far  horizon.  What  could  it 
be  ?  My  companion,  who  had  very  keen 
sight,  was  riding  in  advance  of  me,  and 
with  a  sudden  exclamation,  he  pulled 
up  his  dromedary,  and  gazed  in  the 
same  direction.  I  called  to  him,  and 
asked  him  what  he  thought  of  yonder 
strip,  and  whether  he  could  make  out 
any  thing  in  it  distinctly.  He  answer 
ed,  that  water  had  all  at  once  appeared 
there;  that  he  saw  the  motion  of  the 
waves,  and  tall  palms  and  other  trees 
bending  up  and  down  over  them,  as  if 
tossed  by  a  strong  wind.  This,  then, 
was  the  mirage.  My  companion  gal 
loped  towards  it,  and  we  followed  him, 
though  the  Arabs  tried  to  prevent  us ; 
and  ere  long  I  could  with  my  own  eyes 
discern  something  of  this  strange  phe 
nomenon.  It  was,  as  my  friend  had 
reported,  a  broad  sheet  of  water,  with 
fresh  green  trees  along  its  banks ;  and 
yet  there  was  nothing  actually  before  us 
but  parched  yellow  sand. 

"  Far  as  we  rode  in  the  direction  of  the 
apparition,  we  never  came  any  nearer  to 
it;  the  whole  seemed  to  recoil,  step  for 
step,  with  our  advance.  We  halted,  and 
remained  long  in  contemplation  of  the 
magic  scene,  until  whatever  was  un 
pleasant  in  its  strangeness  ceased  by 
degrees  to  aflect  us.  Never  had  I  seen 
any  landscape  so  vivid  as  this  seeming 
one ;  never  water  so  bright,  or  trees  so 
softly  green,  so  tall  and  stately.  We 
returned  slowly  to  our  Arabs,  who  had 
not  stirred  from  the  spot  where  we  left 
them.  Looking  back  once  more  into 
the  desert,  we  saw  the  apparition  grad 
ually  becoming  fainter,  until  at  last  it 
melted  away  into  a  dim  band,  not  un 
like  a  thin  mist  sweeping  over  the  face 
of  a  field." 

The  same  phenomenon  may  be  allud 
ed  to  in  the  expression,  "waters  that 
fail,"  Jcr.  15  :  18.  It  is  ascribed  to  the 
unequal  refraction  of  the  rays  of  light, 
caused  in  some  way  by  excessive  heat. 
328 


The  Saviour  and  his  proffered  blessings 
are  not,  like  earthly  hopes,  a  deception 
and  a  mockery,  but  true  waters  of  eter 
nal  life. 

PARCH'MENT.     See  BOOK. 

PAR'MENAS,  one  of  the  first  seven 
deacons,  Acts  6:5. 

PAR'THIA  is  supposed  to  have  been 
originally  a  province  of  Media,  on  its 
eastern  side,  which  was  raised  into  a 
distinct,  kingdom  by  Arsaces,  B.  c.  250. 
It  soon  extended  itself  over  a  great  part 
of  the  ancient  Persian  empire,  and  is  fre 
quently  put  for  that  empire  in  Scripture, 
and  other  ancient  writings.  Parthia 
maintained  itself  against  all  aggressors 
for  nearly  five  hundred  years,  and  was 
not  subjugated  even  by  the  Romans ; 
but  in  A.  D.  226,  one  of  the  descendants 
of  the  ancient  Persian  kings  united  it  to 
his  empire,  and  Persia  resumed  its  for 
mer  name  and  dynasty. 

The  Parthians  were  celebrated,  espec 
ially  by  the  poets,  for  a  peculiarity  of 
their  mode  of  fighting  on  horseback, 
which  consisted  in  discharging  their  ar 
rows  while  they  fled.  They  would  seem 
to  have  borne  no  very  distant  resem 
blance  to  the  modern  Cossacks.  It  is 
said  the  Parthians  were  either  refugees 
or  exiles  from  the  Scythian  nations. 
Jews  and  proselytes  from  among  them 
were  present  at  Jerusalem  at  the  Pente 
cost,  Acts  2:9. 

PARTITION,  Eph.  2:14.  See  the 
various  courts  under  TEMPLE. 


RED-LEGGED   PARTRIDGE  ;     TERDIX    RUBUA. 

PARTRIDGE,    a   well-known    bird, 
three  varieties  of  which  are  found  hi 


PAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAS 


Palestine.  Saul's  hunting  of  David  like 
a  partridge  upon  the  mountain,  1  Sam. 
26  :  20.  may  be  illustrated  by  an  occa 
sional  practice  of  the  Arabs,  who,  ob 
serving  that  this  bird  becomes  languid 
on  being  started  several  times  in  quick 
succession,  at  length  rush  suddenly  in 
upon  it  and  knock  it  over  with  their 
clubs.  In  Jer.  17  : 11,  we  may  best  ren 
der,  As  the  partridge  gathereth  eggs 
which  she  hath  not  laid ;  the  meaning 
being  that  she  loses  her  toil,  since  the 
young  birds,  when  hatched,  forsake  her. 

PAE'VAIM,  2  Chr.  3  :  6,  the  region  of 
fine  gold  ;  probably  Ophir  ;  or  according 
to  Gescnius,  the  East. 

PASH'UIl,  I.,  the  son  of  Immer,  a 
priest  and  a  chief  officer  in  the  temple ; 
he  violently  opposed  the  prophet  Jere 
miah,  and  persecuted  him  even  with 
blows  and  confinement  in  the  stocks ; 
but  all  recoiled  on  his  own  head,  Jer. 
20:1-G. 

II.  The  son  of  Malchiah,  an  enemy  of 
Jeremiah,  and  active  in  securing  his  im 
prisonment,  Jer.  21 : 1 ;  88  : 1-G.  Many 
descendants  cf  this  Pashur  returned  from 
captivity  at  Babylon,  1  Chr.  9:12;  Ezra 
2: 08. 

PAS'SION,  Acts  1:3,  suffering;  the  last 
sufferings  and  deatli  of  Christ.  In  Acts 
14:  15,  James  5  :  17,  "like  passions"  is 
nearly  equivalent  to  "the  same  human 
nature." 

PASS'OVER,  Hebrew  PESACII,  Greek 
PASCIIA,  a  passing  over,  a  name  given  to 
the  festival  established  and  to  the  vic 
tim  offered  in  commemoration  of  the 
coming  forth  out  of  Egypt,  Ex.  12  ;  be 
cause  the  night  before  their  departure, 
the  destroying  angel,  who  slew  the  first 
born  of  the  Egyptians,  passed  over  the 
houses  of  the  Hebrews  without  entering 
them,  they  being  marked  with  the  blood 
of  the  lamb,  which  for  this  reason  was 
called  the  Passover,  Mark  14  :  12,  14, 
1  Cor.  5:7,  or  the  paschal  lamb. 

The  month  of  the  exodus  from  Egypt, 
called  Abib  by  Moses,  and  afterwards 
named  Nisan,  was  ordained  to  be  there 
after  the  lirst  month  of  the  sacred  or 
ecclesiastical  year.  On  the  fourteenth 
day  of  this  month,  between  the  two 
evenings,  (see  EVENING,)  they  were  to 
kill  the  paschal  lamb,  and  to  abstain 
from  leavened  bread.  The  day  follow 
ing,  being  the  fifteenth,  reckoned  from 
six  o'clock  of  the  preceding  evening,  was 
the  grand  feast  of  the  Passover,  which 


continued  seven  days,  usually  called 
"the  days  of  unleavened  bread,"  or 
"the  Passover,"  Luke  22  :  1 ;  but  only 
the  first  and  the  seventh  day  were  pe 
culiarly  solemn,  Lev.  23  :  5-8  ;  Num. 
28  : 16,  17  ;  Matt.  26  :  17.  They  were 
days  of  rest,  and  were  called  Sabbaths 
by  the  Jews.  The  slain  lamb  was  to  be 
without  defect,  a  male,  and  of  that  year. 
If  no  lamb  could  be  found,  they  might 
take  a  kid.  They  killed  a  lamb  or  a  kid 
in  each  family  ;  but  if  any  family  was 
not  large  enough  to  eat  the  lamb,  they 
might  associate  another  small  family  with 
them.  The  Passover  was  to  be  slain  and 
eaten  only  at  Jerusalem,  though  the  re 
mainder  of  the  festival  might  be  observed 
in  any  place.  The  lamb  was  to  be  roast 
ed  entire,  and  eaten  the  same  night,  with 
unleavened  bread  and  bitter  herbs;  not 
a  bone  of  it  was  to  be  broken ;  and  all 
that  was  not  eaten  was  to  be  consumed 
by  fire,  Ex.  12  ;  John  19:86.  If  any  one 
was  unable  to  keep  the  Passover  at  the 
time  appointed,  he  was  to  observe  it  on 
the  second  month  ;  he  that  wilfully  neg 
lected  it,  forfeited  the  covenant  favor  of 
God ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  resident 
foreigners  were  admitted  to  partake  of 
it,  Num.  9:6-14  ;  2  Chr.  £0.  The  direc 
tion  to  eat  the  Passover  in  the  posture 
and  with  the  equipments  of  travellers, 
seems  to  have  been  observed  only  on  the 
first  Passover.  Besides  the  private  fami 
ly  festival,  there  were  public  and  national 
sacrifices  offered  on  each  of  the  seven 
days  of  unleavened  bread,  Num.  28  : 19. 
On  the  second  day  also  the  first-fruits  of 
the  barley  harvest  were  offered  in  the 
temple,  Lev.  23  : 10. 

Jewish  writers  give  us  full  descrip 
tions  of  the  Passover  feast,  from  which 
we  gather  a  few  particulars.  Those  who 
were  to  partake  having  performed  the 
required  purifications  and  being  assem 
bled  at  the  table,  the  master  of  the  feast 
took  a  cup  of  unfermcnted  wine,  and 
blessed  God  for  the  fruit  of  the  vine,  of 
which  all  then  drank.  This  was  follow 
ed  by  a  washing  of  hands.  The  paschal 
lamb  was  then  brought  in,  with  unleav 
ened  cakes,  bitter  herbs,  and  a  sauce  or 
fruit-paste.  The  master  of  the  feast  then 
blessed  God  for  the  fruits  of  the  earth, 
and  gave  the  explanations  prescribed  in 
Ex.  12:26,  27,  specifying  each  particular. 
After  a  second  cup",  with  a  second  wash 
ing  of  hands,  an  unleavened  cake  was 
broken  and  distributed,  and  a  blessing 
329 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAU 


pronounced  upon  the  Giver  of  bread. 
When  all  had  eaten  sufficiently  of  the 
food  before  them,  a  third  cup  of  thanks 
giving,  for  deliverance  from  Egypt  and 
for  the  gift  of  the  law,  was  blessed  and 
drunk,  Matt.  26:27;  1  Cor.  10:16;  this 
was  called  "  the  cup  of  blessing."  The 
repast  was  usually  closed  by  a  fourth  cup 
and  psalms  of  praise,  Psa.  145  :  10 ;  136, 
etc.  ;  Matt.  26:30. 

Our  Saviour  partook  of  the  Passover 
for  the  last  time,  with  his  disciples,  on 
the  evening  with  which  the  day  of  his 
crucifixion  commenced,  Matt.  26  :  17  ; 
Mark  14  :  12  ;  Luke  22  :  7.  The  follow 
ing  day,  commencing  with  the  sunset 
three  hours  after  his  death,  was  the  Jew 
ish  Sabbath,  and  was  also  observed  as  "  a 
Passover,"  John  13  :  29  ;  18:28;  19:14, 
31.  Compare  Matt.  27:62. 

This  sacred  festival  was  both  com 
memorative  and  typical  in  its  nature 
and  design  ;  the  deliverance  which  it 
commemorated  was  a  type  of  the  great 
salvation  it  foretold.  The  Saviour  iden 
tified  himself  with  the  paschal  lamb  as 
its  great  Antitype,  in  substituting  the 
Lord's  supper  for  the  Passover.  "  Christ 
our  Passover  is  sacrificed  for  us,"  1  Cor. 
5:7;  and  as  we  compare  the  innocent 
lamb  slain  in  Egypt  with  the  infinite 
Lamb  of  God,  the  contrast  teaches  us 
how  infinite  is  the  perdition  which  He 
alone  can  cause  to  ' '  pass  over ' '  us,  and 
how  essential  it  is  to  be  under  the  shel 
ter  of  his  sprinkled  blood,  before  the 
night  of  judgment  and  ruin  overtakes 
us. 

The  modern  Jews  also  continue  to 
observe  the  Passover.  With  those  who 
live  in  Palestine  the  feast  continues  a 
week ;  but  the  Jews  out  of  Palestine 
extend  it  to  eight  days,  according  to  an 
ancient  custom,  by  which  the  Sanhedrim 
sent  two  men  to  observe  the  first  appear 
ance  of  the  new  rnoon,  who  immediately 
gave  notice  of  it  to  the  chief  of  the  coun 
cil.  For  fear  of  error,  they  kept  two 
days  of  the  festival. 

As  to  the  Christian  Passover,  the 
Lord's  supper,  it  was  instituted  by 
Christ  when,  at  the  last  Passover  supper 
he  ate  with  his  apostles,  he  gave  them  a 
symbol  of  his  body  to  eat,  and  a  symbol 
of  his  blood  to  drink,  under  the  form 
of  bread  and  wine ;  prefiguring  that  he 
should  give  up  his  body  to  the  Jews  and 
to  death.  The  paschal  lamb  which  the 
Jews  killed,  tore  to  pieces,  and  ate,  and 
330 


whose  blood  preserved  them  from  the 
destroying  angel,  was  a  type  and  figure 
of  our  Saviour's  death  and  passion,  and 
of  his  blood  shed  for  the  salvation  of  the 
world. 

PAS'TOR,  shepherd,  one  whose  office  it 
is  to  feed  and  guard  the  flock  of  Christ, 
Eph.  4:11 ;  1  Pet.  5:2.  See  SHEPHERD. 

PASTURAGE.     See  SHEPHERD. 

PAT'ARA,  a  maritime  city  of  Lycia  in 
Asia  Minor,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Xarithus,  celebrated  for  an  oracle  of 
Apollo,  who  was  supposed  to  reside  here 
during  the  six  winter  months,  and  the 
rest  of  the  year  at  Delos.  Paul,  in  pass 
ing  from  Philippi  to  Jerusalem,  found 
here  a  ship  for  Phoenicia,  in  which  he 
embarked,  Acts  21:1. 

PATE,  Psa.  7 : 16,  an  obsolete  word  for 
head,  or  top  of  the  head. 

PATH'ROS,  Isa.  11:11 ;  Jer.  44:1,  15  ; 
Ezek.  29: 14  ;  30: 14,  one  of  the  three  an 
cient  divisions  of  Egypt,  namely,  Upper 
or  Southern  Egypt,  which  Ezekicl  speaks 
of  as  distinct  from  Egypt,  and  the  origi 
nal  abode  of  the  Egyptians ;  as  indeed 
Ethiopia  and  Upper  Egypt  really  were. 
Its  early  inhabitants,  called  Pathrusim, 
were  descendants  of  Mizraim,  Gen.  10:14. 
See  EGYPT. 

PAT'MOS,  an  island  of  the  ^Egean  sea, 
to  which  the  apostle  and  evangelist  John 
was  banished  by  Domitian,  A.  D.  95, 
Rev.  1:9.  It  is  a  rocky  and  desolate 
island,  about  twenty-eight  miles  in  cir 
cumference,  with  a  bold  and  deeply 
indented  shore ;  and  was  used  by  the 
Romans  as  a  place  of  banishment  for 
many  criminals.  It  lies  between  Samos 
and  Naxos,  about  forty  miles  west  by 
south  from  the  promontory  of  Miletus ; 
and  contains  at  present  some  four  thou 
sand  inhabitants,  mostly  Greeks.  Its 
principal  port  is  a  deep  bay  on  the  north 
east  side  ;  the  town  lying  on  a  high  and 
steep  hill,  the  summit  of  which  is  crown 
ed  by  the  old  and  castle-like  monastery 
of  St.  John.  Half  way  down  the  hill  is 
a  natural  grotto,  now  covered  by  a  Greek 
chapel,  school,  etc.  In  this  cave,  over 
looking  the  sea  and  its  islands  towards 
his  beloved  Ephesus,  tradition  says  that 
John  saw  and  recorded  his  prophetic  vis 
ions.  The  island  is  now  called  Patino ; 
and  the  port  Patmo,  or  San  Giovanni  di 
Patino. 

PAUL,  the  distinguished  "apostle  of 
the  Gentiles;"  also  called  SAUL,  a  He 
brew  name.  He  is  first  called  Paul  in 


PAU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAU 


Acts  13:12  ;  and  as  some  think,  assumed 
this  Roman  name  according  to  a  com 
mon  custom  of  Jews  in  foreign  lands, 
or  in  honor  of  Sergius  Paulus,  ver.  7, 
his  friend  and  an  early  convert.  Both 
names,  however,  may  have  belonged  to 
him  in  childhood.  He  was  horn  at  Tar 
sus  in  Cilicia,  and  inherited  from  his 
father  the  privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen. 
His  parents  belonged  to  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  and  brought  up  their  son  as 
"a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,"  Phil.  3  :  5. 
Tarsus  was  highly  distinguished  for 
learning  and  culture,  and  the  opportuni 
ties  for  improvement  it  afforded  were  no 
doubt  diligently  improved  by  Paul.  At 
a  suitable  age  he  was  sent  to  Jerusalem 
to  complete  his  education  in  the  school 
of  Gamaliel,  the  most  distinguished  and 
right-minded  of  the  Rabbis  of  that  age. 
It  does  not  appear  that  he  was  in  Jerusa 
lem  during  the  ministry  of  Christ ;  and 
it  was  perhaps  after  his  return  to  Tarsus 
that  he  learned  the  art  of  tent-making, 
in  accordance  with  a  general  practice 
among  the  Jews,  and  their  maxim,  "He 
that  does  not  teach  his  son  a  useful 
handicraft,  teaches  him  to  steal,"  Acts 
18:3;  20:34;  2  Thess.  3:8. 

We  next  find  him  at  Jerusalem,  appar 
ently  about  thirty  years  of  age,  high  in 
the  confidence  of  the  leading  men  of  the 
nation.  He  had  profited  by  the  instruc 
tions  of  Gamaliel,  and  became  learned  in 
the  law ;  yielding  himself  to  the  strictest 
discipline  of  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  he 
had  become  a  fierce  defender  of  Judaism 
and  a  bitter  enemy  of  Christianity,  Acts 
8:3;  26  :  9-11.  After  his  miraculous 
conversion,  of  which  we  have  three  ac 
counts,  Acts  9 ;  22 ;  26,  Christ  was  all  in 
all  to  him.  It  was  Christ  who  revealed 
himself  to  his  soul  at  Damascus,  Acts 
26  :  15  ;  1  Cor.  15  :  8  ;  to  Christ  he  gave 
his  whole  heart,  and  soul,  mind,  might, 
and  strength ;  and  thenceforth,  living  or 
dying,  he  was  "the  servant  of  Jesus 
Christ."  He  devoted  all  the  powers  of 
his  ardent  and  energetic  mind  to  the 
defence  and  propagation  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ,  more  particularly  among  the 
Gentiles.  His  views  of  the  pure  and 
lofty  spirit  of  Christianity,  in  its  worship 
and  in  its  practical  influence,  appear  to 
have  been  peculiarly  clear  and  strong ; 
and  the  opposition  which  he  was  thus 
led  to  make  to  the  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Jewish  worship,  exposed  him 
everywhere  to  the  hatred  and  malice  of 


his  countrymen.  On  their  accusation, 
he  was  at  length  put  in  confinement  by 
the  Roman  officers,  and  after  being  de 
tained  for  two  years  or  more  at  Caesarea, 
he  was  sent  to  Rome  for  trial,  having 
himself  appealed  to  the  emperor.  There 
is  less  certainty  in  respect  to  the  accounts 
which  are  given  of  Paul  afterwards  by 
the  early  ecclesiastical  writers.  Still,  it 
was  a  very  generally  received  opinion  in 
the  earlier  centuries,  that  the  apostle 
was  acquitted  and  discharged  from  his 
imprisonment  at  the  end  of  two  years ; 
and  that  he  afterwards  returned  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  again  imprisoned  and  put 
to  death  by  Nero. 

Paul  appears  to  have  possessed  all  the 
learning  which  was  then  current  among 
the  Jews,  and  also  to  have  been  ac 
quainted  with  Greek  literature ;  as  ap 
pears  from  his  mastery  of  the  Greek 
language,  his  frequent  discussions  with 
their  philosophers,  and  his  quotations 
from  their  poets — Aratus,  Acts  17  :  28  ; 
Menander,  1  Cor.  15  :  33  ;  and  Epimeni- 
des,  Tit.  1 :  12!  Probably,  however,  a 
learned  Greek  education  cannot  with 
propriety  be  ascribed  to  him.  But  the 
most  striking  trait  in  his  character  is 
his  enlarged  view  of  the  universal  de 
sign  and  the  spiritual  nature  of  the  re 
ligion  of  Christ,  and  of  its  purifying  and 
ennobling  influence  upon  the  heart  and 
character  of  those  Avho  sincerely  profess 
it.  From  the  Saviour  himself  he  had 
caught  the  flame  of.universal  love,  and 
the  idea  of  salvation  for  all  mankind, 
Gal.  1  : 12.  Most  of  the  other  apostles 
and  teachers  appear  to  have  clung  to  Ju 
daism,  to  the  rites,  ceremonies,  and  dog 
mas  of  the  religion  in  which  they  had 
been  educated,  and  to  have  regarded 
Christianity  as  intended  to  be  engrafted 
upon  the  ancient  stock,  which  was  yet 
to  remain  as  the  trunk  to  support  the 
new  branches.  Paul  seems  to  have  been 
among  the  first  to  rise  above  this  narrow 
view,  and  to  regard  Christianity  in  its 
true  light,  as  a  universal  religion.  While 
others  were  for  Judaizing  all  those  who 
embraced  the  new  religion  by  imposing 
on  them  the  yoke  of  Mosaic  observances, 
it  was  Paul's  endeavor  to  break  down 
the  middle  wall  of  separation  between 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  show  them  that 
they  were  all  ' '  one  in  Christ. ' '  To  this 
end  all  his  labors  tended ;  and,  ardent 
in  the  pursuit  of  this  great  object,  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  censure  the  time-serving 
331 


PAU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PAU 


Peter,  and  to  expose  his  own  life  In  re 
sisting  the  prejudices  of  his  countrymen. 
Indeed,  his  rive  years'  imprisonment  at 
Jerusalem,  Caasarea,  and  Home  arose 
chiefly  from  this  cause. 

The  following  chronological  tahle  of 
the  principal  events  in  Paul's  life  may 
be  of  use  in  directing  and  assisting  in 
quiries  into  this  most  interesting  portion 
of  history.  The  different  chronologies  of 
Hug,  Lardner,  and  Conybeare  and  How- 
son,  are  here  presented  side  by  side ; 
and  thus  the  table,  while  it  shows  the 
general  agreement  of  chroiiologists,  shows 
also  that  it  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  en 
tire  certainty  in  this  respect. 


5     * 

2     u 
36    30 


Paul's  conversion,  Acts  9.    In  the  K 
twenty-first  year  of  Tiberius  ----  36 

He  goes  to  Arabia,  and  returns  to 
Damascus,  Gal.  1  :  17  ;  and  in  the 
third  year  escapes  from  Damas 
cus,  and  visits  Jerusalem,  Acts 
9  :  23-26,  in  the  year  ............  39  39  38 

From  Jerusalem  he  goes  to  Tarsus, 
Acts  9  :  30  ;  and  after  several 
years  of  labor  in  Cilicia  and  Syr 
ia,  Gal.  1  :21,  during  which  it  is 
supposed  most  of  the  sufferings 
occurred  which  are  mentioned  in 
2  Cor.  11:  24-26,  he  went  with 
Barnabas  to  Antioch  in  Syria, 
Acts  11  :i5,  26,  where  they  labor 
ed  during  the  year  ...........  ---44  43  44 

From  Antioch.  he  is  sent  with  Bar 
nabas  to  Jerusalem,  his  second 
visit,  to  carry  relief  for  the  fam 
ine,  and  returns  to  Antioch,  Acts 
11:30  ...............  -  ...........  45  44  45 

First  great  missionary'  tour,  with 
Barnabas,  from  Antioch  to  Cy- 
pnis,  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Iconi- 
um,  Lystra,  and  Derbe  ;  And  re 
turning  through  the  same  places 
and  Attalia  to  Antioch,  Acts 
13:14,  about  two  years,  com 
mencing  ........................  —  45  48 

Third  visit  to  Jerusalem,  with  Bar 
nabas,  to  consult  respecting  cir 
cumcision,  etc.,  and  return  to 
Antioch,  Acts  15  :2-30  ..........  53  50  50 

Second  missionary  t^ur.  from  An 
tioch,  through  Cilicia,  Derbe, 
Lystra,  Phrygia,  Galatia,  Troas,  - 
Neapolis,  Philippi,  Thessaloni- 
ca,  Berea,  Athens,  and  Corinth, 
Acts  15:35  to  18:1,  where  he 
findsAquila  ...............  54  51  52 

After  eighteen  months  at  Corinth, 
he  makes  his  fourth  visit  to  Je 
rusalem,  by  Cenchrea,  Ephesus, 
and  Caesarea,  and  returns  to  An 
tioch,  Acts  18:  11-22,  in  .........  56 

Third  missionary  tour,  through 
Galatia  and  Phrygia,  arriving  at 
Ephesus,  Acts  19  :1,  in  ..........  57 

And  after  two  years  at  Ephesus, 


going  through  Troas  and  Mace 
donia  to  Corinth.  Act 


—    54 
53    54 
Acts  20:1  ----  59    56    57 


Fifth  visit  to  Jerusalem,  from  Cor 
inth,  by  Philippi,  Troas,  Mile 
tus,  Tyre,  Ptolemais,  and  Caesa 
rea,  Acts  20  : 3  to  21  : 15 60  58  58 

After  two  years'  imprisonment  at 
Jerusalem  and  Caesarea,  he  sails 
from  teidon,  by  Myra,  Fair  Ha 
vens,  etc.,  to  Malta,  where  he  is 
shipwrecked ;  in  the  spring,  he 
proceeds  to  Home,  Acts  21  : 17  to 
28:16 63  61  61 

Two  years'  imprisonment  in  Rome, 
and  release,  Acts '28  : 30 65  63  63 

After  laboring,  as  some  think  in 
Spain,  Kom.  15:24,  28;  also  in 
Ephesus ;  Macedonia,  1  Tim. 
1:3;  Crete,  Tit,  1:5;  Asia  Mi 
nor,  2  Tim.  1  :15  ;  and  Nicopolis, 
Tit.  3  :13,  he  is  again  a  prisoner 
at  Rome,  joyfully  awaiting  mar 
tyrdom,  though  almost  alone, 
2  Tim.  2:9;  4:6-18 —  65  68 

These  various  journeys  of  St.  Paul, 
many  of  them  made  on  foot,  should 
be  studied  through  on  a  map ;  in  con 
nection  with  the  inspired  narrative  in 
Acts,  and  with  his  own  pathetic  descrip 
tion  of  his  labors,  2  Cor.  11  : 23-29, 
wherein  nevertheless  the  half  is  not  told. 
When  we  review  the  many  regions  he 
traversed  and  evangelized,  the  converts 
he  gathered,  and  the  churches  he  found 
ed,  the  toils,  perils,  and  trials  he  endur 
ed,  the  miracles  he  wrought,  and  the 
revelations  he  received,  the  discourses, 
orations,  and  letters  in  which  he  so  ably 
defends  and  unfolds  Christianity,  the 
immeasurable  good  which  God  by  him 
accomplished,  his  heroic  life,  and  his 
martyr  death,  he  appears  to  us  the  most 
extraordinary  of  men. 

The  character  of  Paul  is  most  fully 
portrayed  in  his  epistles,  by  which,  as 
Chrysostom  says,  he  "still  lives  in  the 
mouths  of  men  throughout  the  whole 
world.  By  them,  not  only  his  own  con 
verts,  but  all  the  faithful  even  unto  this 
day,  yea,  and  all  the  saints  who  are  yet 
to  be  born  until  Christ's  coming  again, 
both  have  been  and  shall  be  blessed." 
In  them  we  observe  the  transforming 
and  elevating  power  of  grace  in  one 
originally  turbulent  and  passionate — 
making  him  a  model  of  manly  and 
Christian  excellence ;  fearless  and  firm, 
yet  considerate,  courteous,  and  gentle; 
magnanimous,  patriotic,  and  self-sacri 
ficing  ;  rich  in  all  noble  sentiments  and 
affections. 

EPISTLES  OF  PAUL.— There  are  fourteen 
epistles  in  the  New  Testament  usually 
ascribed  to  Paul,  beginning  with  that  to. 
the  Romans,  and  ending  with  that  to 


332 


PAV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY, 


PEA 


the  Hebrews.  Of  these  the  first  thirteen 
have  never  been  contested ;  as  to  the 
latter,  many  good  men  have  doubted 
whether  Paul  was  the  author,  although 
the  current  of  criticism  is  in  favor  of  this 
opinion.  These  epistles,  in  which  the 
principles  of  Christianity  are  developed 
for  all  periods,  characters,  and  circum 
stances,  are  among  the  most  important 
of  the  primitive  documents  of  the  Chris 
tian  religion,  even  apart  from  their  in 
spired  character;  and  although  they 
seem  to  have  been  written  without  spe 
cial  premeditation,  and  have  reference 
mostly  to  transient  circumstances  and 
temporary  relations,  yet  they  every 
where  bear  the  stamp  of  the  great  and 
original  mind  of  the  apostle,  as  puriiied, 
elevated,  and  sustained  by  the  influences 
of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

It  is  worthy  of  mention  here,  that  an 
expression  of  Peter  respecting  ' '  our  be 
loved  brother  Paul ' '  is  often  a  little  mis 
understood.  The  words  "in  which"  in 
2  Pet.  3  :  16,  are  erroneously  applied  to 
the  ' '  epistles ' '  of  Paul ;  and  not  to 
"these  things"  immediately  preceding, 
that  is,  the  subjects  of  which  Peter  was 
writing,  as  the  Greek  shows  they  should 
be.  Peter  imds  no  fault,  either  with 
Paul,  or  with  the  doctrines  of  revela 
tion. 

The  following  is  Lardner's  arrange 
ment  of  the  epistles  of  Paul,  with  the 
places  where  they  were  written,  and  the 
dates: 

EPISTLES.  PLACES.  A.  D. 

1  Thessalonians  Corinth 52 

2  Thessaloiiians       "        - 52 

Galatians         I  Corinth  or )  end  of  52 

"'\    Ephesua  j  or  beginning  of  53 

1  Corinthians  --Ephesus beginning  of  53 

1  Timothy Macedonia 53 

Titus "   or  near  it,  near  end  53 

2  Corinthians--         "         ---  about  Oct.      57 


Romans Corinth 

Ephesians Home 

2  Timothy 

Philippians  — 

Colossians 

Philemon • 

Hebrews 


Feb.     53 
April,  Cl 
May,    61 
-before  end  of  62 
"        62 
«        62 
-spring,  63 

The  arrangement  of  Hug  is  somewhat 
different ;  and  some  critics  who  find  evi 
dence  that  Paul  was  released  from  his 
first  imprisonment  and  lived  until  the 
spring  of  A.  D.  68,  assign  the  epistles 
Hebrews,  1  Timothy,  Titus,  and  2  Timo 
thy  to  the  last  year  of  his  life.  See  TIM 
OTHY. 

PAVE'MENT.     See  GABBATHA. 


,;.;;";;., V^'  '    "   v. 


PEACOCKS  appear  not  to  have  been 
known  in  Palestine,  until  imported  in 
the  navy  of  Solomon,  1  Kin.  10 :  22 ; 
2Chr.  9:21.  See  TARSITTSTI. 

PEARLS  were  ranked  by  the  .indents 
among  the  most  precious  substances, 
Rev.  17 : 4,  and  were  highly  valued  as 
ornaments  for  women.  Their  modest 
splendor  still  charms  the  orientals,  and 
a  string  of  pearls  is  a  favorite  decoration 
of  eastern  monarchs.  The  kingdom  of 
heaven  is  compared  to  a  goodly  pearl,  so 
superior  to  all  others  that  the  pearl  mer 
chant  sold  all  that  he  had  to  secure  it, 
knowing  that  he  could  obtain  for  it  tho 
highest  price,  Matt.  13  :  45,  46.  The 
gates  of  heaven  are  described  as  consist 
ing  of  pearls;  "every  several  gate  wag 
one  pearl,"  Rev.  21 :  21.  The  Saviour 
forbade  his  apostles  to  cast  their  pearls 
before  swine,  Matt.  7:6;  that  is,  to  ex* 
pose  the  precious  truths  of  the  gospel 
unnecessarily  to  those  who  reject  them 
with  scorn  and  violence. 

Pearls  are  a  stony  concretion  in  a  spe* 
cies  of  oyster,  found  in  the  Persian  gulf, 
on  the  coast  of  Ceylon,  Java,  Sumatra, 
etc.,  and  in  smaller  quantities  in  various 
other  places  in  both  hemispheres.  It  is 
not  known  whether  the  pearl  is  a  natu> 
ral  deposit,  or  the  consequence  of  disease, 
or  of  the  lodging  of  some  foreign  body, 
as  a  grain  of  sand,  within  the  shells. 
The  pearl-oyster  grows  in  clusters,  on 
rocks  in  deep  water ;  and  is  brought  up 
by  trained  divers,  only  during  a  few 
333 


PEE  BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


FEN 


weeks  of  calm  weather  in  spring.  The 
shell  itself  yields  the  well-known  "moth 
er  of  pearl." 

PEEP,  in  Isa.  8: 19,  denotes  the  stifled, 
piping  voice  of  necromancers. 

PE'KAH,  son  of  Remaliah,  and  gen 
eral  of  the  army  of  Pekahiah  king  of 
Israel.  He  conspired  against  his  master, 
attacked  him  in  the  tower  of  his  royal 
palace  of  Samaria,  and  having  slain  him, 
B.  c,  758,  he  reigned  in  his  place  twenty- 
years.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  evil 
reign  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Syrians  of  Damascus,  and  they  attacked 
Ahaz  king  of  Judah,  who  in  turn  sought 
the  aid  of  Assyria.  The  result  was,  that 
Damascus  was  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser 
king  of  Assyria,  and  with  it  all  the  lands 
of  Israel  east  of  the  Jordan  and  north  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  their  inhabitants  being 
carried  captive.  Shortly  afterwards  Ho- 
shea  son  of  Elah  conspired  against  Pekah, 
slew  him,  and  reigned  in  his  stead,  2  Kin. 
15:25-38;  16:1-9;  Isa.  7;  8:1-9;  17. 

PEKAHIAH,  son  and  successor  of 
Menahem  king  of  Israel,  was  a  wicked 
prince,  and  reigned  but  two  years.  Pe 
kah,  son  of  Pi,emaliah,  conspired  against 
him,  and  killed  him  in  his  own  palace, 
2  Kin.  15:22-25. 

PE'LEGr,  son  of  Eber,  and  fourth  in 
descent  from  Shem.  He  was  called  Pe- 
leg,  division,  because  in  his  time  the  earth 
was  divided,  Gen.  10:25;  11:16. 

PEL'ETHITES  are  always  mentioned 
together  with  the  Cherethites,  as  consti 
tuting  the  king's  body-guard,  2  Sam. 
8  : 18  ;  22  :  23.  The  word,  if  not  the 
name  of  a  Jewish  or  a  Philistine  family, 
is  supposed  to  signify  runners;  and  thus 
they  would  seem  to  have  been  the  royal 
messengers ;  just  as  the  Cherethites,  from 
a  Hebrew  word  signifying  to  cut  off,  were 
the  king's  executioners.  See  CHERE 
THITES. 

334 


PEL'ICAN,  Lev.  11  :  18,  sometimes 
translated  cormorant,  Isa.  34:11;  Zeph. 
2  : 14 ;  a  voracious  waterfowl,  somewhat 
gregarious  and  migratory,  frequenting 
tropical  climates,  and  still  found  on  the 
waters  of  Egypt  and  Palestine.  It  fully 
equals  the  swan  in  size,  and  resembles  it 
in  shape  and  color.  Its  plumage  is  of  a 
grayish  white,  except  the  long  feathers, 
which  are  black.  Its  great  peculiarity 
is  its  broad,  flat  bill,  fifteen  inches  long  ; 
and  the  pouch  of  the  female  under  the 
bill,  used  for  the  temporary  storage  of 
food,  and  said  to  be  able  to  hold  fifteen 
quarts.  When  empty,  this  pouch  is  not 
seen ;  but  when  full,  it  presents  a  very 
singular  appearance.  The  pelican  is  a 
dull,  indolent,  and  melancholy  bird ;  and 
its  voice  is  harsh  and  dissonant,  Psa. 
102  :  6.  Its  Hebrew  name  is  probably 
derived  from  its  habit  of  emptying  its 
pouch  of  the  food  stored  in  it,  by  com 
pressing  it  against  its  breast.  The  young 
then  receive  their  food  from  their  moth 
er's  bill ;  and  the  current  tradition  that 
she  tears  her  own  breast  to  feed  them 
with  her  blood,  may  have  this  origin. 
The  pelican's  bill  also,  terminating  in  a 
strong,  curved,  crimson  tip  and  resting 
on  the  white  breast,  might  seem  to  be 
tinged  with  blood. 

PEN.  The  ancient  pen  was  a  stylus 
of  hardened  iron,  Jer.  17  : 1,  sometimes 
pointed  with  diamond,  for  writing  on 
hard  substances,  like  metallic  plates : 
when  waxen  tablets  were  used,  the  stylus 
had  one  end  made  broad  and  smooth, 
for  erasing  errors,  2  Kin.  21 :  13.  FOT 
parchment,  cloth,  and  similar  substances, 
a  reed  pen  was  used,  or  a  fine  hair  pen 
cil,  with  ink,  Judg.  5:14;  Job  19  :  24 ; 
Isa.  8:1 ;  Jer.  30:23 ;  3  John  13. 


PEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PER 


PENI'EL,  or  PENU'EL,  a  town  beyond 
the  Jordan,  and  near  the  Jabbok ;  de 
fended  by  a  strong  tower,  which  Gideon 
broke  down  because  the  men  of  Penuel 
refused  to  aid  him  against  the  Midianites, 
Judg.  8  :  8-17.  It  was  restored  by  Jero 
boam  I.,  1  Kin.  12  :  25.  It  received  its 
name,  the  face  of  God,  from  Jacob's  there 
wrestling  with  the  Angel  Jehovah  face 
to  face,  Gen.  32:30. 

PENIN'NAH,  the  second  wife  of  Elka- 
nah  the  father  of  Samuel.  See  HANNAH. 
Their  story  illustrates  the  evils  of  polyg 
amy,  1  Sam.  1. 


PEN'NY,  the  Greek  drachma,  or  Ro 
man  denarius,  equivalent  to  about  four 
teen  cents.  In  reading  the  Scripture 
passages  in  which  this  word  occurs,  we 
should  consider  that  the  real  value  of 
money,  to  purchase  labor  or  commodi 
ties,  was  far  greater  then  than  now  ;  and 
also  that  even  the  nominal  value  of  the 
drachma  would  be  better  expressed  by 
"shilling,"  or  "franc,"  than  by  "pen 
ny."  Thus,  "two  hundred  shillings' 
worth  of  bread  would  not  suffice,"  Mark 
6 : 37  ;  "  he  took  out  two  francs  and  gave 
them  to  the  host, ' '  Luke  10  :  35.  So  in 
Rev.  6:6,  "a  measure  of  wheat  for  a 
penny ' '  expresses  to  the  English  reader 
the  idea  of  great  plenty ;  whereas  the 
original  indicates  a  distressing  scarcity. 
A  drachma  in  Christ's  time  was  good 
wages  for  a  day's  labor  in  a  vineyard, 
Matt,  20:2. 

PEN'TATEUCH,  the  five  books,  the 
books  of  Moses;  that  is,  Genesis,  Exo 
dus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuteronomy. 
See  articles  on  those  books,  and  also 
MOSES. 

PEN'TECOST,  the  fiftieth,  a  feast  cele 
brated  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  sixteenth 
of  Nisan,  which  was  the  second  day  of 
the  feast  of  the  passover,  Lev.  23:15,  16. 
The  Hebrews  call  it  the ' '  feast  of  weeks, " 
Ex.  34 :  22,  because  it  was  kept  seven 
weeks  after  the  passover.  They  then 
offered  the  first-fruits  of  their  wheat  har 
vest,  which  at  that  time  was  completed, 
Dent.  16  :  9,  10.  These  first-fruits  con- 
335 


sisted  in  two  loaves  of  leavened  bread, 
of  five  pints  of  meal  each,  Lev.  23  :  17. 
Besides  this  offering,  there  were  special 
sacrifices  prescribed  for  this  festival, 
Num.  28:26-31. 

The  feast  of  Pentecost  was  instituted, 
first,  to  oblige  the  Israelites  to  repair 
to  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  and  there 
acknowledge  his  dominion  over  their 
country  and  their  labors,  by  offering  to 
him  the  first-fruits  of  all  their  harvests. 
Secondly,  to  commemorate,  and  to  ren 
der  thanks  to  God  for  the  law  given 
from  mount  Sinai,  on  the  fiftieth  day 
after  their  coming  out  of  Egypt.  It  was 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  first  poured  out  upon  the 
apostles  and  the  Christian  church,  Acts 
2:1-3.  On  this  occasion,  as  on  the  Pass 
over  seven  weeks  before,  Judaism  was  at 
the  same  time  honored  and  gloriously 
superseded  by  Christianity.  The  paschal 
lamb  gave  place  to  "Christ  our  Pass 
over  ;"  and  the  Jewish  feast  in  memory 
of  the  giving  of  the  law,  to  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  for  "every  nation  under 
heaven,"  ver.  5.  This  gift  was  for  the 
whole  period  of  the  gospel  dispensation  ; 
and  the  mighty  effects  then  produced 
foreshow  the  yet  greater  works  the  Spir 
it  will  perform  in  answer  to  prayer. 

PE'OR,  a  mountain  of  Moab,  from 
which  Balaam  surveyed  the  camp  of 
Israel,  Num.  23  :  28.  It  probably  lay  a 
few  miles  north-east  of  the  Dead  sea,  but 
is  not  now  recognized.  This  name  and 
vicinity  are  also  associated  with  an  idol 
of  the  Moabites,  Deut.  4:8.  See  BAAL. 

PE'REZ-UZ'ZAH,   2  Sam.  6:8.     See 

UZZAII. 

PER'FUMES.  The  use  of  perfumes 
was  common  among  the  Hebrews  and 
the  orientals  generally,  before  it  was 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Remans.  Mo 
ses  also  speaks  of  the  art  of  the  per 
fumer,  in  the  English  Bible  "apothe 
cary;"  and  gives  the  composition  of  two 
perfumes,  of  which  one  was  to  be  offered 
to  the  Lord  on  the  golden  altar,  Ex. 
30  :  34-38,  and  the  other  to  be  used  for 
anointing  the  high-priest  and  his  sons, 
the  tabernacle,  and  the  vessels  of  divine 
service,  Ex.  30:23-33.  The  Hebrews 
had  also  perfumes  for  embalming  their 
dead.  The  composition  is  not  exactly 
known,  but  they  used  myrrh,  aloes,  and 
other  strong  and  astringent  drugs  prop 
er  to  prevent  infection  and  corruption. 
See  EMBALMING,  and  OINTMENT. 


PER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PER 


PER'GA,  a  city  of  Pamphylia,  Acts 
13  : 13  ;  11:  25.  This  is  not  a  maritime 
city,  but  is  situated  on  the  river  Oestrus, 
at  some  distance  from  its  mouth,  which 
has  long  been  obstructed  by  a  bar.  It 
was  one  of  the  most  considerable  cities 
in  Pamphylia ;  and  when  that  province 
was  divided  into  t\vo  parts,  this  city  be 
came  the  metropolis  of  one  part,  and 
Side  of  the  other.  On  a  neighboring 
mountain  was  a  splendid  temple  of  Di 
ana,  which  gave  celebrity  to  the  city. 

PER'GAMOS,  now  Bergamo,  a  city  of 
Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  the  residence 
of  the  Attalian  princes.  There  was  here 
collected  by  the  kings  of.  this  race  a  no 
ble  library  of  two  hundred  thousand  vol 
umes,  which,  after  the  country  was  ceded 
to  the  Rom  ins,  was  transported  to  Egypt 
for  Cleopatra,  and  added  to  the  library 
at  Alexandria.  Hence  the  word  parch 
ment,  from  the  Latin  pergamentum, 
Greek  pergamcne ;  great  quantities  of 
this  material  being  here  used,  and  its 
manufacture  perfected.  Pergamos  was 
the  birthplace  of  Galen,  and  contained  a 
famous  temple  of  Esculapius  the  god  of 
medicine,  who  was  worshipped  under 
the  form  of  a  living  serpent.  A  Chris 
tian  church  was  established  here  in  the 
apostolic  age,  and  was  adlrcsse  I  by  St. 
John,  Rev.  1  : 11;  '1 :  12.  The  modern 
city,  called  Bergamo,  lies  twenty  miles 
from  the  sea  on  the  north  side  of  the 
river  Caicus,  and  contains  twelve  thou 
sand  inhabitants.  A  large  castle  in  ruins 
stands  on  the  highest  of  three  mountains 
which  environ  the  town,  and  many  re 
mains  of  the  ancient  city  still  exist. 

PER'IZZITES,  Gen.  15:20,  ancient  in 
habitants  of  Palestine,  who  had  mingled 
•with  the  Cana  mites,  or  were  themselves 
descendants  of  Canaan.  They  appear  to 
have  dwelt  in  the  centre  of  Canaan,  Gen. 
34:30;  Josh.  11:3;  17:15;  Judg.  1:4,5; 
but  there  were  some  of  them  on  each  side 
of  the  river  Jordan,  in  the  mountains,  and 
in  the  plains.  In  several  places  of  Scrip 
ture,  the  Canaanites  and  Perizzites  are 
mentioned  as  the  chief  people  of  the  coun 
try  ;  as  in  the  time  of  Abraham  and  Lot, 
Gen.  13:7.  Some  remnants  of  this  race 
existed  in  Solomon's  day,  and  were  sub 
jected  by  him  to  a  tribute  of  service, 
1  Kin.  9:20.  See  CANAANITES. 

PER'SIA,  in  Hebrew  Paras,  Ezek. 
27  :  10,  a  vast  region  in  Asia,  the  south 
western  province  of  which  lying  between 
ancient  Media  on  the  north  and  the  Per- 
336 


sian  gulf  on  the  south,  appears  to  hare 
been  the  ancient  Persia,  and  is  still  call 
ed  Pharsistan,  or  Fars.  The  Persians, 
who  became  so  famous  after  Cyrus,  the 
founder  of  their  more  extended  monar 
chy,  were  anciently  called  Elamitcs  ;  and 
later,  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  emper 
ors,  Parthians.  See  PARTIIIA. 

The  early  history  of  the  Persians,  like 
that  of  most  of  the  oriental  nations,  is 
involved  in  doubt  and  perplexity.  Their 
descent  is  traced  to  Shem,  through  his 
son  Elam,  after  whom  they  were  original 
ly  named.  It  is  probable  that  they  enjoy 
ed  their  independence  for  several  ages, 
with  a  monarchical  succession  of  their 
own ;  until  they  were  subdued  by  the 
Assyrians,  and  their  country  attached  as 
a  province  to  that  empire.  From  this  pe 
riod,  both  sacred  and  profane  writers  dis 
tinguish  the  kingdom  of  the  Medcs  from 
that  of  the  Persians.  It  is  not  improba 
ble  that,  during  this  period,  petty  revo 
lutions  might  have  occasioned  temporary 
disjunctions  of  Persia  from  Assyria,  and 
that  the  Persian  king  was  quickly  again 
made  sensible  of  his  true  allegiance. 
When  Media  became  independent,  undei 
Dejoccs  and  then  Phraortcs,  Persia  be 
came  also  subject  to  its  sway,  as  a  tribu 
tary  kingdom.  Media  having  vanquish 
ed  her  great  rival  Assyria,  enjoyed  a  long 
interval  of  peace,  during  the  reign  of 
Astyages,  son  of  Cyaxarcs.  But  his  suc 
cessor,  Cyaxares  the  Second,  united  with 
the  Persians  against  the  Babylonians, 
and  gave  the  command  of  the  combined 
armies  to  Cyrus,  who  took  the  city  of 
Babylon,  killed  Belshazzar,  and  termi 
nated  that  kingdom  538  u.  c. 

Cyrus  succeeded  to  the  thrones  of  Me 
dia  and  Persia,  and  completed  the  union 
between  those  countries,  which  appear 
to  have  been  in  reality  but  two  nations 
of  the  same  race,  having  the  same  relig 
ion,  (see  MAGI  and  MEDIA,)  and  using 
languages  near  akin  to  each  other  and 
to  the  ancient  Sanscrit.  Previously  to 
their  union  under  Cyrus,  Daniel  speaks 
of  the  law  of  the  Modes  and  Persians  as 
being  the  same.  The  union  was  effected 
B.  c.  536.  The  principal  events  relating 
to  Scripture,  which  occurred  during  the 
reign  of  Cyrus,  were  the  restoration  of 
the  Jews,  the  rebuilding  of  the  city  and 
temple,  and  the  capture  of  Babylon,  u.  c. 
539,  Ezra  1  :  2.  His  dominion  extended 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  region  of 
the  Indus.  Cambyses  his  successor,  B.  c. 


PER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PET 


629,  added  Egypt  to  the  Persian  realm, 
and  the  supremacy  of  Egypt  and  Syria 
was  often  in  contest  during  subsequent 
reigns,  Ezra  4:6.  He  was  followed  by 
Smerdis  the  Magian,  B.  c.  522,  Ezra  4:7  ; 
Darius  Hystaspis,  B.  e.  521,  Ezra  5:6; 
Xerxes,  the  Ahasuerus  of  the  book  of 
Esther,  B.  c.  485 ;  Artabanus,  B.  c.  465 ; 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  B.  c.  464,  Neh. 
2:1;  Xerxes  II.,  B.  c.  424;  Sogdianus 
and  Darius  Nothus,  B.  c.  424  ;  Arta 
xerxes  Mnemon,  B.  c.  404  ;  Artaxerxes 
Ochus,  B.  c.  364 ;  Arses,  B.  c.  338 ;  and 
Darius  Codomanus,  B.  c.  335,  who  was 
subdued  and  slain  by  Alexander  of  Mace- 
don,  B.  c.  330.  In  the  seventh  century 
Persia  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Sara 
cens,  in  the  thirteenth  it  was  conquered 
by  Genghis  Khan,  and  in  the  fourteenth 
by  Tamerlane.  Modern  Persia  is  bound 
ed  north  by  Georgia,  the  Caspian  sea, 
and  Tartary ;  east  by  Afghanistan  and 
Beloochistan ;  south  by  Ormus  ;  and  west 
by  the  dominions  of  Turkey.  Its  inhab 
itants  retain  to  a  remarkable  extent  the 
manners  and  customs  of  ancient  Persia, 
of  which  we  have  so  vivid  a  picture  in 
Esther,  Ezra,  Nehcmiah,  and  Daniel. 

PER'SIS,  a  Roman  lady,  whom  Paul 
salutes,  Rom.  16:12,  and  calls  his  belov 
ed  sister. 

PES'TILENCE,  or  PLAGUE,  in  the  He 
brew  tongue,  as  in  most  others,  expresses 
all  sorts  of  distempers  and  calamities. 
The  Hebrew  word  which  properly  signi 
fies  "the  plague"  is  extended  to  all  epi 
demical  and  contagious  diseases.  The 
prophets  generally  connect  together  the 
sword,  the  pestilence,  and  the  famine, 
as  three  evils  which  usually  accompany 
each  other. 

The  glandular  plague,  which  in  mod 
ern  times  has  proved  so  fatal  in  the  East, 
is  the  most  virulent  and  contagious  of 
diseases.  In  the  fourteenth  century  it 
overran  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and 
25,000,000  are  estimated  to  have  died  of 
it  within  three  years.  Like  the  Asiatic 
cholera,  it  is  one  of  the  most  appalling 
scourges  sin  has  brought  on  this  world  ; 
and  may  in  this  point  of  view  correspond 
with  the  ' '  plagues ' '  referred  to  in  the 
Bible,  Ex.  9:14  ;  11:1 ;  1  Kin.  8:37. 

PE'TER.  This  name  in  Greek  signi 
fies  a  rock,  as  does  also  the  name  Cephas 
in  Syriac.  Peter  was  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles,  and  was  also  called  Simon, 
Matt.  16  :  17,  and  Simeon,  Acts  15  :  14. 
He  was  of  Bethsaida,  and  was  the  son  of 
15 


Jonas,  a  fisherman,  which  occupation  he 
also  followed.  After  his  marriage  he 
resided  at  Capernaum,  Matt.  8:14,  Luke 
4:38,  though  called  at  a  later  period  to 
labor  elsewhere  as  an  apostle,  and  it 
would  seem  often  accompanied  in  hia 
journeys  by  his  wife,  1  Cor.  9:5.  When 
first  introduced  to  Jesus  by  his  brother 
Andrew,  he  received  from  Him  the  name 
of  Peter,  John  1  : 42,  probably  in  refer 
ence  to  the  boldness  and  firmness  of  his 
character,  and  his  activity  in  promoting 
his  Master's  cause.  He  receiyed  his  sec 
ond  call,  and  began  to  accompany  Christ, 
at  the  sea  of  Galilee  near  his  residence, 
and  thenceforth  learned  to  be  a  "  fisher 
of  men,"  Matt.  4:18-20;  Luke  5:1-11. 
Many  remarkable  incidents  are  recorded 
in  the  gospels,  which  illustrate  his  char 
acter.  Among  these  are,  his  attempt  to 
walk  on  the  water  to  meet  Christ,  Matt. 
14  :  29  ;  his  avowal  of  the  Messiahship 
and  divinity  of  the  Saviour,  Matt.  16: 16 ; 
his  errors  as  to  the  design  of  Christ's  in 
carnation,  Matt.  16  :  22,  23  ;  his  warm 
attachment  to  the  divine  Teacher,  John 
6:67-69;  his  cutting  off  the  ear  of  Mal- 
chus,  John  18 :  10 ;  his  boastful  deter 
mination  to  adhere  to  his  Master  un 
der  all  circumstances,  and  his  subse 
quent  denial  of  Him  with  oaths,  Matt. 
26  :  74 ;  Mark  14  :  29  ;  John  13  :  37,  38 ; 
his  poignant  repentance,  Matt.  26  :  75, 
and  our  Lord's  forgiveness,  after  receiv 
ing  an  assurance  of  his  love,  which  was 
thrice  uttered  as  his  denial  of  Christ 
had  been,  John  21  : 15-18.  The  death 
and  resurrection  of  Christ,  and  the  cir 
cumstances  which  accompanied  them, 
led  to  a  wonderful  change  in  the  apos 
tle's  mind,  and  thenceforward  his  bold 
and  steadfast  course  is  worthy  of  bis 
name.  On  the  day  of  Pentecost,  he  was 
one  of  the  principal  witnesses  for  the 
Saviour  ;  in  company  with  John  he  soon 
after  healed  a  lame  man  at  the  temple 
gate,  addressed  the  assembled  crowd, 
was  imprisoned,  and  fearlessly  vindicat 
ed  himself  before  the  Sanhedrim,  Acts 
4  :  8-21.  We  find  him  afterwards  de 
nouncing  the  judgment  of  God  on  a 
guilty  couple  who  had  dared  to  lie  to 
the  Holy  Ghost,  Acts  5  :  1-11 ;  visiting 
Samaria,  .and  rebuking  Simon  the  ma 
gician,  Acts  8:5-24  ;  healing  ^Eneas  and 
raising  Dorcas  to  life  at  Lydda,  Acts 
9:32-43  ;  seeing  at  Joppa  a  vision  which 
prepared  him  to  preach  the  gospel  to 
the  gentile  Cornelius,  Acts  10;  impris- 
337 


PHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHA 


oned  by  Herod  Agrippa,  and  delivered 
by  an  angel,  Acts  12  :  3-19  ;  and  taking 
a  part  in  the  council  at  Jerusalem,  Acts 
15:7-11.  The  Bible  gives  us  little  infor 
mation  as  to  his  subsequent  labors  ;  but 
it  is  probable  that  the  three  apostles  who 
were  most  distinguished  by  the  Saviour 
while  upon  earth  continued  to  be  favored 
as  chief  instruments  in  advancing  his 
cause.  Paul  speaks  of  "James,  Cephas, 
and  John,  who  seemed  to  be  pillars," 
Gal.  2:9.  Yet  in  the  same  chapter  we 
find  him  publicly  reproving  Peter  for  his 
wavering  course  in  respect  to  the  de 
mands  of  Judaizing  Christians,  which  he 
had  been  one  of  the  iirst  to  repel  at  Je 
rusalem,  Acts  15  :  9.  He  seems  to  have 
labored  at  Corinth,  1  Cor.  1  :  12 ;  3  :  22, 
and  at  Babylon,  1  Pet.  5  :  13.  Papal 
writers  affirm  that  he  was  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  But  the  evidence  is  strongly 
against  this  assertion.  Paul  wrote  to 
the  Roman  Christians,  giving  them  di 
rections  and  saluting  the  principal  per 
sons  by  name  ;  he  also  wrote  six  letters 
from  Rome  ;  but  in  none  of  these  letters, 
nor  in  the  narrative  in  Acts,  is  there  the 
slightest  intimation  that  Peter  was  or 
had  been  at  Rome.  And  as  Peter  never 
resided  at  Rome,  he  was  never  made  the 
head  of  the  church  universal.  Whatev 
er  honor  and  authority  he  received  from 
Christ,  in  establishing  the  first  institu 
tions  of  Christianity  and  declaring  what 
it  enjoined  and  from  what  it  released, 
Matt.  16  :  18,  19,  the  other  apostles  also 
received,  Matt.  18  :  18  ;  John  20  :  23 ; 
1  Cor.  5 :  3,  5  ;  Eph.  2  :  20  ;  Rev.  21:14. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  he  had  any 
supremacy  over  them,  nor  that  he  had 
any  successor  in  that  influence  which 
was  naturally  accorded  to  him  as  one  of 
the  oldest,  most  active,  and  most  faith 
ful  of  those  who  had  "  seen  the  Lord." 

EPISTLES  OF  PETER.  We  have  two 
epistles  attributed  to  Peter  by  the  com 
mon  consent  of  the  Christian  church. 
The  genuineness  of  the  first  has  never 
been  disputed ;  it  is  referred  to  as  his 
accredited  work  by  several  of  the  apos 
tolical  fathers.  It  appears  to  have  been 
addressed  to  Christian  churches  in  Asia 
Minor,  composed  primarily  of  converted 
Jews  and  proselytes,  but  including  many 
converts  from  paganism,  1  Pet.  4:3.  It 
was  written  probably  at  Babylon  on  the 
Euphrates,  1  Pet.  6  :  13.  See  BABYLON. 
Some,  however,  interpret  this  of  Rome, 
and  others  of  a  petty  town  in  Egypt  call- 
338 


ed  Babylon.  The  "fiery  trials "  throngb 
which  the  church  was  then  passing  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  persecutions 
in  the  latter  years  of  Nero's  reign,  which 
terminated  A.  D.  68.  Peter  exhorts  them 
to  faith,  obedience,  and  patience,  in  view 
of  the  truth  of  the  gospel  and  the  cer 
tainty  of  salvation  in  Christ. 

The  second  epistle  was  addressed  to 
the  same  persons  as  the  former  one  ;  its 
general  design  being  to  confirm  the  doc 
trines  which  had  been  delivered  in  that, 
and  to  excite  the  Christian  converts  to  a 
course  of  conduct  becoming  in  every  re 
spect  their  high  profession  of  attachment 
to  Christ.  This  epistle  was  less  confident 
ly  ascribed  to  the  great  ' '  apostle  of  the 
circumcision,"  by  the  early  church,  than 
the  first  epistle.  There  is  no  sufficient 
ground,  however,  for  doubting  its  canon 
ical  authority,  or  that  Peter  was  its  au 
thor,  2  Pet.  1:1,  18  ;  3:1.  Compare  also 
1  Pet.  3:20;  2  Pet.  2:5.  In  many  pas 
sages  it  resembles  the  epistle  of  Jude. 


PHA'RAOH  is  properly  an  Egyptian 
word  adopted  into  the  Hebrew,  and  sig 
nifies  king ;  so  that  when  we  find  this 
name,  it  means  everywhere  the  king. 
Thus,  also,  Pharaoh  Hophra  is  simply 
king  Hophra.  The  above  cut,  from  an 
Egyptian  monument,  represents  a  Pha^ 
raoh's  daughter,  probably  Shishak's. 

Of  the  kings  of  Egypt,  there  are  not 
less  than  twelve  or  thirteen  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  all  of  whom  bore  the  gen 
eral  title  of  Pharaoh,  except  four.  Along 
with  this  title,  two  of  them  have  also 
other  proper  names,  Necho  and  Hophra. 


PHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHA 


The  following  is  their  order.  Some  of 
them  have  been  identified,  by  the  labors 
of  Champollion  and  others,  with  kings 
whose  proper  names  we  know  from  other 
sources,  while  others  still  remain  in  ob 
scurity.  Indeed,  so  brief,  obscure,  and 
conflicting  are  the  details  of  Egyptian 
history  and  ancient  chronology,  that  no 
name  before  that  of  Shishak  can  be  re 
garded  as  identified  beyond  dispute. 

1.  PHARAOH,  Gen.  12  : 15,  in  the  time  of  Abra 
ham,  B.  c.  1920.     He  was  probably  a  king  of 
the  Theban  dynasty. 

2.  PHARAOH,  the  master    of  Joseph,   Gen. 
37  : 36  ;  39-50  ;  Acts  7  : 10,  13,  B.  c.  1728.     Some 
suppose  that  the  Pharaoh  to  whom  Joseph 
became  prime  minister  was  the  son  of  the  one 
mentioned  in  Gen.  37  : 36. 

3.  PHARAOH,  who  knew  not  Joseph,  and  un 
der  whom  Moses  was  born,  B.  c.  1571,  Ex.  1:8; 
Acts  7  :18;  Heb.  11:23. 

Very  probably  there  was  another  Pharaoh 
reigning  at  the  time  when  Moses  fled  into 
Midian,  and  who  died  before  Moses  at  the  age 
of  eighty  returned  from  Midiau  into  Egypt, 
Ex.  -1 : 11-23  ;  4  : 19  ;  Acts  7  : 23. 

4.  PHARAOH,  under  whom  the  Israelites  left 
Egypt,  and  who  perished  in  the  Red  sea,  Ex. 
5-14  ;   2  Kin.  17  :  7  ;    Neh.  9  : 10  ;   Psa.  135  : 9  ; 
136  : 15  ;  Rom.  9  : 17  ;  Heb.  11  : 27,  B.  c.  1491. 

5.  PHARAOH,  in  the  time  of  David,  1  Kin. 
11  : 18-22,  B.  c.  1030. 

6.  PHARAOH,  the  father  in-law  of  Solomon, 
1  Kin.  3:1;  7:8;  9  : 16,  24,  B.  c.  1010. 

7.  SHISHAK,  near  the  end  of  Solomon's  reign, 
and  under  Rehoboam,  B.  c.  975,  1  Kin.  11  :40 ; 
14  : 25  ;  2  Chr.  12  :2.    From  this  time  onward 
the  proper  names  of  the  Egyptian  kings  are 
mentioned  in  Scripture.     See  SHISHAK. 

8.  ZERAH,  king  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  in  the 
time  of  Asa,  B.  c.  930  ;  called  Usorchon  by  his 
torians.     See  ZERAH. 

9.  So,  or  Sevechus,  contemporary  with  Ahaz, 
B.  c.  730,  2  Kin.  17  :4.     See  So. 

10.  TIRHAKAH,  king  of  Ethiopia  and  Egypt, 
in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  B.  c.  720,  2  Kin.  19  :  9; 
Is  a.  37  : 9.     The  Tearcho  of  Strabo,  and  the 
Taracles  of  Manetho.     See  TIRHAKAH. 

11.  PHARAOH  NECHO,  in  the  time  of  Josiah, 
B.  c.  612,  2  Kin.  23  : 29,  30,  etc.  ;  2  Chr.  35  :20- 
24,  etc.    Necho,  the  son  of  Psammeticus.    See 
NECHO. 

12.  PHARAOH  HOPHRA,  contemporary  with 
Nebuchadnezzar.     He  was  the  grandson  of 
Necho,  and  is  the  Apries  of  Herodotus.     Zed- 
ekiah  formed  an  alliance  with  him  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  he  drove  the  Assyrian^ 
from  Palestine,  took  Zidon  and  Tyre,  and  re 
turned  :o  Egypt  with  great  spoil.     He  seems 
to  have  done  nothing  to  prevent  the  subse 
quent  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Jer.  37  : 1-5  • 
47  : 1  ;  Ezek.  29-32.      He  reigned  twenty-fiy« 
years,  and  was  dethroned  by  hi-  ;*rmy  after 
an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  Cyrene, 
as  was  foretold,  Jer.  44  :30. 

PHARISEES,  a  numerous  and  domi 
nant  sect  of  the  Jews,  agreeing  on  some 
main  points  of  doctrine  and  practice,  but 
divided  into  different  parties  or  schools 
on  minor  points ;  as  for  instance,  the 


schools  or  followers  of  Hillel  and  Sham- 
mai,  who  were  celebrated  rabbins  or 
teachers.  The  name  is  commonly  de 
rived  from  the  Hebrew  purash,  to  sep 
arate,  as  though  they  were  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  the  nation  by  their  supe 
rior  wisdom  and  sanctity.  They  first  ap 
peared  as  a  sect  after  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  captivity.  In  respect  to  their 
tenets,  although  they  esteemed  the  writ 
ten  books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  the 
sources  of  the  Jewish  religion,  yet  they 
also  attributed  great  and  equal  authority 
to  traditional  precepts  relating  principally 
to  external  rites  :  as  ablutions,  fastings, 
long  prayers,  the  distribution  of  alms, 
the  avoiding  of  all  intercourse  with  Gen 
tiles  and  publicans,  etc.  See  Matt.  6:5; 
9:11;  23:5;  Mark  7:4 ;  Luke  18:12.  In 
superstitious  and  self-righteous  formal-  ' 
ism  they  strongly  resembled  the  Romish 
church.  They  were  rigid  interpreters 
of  the  letter  of  the  Mosaic  law,  but  not 
unfrequently  violated  the  spirit  of  it  by 
their  traditional  and  philosophical  inter 
pretations.  See  Matt.  5:31,  43  ;  12  :  2  ; 
19:3  ;  23:23.  Their  professed  sanctity  and 
close  adherence  to  all  the  external  forms 
of  piety,  gave  them  great  favor  and  influ 
ence  with  the  common  people,  and  espec 
ially  among  the  female  part  of  the  com 
munity.  They  believed  with  the  Stoics, 
that  all  things  and  events  were  controlled 
by  fate  ;  yet  not  so  absolutely  as  entirely 
to  destroy  the  liberty  of  the  human  will. 
They  considered  the  soul  as  immortal, 
and  held  the  doctrine  of  a  future  resur 
rection  of  the  body,  Acts  23 : 8.  It  is  also 
supposed  by  some  that  they  admitted 
the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  or  the 
transmigration  of  souls ;  but  no  allu 
sion  is  made  to  this  in  the  New  Testa 
ment,  nor  does  Josephus  assert  it.  In 
numerous  cases  Christ  denounced  the 
Pharisees  for  their  pride  and  covetous - 
ness,  their  ostentation  in  prayers ;  arms, 
tithes,  and  fasts,  Matt.  0:2,  6,  Luke 
18  :  9,  and  their  hypocrisy  in  employing 
the  garb  of  religion  to  cover  the  profli 
gacy  of  their  dispositions  and  conduct  • 
as  Matt.  23  ;  Luke  16  : 14 ;  John  7  :  48, 
49 ;  8  :  9.  By  his  faithful  reproofs  he 
early  incurred  their  hatred,  Matt.  12:14  ; 
they  eagerly  sought  to  destroy  him,  and 
his  blood  was  upon  them  and  their  chil 
dren.  On  the  other  hand,  there  appear 
to  have  been  among  them  individuals  of 
probity,  and  even  of  genuine  piety  ;  as 
|  in  the  case  of  Joseph  of  Arirnathea,  Nio- 
339 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHI 


odemus,  the  aged  Simeon,  etc.,  Matt. 
27 :  57  ;  Luke  2  :  25  ;  John  3 : 1.  Saul  of 
Tarsus  was  a  Pharisee  of  the  strictest 
sect,  Acts  26: 5;  Gal.  1:14.  The  essen 
tial  features  of  their  character  are  still 
common  in  Christian  lands,  and  are  no 
less  odious  to  Christ  than  of  old. 

PHAR'PAR,  a  river  of  Damascus.  See 
in  ABANA. 

PHE'BE,  or  PIICE'BE,  a  Christian  wom 
an  of  Cenchrea,  the  eastern  port  of  Cor 
inth,  hearer  of  the  epistle  of  Paul  to  the 
Komans,  in  which  he  commends  her  to 
their  confidence  and  Christian  love.  She 
appears  to  have  been  a  deaconess  of  the 
church,  and  to  have  had  both  the  means 
and  the  disposition  to  do  good  abun 
dantly.  Paul  says,  "she  hath  been  a 
succorer  of  many,  and  of  me  also,"  Rom. 
16:1,  2.  One  who  succors  a  faithful  ser 
vant  of  Christ  may  thereby  aid  in  the 
accomplishment  of  immeasurable  good. 
The  Holy  Spirit  presents  the  character 
and  works  of  Phoebe  as  worthy  of  all 
imitation.  Such  mothers  in  Israel  will 
be  held  in  everlasting  remembrance. 

PHE'NICE,  a  city  near  the  south  coast 
of  Crete,  having  a  harbor,  now  called  Lu- 
tro,  opening  to  the  south-east.  Paul,  on 
his  voyage  to  Rome  from  CaBsarea,  was 
unable  to  make  this  port,  Acts  27 : 12. 

PHENI'CIA,  or  PHENICE.  See  PIKE- 
NICIA. 

PHI'CHOL,  apparently  the  title  borne 
by  the  ' '  captain  of  the  host ' '  of  the  king 
of  Gerar,  in  the  time  of  Abraham  and 
Isaac,  Gen.  21:22;  26:26. 

PHILADELPHIA,  a  city  of  Lydia,  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  was  one  of  the  seven 
Asiatic  churches,  highly  praised  by  Christ 
for  its  fidelity,  Rev.  3  :  7-13.  Philadel 
phia  was  so  called  from  Attains  Philadel- 
phus,  king  of  Pergamos,  by  whom  it  was 
founded.  It  stood  between  the  river 
Hermus  and  mount  Tmolus,  about  twen 
ty-eight  miles  south-east  of  Sardis.  It 
suffered  greatly  by  frequent  earthquakes, 
and  it  was  anciently  matter  of  surprise 
that  the  city  was  not  on  this  account 
abandoned.  It  is  now  a  mean  and  ill- 
built  town,  of  large  extent,  with  a  pop- 
alation  of  12,000,  including  about  1,000 
Greek  Christians,  who  have  a  resident 
bishop  and  about  twenty  inferior  cler 
gy.  There  are  five  churches,  and  six 
mosques,  one  of  which  the  native  Chris 
tians  believe  to  have  been  the  church  in 
which  worshipped  the  primitive  Chris 
tians  whom  John  addressed. 
340 


PHILEMON,  a  rich  citizen  of  Colosse, 
in  Phrygia,  to  whom  Paul  wrote  an  epis 
tle,  on  occasion  of  sending  back  to  him 
his  servant  Onesimus.  Philemon,  convert 
ed  by  the  instrumentality  of  Paul,  is  ex 
horted  to  receive  Onesimus  as  "  a  brother 
beloved."  Paul  was  then  a  prisoner  at 
Rome.  His  letter  is  universally  admired 
for  its  delicacy,  courtesy,  and  manliness. 
See  ONESIMUS,  arid  EPISTLE. 

PHILE'TUS,  a  heretic,  excluded  from 
the  church  for  denying  the  resurrection, 
and  promoting  infidelity,  2  Tim.  2  :  17, 
18.  See  HYMENEUS. 

PHIL'IP,    I.,    THE   TETRARCH,    a   SOn   of 

Herod  the  Great,  by  his  wife  Cleopatra. 
In  the  division  of  Herod's  kingdom, 
he  was  made  tetrarch  of  Batanea,  Tra- 
chonitis,  and  Auranitis,  Luke  3:1.  See 
HEROD  I.  From  him  the  city  of  Cassarea 
Philippi  took  its  name.. 

II.  HEROD  PHILIP,  another  son  of  Her 
od  the  Great  by  Mariamne  the  daughter 
of  Simon,  not  his   favorite   Mariamne. 
By  Joscphus  he  is  called  Herod.     He 
lived  a  private  life,  having  been  disin 
herited  by  his  father ;  and  was  the  for 
mer  husband  of  Herodias,  Matt.  14  :  3. 
See  HERODIAS. 

III.  THE  APOSTLE,  a  native  of  Beth- 
saida,  a  disciple  at  first  of  John  the  Bap 
tist,  and  one  of  the  twelve  who  were  ear 
liest  called  to  follow  Christ,  Matt.  10:3  ; 
John  1:43-48  ;  Acts  1:13.   He  is  several 
times  mentioned  in   the  gospels,  John 
6:5-7;  12:21;  14:8-10.     Tradition  says 
that  he  preached  the  gospel  in  Phrygia, 
and  died  at  Hierapolis  in  Syria. 

IV.  The  DEACON  and  EVANGELIST,  Acts 
6:5;  21  :  8 ;  Eph.  4:11;  a  resident  of 
C;esarea,  at  least  during  one  portion  of 
his  life,  having  four  daughters  who  were 
endowed  with  the  gift  of  prophecy,  Acts 
2:17  ;  21:8,  9.     After  the  death  of  Ste 
phen,  when  the  Christians  were  driven 
from  Jerusalem,  except  the  apostles,  he 
preached  the  gospel    in    Samaria  with 
great  success,  and  wrought  many  mira 
cles.     From  the  midst  of  these  happy 
scenes  he  was  called  away  to  labor  in  a 
distant  spot,  with  a  single  soul ;  but  the 
gospel  light  was  carried  by  the  Ethio 
pian  eunuch  into  the  darkness  of  Africa, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  there  enlight 
ened  multitudes.     In  the  narrative  of 
Luke,  Philip  is  incidentally  distinguish 
ed  from  the  apostles,  Acts  8 :  1,  14,  16. 
He  preached  the  gospel  in  the  cities  on 
the    coast,    from    Ashdod   to   Cassarea, 


PHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHI 


where  at  a  later  period  Paul  and  his 
companions  were  his  guests  for  "many 
days,"  Acts  21:8-16.  His  subsequent 
history  is  unknown. 

PHILIP' PI,  a  city  of  proconsular  Mac 
edonia,  so  called  from  Philip  king  of 
Macedon,  who  repaired  and  beautified 
it ;  whence  it  lost  its  former  name  of 
Dathos.  It  was  constituted  a  lloman 
"colony"  by  Augustus,  and  as  such 
possessed  certain  peculiar  privileges, 
which  made  it  a  "  chief  city  of  that  part 
of  Macedonia."  This  expression,  how 
ever,  is  supposed  to  mean,  in  Acts  16: 12, 
that  it  was  the  first  city  the  traveller 
met  after  landing  at  its  port  Neapolis, 
from  which  it  lay  ten  miles  north-west 
on  an  extensive  plain.  Here  was  fought 
the  celebrated  battle  in  which  Brutus 
and  Cassius  were  overthrown  by  Octa- 
vius  and^  Antony,  B.  c.  42.  Here,  too, 
Paul  firs't  preached  the  gospel  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  A.  D.  52,  having 
been  led  hither  from  Troas  by  a  heaven 
ly  vision.  The  first  convert  was  Lydia  ; 
and  the  church  which  at  once  sprang  up 
here  was  characterized  by  the  distinguish 
ed  traits  of  this  generous  and  true-heart 
ed  Christian  woman.  Having  cast  out  a 
spirit  of  divination  from  a  young  damsel 
here,  Paul  and  Silas  were  seized  and  cru 
elly  scourged  and  imprisoned.  But  their 
bonds  were  miraculously  loosed,  their 
jailor  converted,  and  they  permitted  to 
pass  on  to  Amphipolis.  Luke  appears  to 
have  remained  here,  and  to  have  rejoin 
ed  Paul  when  he  again  visited  Philippi 
on  his  fifth  journey  to  Jerusalem,  A.  D. 
58,  Acts  16  :  8-40  ;  20  :  3-6.  The  site  is 
now  strowri  with  ruins. 

Paul's  EPISTLE  TO  THE  PuiLiPPiANS,  writ 
ten  during  his  first  imprisonment  at 
Rome,  A.  D.  62,  gratefully  and  warmly 
acknowledges  the  receipt  of  their  gift  by 
the  hand  of  Epaphroditus,  and  their  con 
tinued  affection  towards  him  ;  also  their 
irreproachable  Christian  walk,  and  their 
firmness  under  persecution,  Phil.  1:7, 
28,  29  ;  2:12  ;  4:10-15.  See  also  2  Cor. 
8:1,  2. 

PHILISTINES,  a  celebrated  people, 
who  inhabited  the  southern  seacoast  of 
Canaan,  which  from  them  took  the  name 
of  Philistia,  Psa.  60  :  8  ;  108:9,  or  Pales 
tine.  They  seem  originally  to  have  mi 
grated  from  Egypt  to  Caphtor,  by  which 
some  understand  Crete,  and  others  with 
the  ancients  Cappadocia,  Gen.  10  :  14, 
and  thence  to  have  passed  over  to  Pal 


estine  under  the  name  of  Caphtorim, 
where  they  drove  out  the  Avim,  who 
dwelt  from  Hazerim  to  Azzah,  that  is, 
Gaza,  and  dwelt  in  their  stead,  Deut. 
2  :  23.  The  country  they  inhabited  lay 
between  the  higher  land  of  Judea  and 
the  Mediterranean,  and  was  in  the  main 
a  level  and  fertile  territory.  It  resem 
bles  our  own  western  prairies  ;  and  bears 
splendid  crops  year  after  year,  though 
miserably  cultivated  and"  never  ma 
nured. 

The  Philistines  were  a  powerful  people 
in  Palestine,  even  in  Abraham's  time, 
B.  c.  1900,  for  they  had  then  kings  and 
considerable  cities,  Gen.  20  :  2  ;  21  :  32  ; 
Ex.  13  :  17.  They  are  not  enumerated 
among  the  nations  devoted  to  extermi 
nation  with  the  seed  of  Canaan.  Joshua, 
however,  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  them 
by  command  from  the  Lord,  because  they 
possessed  various  districts  promised  to 
Israel.  But  these  conquests  must  have 
been  ill-maintained,  since  under  the 
judges,  at  the  time  of  Saul,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  David,  the 
Philistines  had  their  own  kings  and  lords. 
Their  state  was  divided  into  five  little 
principalities,  at  the  head  of  each  of  which 
was  a  "lord,"  namely,  Gaza,  Ashkelon, 
Ashdod,  Gath,  and  Ekron — and  they  op 
pressed  Israel  during  the  government  of 
the  high-priest  Eli,  that  of  Samuel,  and 
during  the  reign  of  Saul,  for  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years.  Shamgar, 
Samson,  Samuel,  and  Saul  opposed  them, 
and  were  victorious  over  them  with  great 
slaughter,  at  various  times,  but  did  not 
destroy  their  power,  Judg.  3:14  ;  1  Sam. 
4;  7;  14;  31.  They  maintained  their 
independence  till  David  subdued  them, 
2  Sam.  5  : 17  ;  8,  from  which  time  they 
continued  in  subjection  to  the  kings  of 
Judah,  down  to  the  reign  of  Jehoram, 
son  of  Jehoshaphat,  when  they  revolt 
ed,  2  Chr.  21  : 16.  Jehoram  made  war 
against  them,  and  probably  reduced 
them  to  obedience  ;  for  it  is  observed  that 
they  revolted  again  from  Uzziah,  who 
kept  them  under  his  sway  during  his 
whole  reign,  2  Chr.  26:6,  7.  During  the 
unfortunate  reign  of  Ahaz,  the  Philis 
tines  made  great  havoc  in  the  territory 
of  Judah  ;  but  his  son  and  successor 
Hezekiah  again  subdued  them,  2  Chr. 
28  :  18  ;  2  Kin.  18  :  8.  They  regained 
their  full  liberty,  however,  under  the 
later  kings  of  Judah  ;  and  we  see  by  the 
menaces  uttered  against  them  by  the 
341 


PHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHI 


prophets  Isaiah,  Amos,  Zephaniah,  Jer 
emiah,  and  Ezekiel.  that  they  brought 
many  calamities  on  Israel,  for  which  God 
threatened  to  punish  them  with  great 
misfortunes,  Jer.  47  ;  Ezek.  25:15 ;  Amos 
1  :  6-8 ;  Obad.  19  ;  Zech.  9  :  5.  See  also 
Neh.  13  :  23.  They  were  partially  sub 
dued  by  Esar-haddon  king  of  Assyria, 
and  afterwards  by  Psammetichus  king 
of  Egypt ;  and  there  is  great  probability 
that  they  were  reduced  by  Nebuchad 
nezzar,  as  well  as  the  other  people  of 
Syria,  Phosnicia,  and  Palestine,  during 
the  siege  of  Tyre.  They  afterwards  fell 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Persians  ; 
then  under  that  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
who  destroyed  Gaza,  the  only  city  of  the 
Philistines  *  that  dared  to  oppose  him. 
They  appear  to  have  become  entirely 
incorporated  with  the  other  inhabitants 
of  the  land  under  the  Maccabees,  and 
are  no  more  mentioned  as  a  distinct  peo 
ple.  The  ancient  Philistines  appear  in 
sacred  history  as  a  warlike  people,  not 
strangers  to  the  arts  of  life,  Judg.  15 : 5  ; 
1  Sam.  13  :  20  ;  worshippers  of  Baal  and 
Ashtoreth,.  under  the  names  of  Baal-zc- 
bub  and  Dagon  ;  having  many  priests 
and  diviners,  1  Sam.  6  :  2  ;  2  Kin.  1:2; 
Isa.  2  :  6.  They  appear  to  have  been  of 
the  race  of  Shem,  their  language  being 
akin  to  the  Hebrew,  yet  distinct  from  it, 
Neh.  13  :  24.  Their  land,  once  rich  and 
covered  with  cities  and  towns,  is  now 
desolate,  Zeph.  2:4-7. 

PHILOS'OPHY,  love  of  wisdom,  in  the 
New  Testament  means  the  vain  and  per 
nicious  speculations  of  human  reason ; 
the  wisdom  of  this  world,  and  ' '  science 
falsely  so  called,"  1  Cor.  1 : 18-27  ;  1  Tim. 
6:20,  in  opposition  to  gospel  truth.  Paul 
cautioned  the  Colossians  lest  any  man 
should  spoil  or  plunder  them  through 
"  philosophy,"  Col.  2:8  ;  and  it  is  one  of 
the  most  melancholy  proofs  of  the  deprav 
ity  of  the  human  heart,  that  it  has  been 
able  so  to  pervert  that  noble  faculty, 
the  reason.  The  loftiest  human  intel 
lects  have  often  been  the  blindest  as  to 
religious  truth  ;  and  the  range  and  vigor 
of  men's  reasoning  powers  have  been  the 
measure,  not  of  their  knowledge  and 
love  of  God,  but  of  their  pride,  rebellion, 
and  folly,  Matt.  11 :  25  ;  1  Cor.  2  :  14  ; 
3 : 18-20.  In  Athens,  the  Epicurean  and 
Stoic  philosophers  made  a  jest  of  Paul's 
discourses;  and  in  many  places  of  his 
epistles,  he  opposes  the  false  wisdom  of 
the  age,  that  is,  the  pagan  philosophy, 
342 


to  the  wisdom  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the 
true  religion,  which  to  the  philosophers 
and  sophists  seemed  to  be  mere  folly, 
because  it  was  built  neither  on  the  elo 
quence  nor  the  subtlety  of  those  who 
preached  it,  but  on  the  power  of  God, 
and  on  the  operations  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
in  the  hearts  and  minds  of  believers ; 
and  because  it  did  not  amuse  and  flatter 
man,  but  proved  him  a  guilty  rebel 
against  God,  in  perishing  need  of  a  Sav° 
iour. 

As  there  arose,  under  the  influence 
of  philosophy,  several  sects  among  the 
Greeks,  as  the  Academics,  the  Peripa 
tetics,  and  the  Stoics,  so  also  there  arose 
among  the  Jews  several  sects,  as  the 
Essenes,  the  Pharisees,  aud  the  Saddu- 
cees.  The  Pharisees  had  some  resem 
blance  to  the  Stoics,  the  Sadducees  to 
the  Epicureans,  and  the  Essenes  to  the 
Academics.  The  Pharisees  were  proud, 
vain,  and  boasting,  like  the  Stoics ;  the 
Sadducees,  who  denied  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  and  the  existence  of  spirits, 
freed  themselves  at  once,  like  the  Epi 
cureans,  from  all  solicitude  about  futu 
rity  :  the  Essenes  were  more  moderate, 
more  simple  and  religious,  and  therefore 
approached  nearer  to  the  Academics. 

The  danger  against  which  Paul  warn 
ed  the  church  in  his  day  still  exists. 
Pride  of  intellect  naturally  allies  itself 
with  the  atheism  and  impenitence  of  the 
heart,  refuses  to  yield  to  the  claims  of 
revelation,  and  rejects  whatever  dis 
pleases  its  taste  or  rises  above  its 'com 
prehension.  True  wisdom,  on  the  con 
trary,  is  humble  and  docile.  "Whoso 
ever  shall  not  receive  the  kingdom  of 
God  as  a  little  child,  shall  in  no  wise 
enter  therein." 

PHIN'EHAS,  I.,  son  of  Eleazar,  and 
grandson  of  Aaron  the  high-priest.  His 
zealous  and  decided  character  was  shown 
in  the  prompt  execution  of  the  profligate 
prince  of  Judah,  and  his  companion  a 
woman  of  Midian,  in  the  plains  of  Moab, 
Num.  25.  For  this  bold  and  timely  ser 
vice,  the  high-priesthood  was  secured  to 
his  family,  also  remaining  faithful ;  and 
except  during  an  interval  from  Eli  to 
Zadok,  his  posterity  were  at  the  head  of 
the  priesthood  till  the  destruction  of  the 
temple.  Phinehas  led  the  host  of  Israel 
.in  the  subsequent  battle  with  the  Mid- 
ianites,  Num.  31  :  6;  Psa.  106  :  30,  31. 
He  was  at  the  head  of  the  deputation 
sent  to  remonstrate  with  the  tribes  be- 


PIKE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PHY 


•yond  the  Jordan  respecting  the  altar 
they  had  erected,  Josh.  '22  :  5-34.  Dur 
ing  the  life  of  his  father,  he  was  super 
intendent  of  the  Levites,  Num.  3  :  32 ; 
and  afterwards  became  the  high-priest, 
Josh.  24  :  33,  and  as  such  communicated 
the  will  of  God  as  to  the  punishment  of 
the  men  of  Gibeah,  Judg.  20:28. 

II.  A  son  of  Eli  the  high-priest.     See 

HOPHNI. 

PH(ENI'CIA,  PIIENICIA,  or  PHENICE, 
Acts  15  :  3,  in  its  largest  sense,  designat 
ed  a  narrow  strip  of  country  extending, 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  from  An- 
tioch  to  the  borders  of  Egypt.  But  Phoe 
nicia  Proper  was  included  between  the 
cities  of  Laodicea  in  Syria  and  Tyre,  and 
comprehended  mainly  the  territories  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon.  Before  Joshua  conquer 
ed  Palestine  this  country  was  possessed 
by  Canaanites,  sons  of  Ham,  divided  into 
eleven  families,  of  which  the  most  pow 
erful  was  that  of  Canaan,  the  founder  of 
Sidon,  and  head  of  the  Canaanites  prop 
erly  so  called,  whom  the  Greeks  named 
Phoenicians.  Only  these  preserved  their 
independence  under  Joshua,  and  also 
under  David,  Solomon,  and  the  succeed 
ing  kings  ;  but  they  were  subdued  by 
the  kings  of  Assyria  and  Chaldea.  Af 
terwards,  they  were  successively  subject 
to  the  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 

The  Phoenicians  were  long  renowned 
as  a  rich,  cultivated,  and  powerful  peo 
ple.  They  were  a  confederacy  of  com 
mercial  cities,  each  of  which  with  the 
adjacent  territory  was  subject  to  its  own 
king.  Their  coast  was  crowded  with 
towns  ;  and  their  fleets  were  the  first  to 
lose  sight  of  the  shores,  traverse  the 
whole  Mediterranean,  and  establish  their 
commerce  and  their  colonies  even  on  re 
mote  coasts  of  Europe  and  Africa.  The 
productions  of  all  known  lands  were 
exchanged  in  their  markets,  Ezek.  27., 
Carthage,  the  early  rival  of  Rome,  was 
a  Phoenician  colony ;  as  were  also  Cadiz 
and  Tarshish  in  Spain,  Ezek.  38  : 13. 
Their  language  was  almost  identical  with 
that  of  the  Jews,  and  may  be  traced  in 
the  names  of  several  Spanish  cities.  Sol 
omon  was  indebted  to  them  for  aid  in 
erecting  the  temple,  and  in  building  and 
navigating  his  ships.  See  TYRE.  Their 
territory  lay  between  the  seashore  and 
the  summits  of  Lebanon  ;  and  being  well 
watered  and  fertile,  it  produced  at  its 
various  elevations  a  rich  variety  of  agri 


cultural  products.     Its  inhabitants  were 
worshippers  of  Baal  and  Ashtoreth. 

At  this  day,  Phoenicia  i«  in  subjection 
to  the  Turks,  and  belongs  in  the  pasha- 
lie  of  Acre,  not  having  had  any  national 
or  native  kings,  or  any  independent  form 
of  government,  for  more  than  two  thou 
sand  years.  The  name  Phoenicia  is  not 
in  the  books  of  Hebrew  Scripture ;  but 
only  in  the  Maccabees  and  the  New  Tes 
tament.  The  Hebrew  always  reads  Ca 
naan,  Isa.  23  :  11,  margin.  Matthew 
calls  the  same  person  a  Canaanitish  wom 
an,  15 : 22,  whom  Mark  calls  a  Syro-Phce- 
nician,  7  :  26,  that  is,  a  Phoenician  of 
Syria,  because  Phoenicia  then  made  a 
part  of  Syria. 

PHRYG'IA,  an  inland  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  north  by  Bithynia  and 
Galatia,  east  by  Cappadocia,  south  by 
Lycia,  Pisidia,  and  Isauria,  and  west  by 
Mysia,  Lydia,  and  Caria.  It  was  called 
Phrygia  Pacatiana,  and  also  Phrygia 
Major,  in  distinction  from  Phrygia  Mi 
nor,  which  was  a  small  district  of  Mysia 
near  the  Hellespont,  occupied  by  some 
Phrygians  after  the  Trojan  war.  The 
eastern  part  of  Phrygia  Major  was  also 
called  Lycaonia.  This  region  was  a  high 
table  lu,nd,  fruitful  in  corn  and  wine, 
and  celebrated  for  its  fine  breed  of  cattle 
and  of  sheep.  Of  the  cities  belonging  to 
Phrygia,  Laodicea,  Hierapolis,  Colosse, 
and  Antioch  of  Pisidia,  are  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament.  St.  Paul  twice 
travelled  over  it,  preaching  the  gospel, 
Acts  2: 10;  16:6;  18:23. 

PHUT,  or  PUT,  a  son  of  Ham,  Gen. 
10:6,  whose  posterity  are  named  with 
Cush  and  Luclim  as  serving  in  Egyptian 
armies,  and  as  part  of  the  host  of  Gog, 
Jer.  46  :  9 ;  Ezek.  27  : 10  ;  30  :  5  ;  38  :  5  ; 
Nah.  3:9.  In  several  of  these  passages 
Phut  is  translated  Libyans.  Josephus 
identifies  them  with  the  Mauritanians, 
in  Northern  Africa  towards  the  west. 
See  LIBYA. 

PHYLAC'TERIES  were  little  rolls  of 
parchment,  in  which  were  written  cer 
tain  words  of  the  law,  and  which  were 
worn  by  the  Jews  upon  their  foreheads, 
and  upon  the  left  arm.  The  custom  was 
founded  on  a  mistaken  interpretation  of 
Ex.  13:9,  16,  "And  it  shall  be  for  a 
token  upon  thy  hand,  and  for  frontlets 
between  thine  eyes." 

Leo  of  Modena  informs  us  particularly 
about  these  rolls.     Those  worn  upon  the 
forehead  have  been  described  under  the 
343 


I'll  Y 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PIL 


article  FRONTLETS,  which  see.  Those  that 
were  to  be  fastened  to  the  arms  were  two 
rolls  of  parchment  written  in  square  let 
ters,  with  an  ink  made  on  purpose,  and 
with  much  care.  They  were  rolled  up  to 
a  point,  and  enclosed  in  a  sort  of  case  of 
black  calf-skin.  They  then  were*  put 
upon  a  square  bit  of  the  same  leather, 
whence  hung  a  thong  of  the  same,  of 
about  a  finger's  breadth  and  a  cubit  and 


a  half  long.  These  rolls  were  placed  at 
the  bending  of  the  left  arm,  and  after 
the  thong  had  made  a  little  knot  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  Yodh  (i,)  it  was 
wound  about  the  arm  in  a  spiral  line, 
which  ended  at  the  top  of  the  middle 
finger.  They  were  called  the  Tephila  of 
the  hand. 

The  phylactery,  from  a  Greek  word 
signifying  preservative,  was  regarded  not 
only  as  a  remembrancer  of  God's  law, 
but  as  a  protection  against  demons.  It 
was  probably  introduced  at  a  late  period 
in  the  Old  Testament  history.  Our  Sav 
iour  reproaches  the  pride  and  hypocrisy 
of  the  Pharisees,  shown  in  making  their 
phylacteries  broad  as  a  sign  of  their  supe 
rior  wisdom  and  piety,  Matt.  23:5.  Da 
vid,  on  the  other  hand,  says,  "Thy  word 
have  I  hid  in  my  heart,  that  I  might  not 
sin  against  thee,"  Fsa.  119:11. 

PHYSI'CIANS.  The  medical  skill  of 
the  Egyptians  was  widely  celebrated. 
Each  physician  confined  his  practice  to 
diseases  of  a  single  class,  and  thus  a 
large  household  would  require  the  at 
tendance  of  numerous  physicians,  Gen. 
50:2.  The  Hebrews  also  had  profession 
al  physicians,  Ex.  21  : 19 ;  Prov.  17  :  22  ; 
Matt.  9  :  12  ;  Luke  4  : 23  ;  8:43.  In  the 
early  ages  they  had  little  anatomical 
skill,  partly  on  account  of  the  ceremo 
nial  defilement  caused  by  touching  a 
corpse.  They  gave  their  attention  to 
external  rather  than  to  internal  injuries 
and  diseases,  Isa.  1:6;  Ezek.  30 :  21 ; 
though  they  also  prescribed  for  internal 
and  mental  disorders,  1  Sam.  16  :  16  ; 
2  Chr.  16 : 12.  They  made  use  of  salves, 
balms,  and  poultices,  hyssop,  oil  baths, 
mineral  baths,  and  river  bathing,  with 
344 


many  other  remedies,  Jer.  46:11.  Many' 
wickedly  had  recourse  to  amulets  and 
enchantments. 

PI-BE'SETH,  a  city  of  Egypt,  called 
by  the  Greeks  Bubastos,  and  containing 
a  famous  temple  of  the  goddess  Bubastis, 
who  was  compared  to  the  Diana  of  South 
ern  Europe.  This  temple  was  annually 
visited  by  immense  multitudes.  The 
ruins  of  Pi-beseth,  on  the  eastern  arm 
of  the  Nile  near  the  ancient  canal  to 
Suez,  consist  of  extensive  mounds  of 
bricks  and  broken  pottery,  Ezek.  30:17. 

PIG'EONS.     See  DOVES. 

PI-HAHI'ROTH,  a  place  near  the  gulf 
of  Suez,  on  its  north-west  side.  It  was 
the  third  and  last  encampment  of  the 
Hebrews,  before  crossing  the  Red  sea, 
Ex.  14  :  2,  9  ;  Num.  33  : 7.  Its  exact  lo 
cation  cannot  now  be  determined.  See 
EXODUS. 

PI'LATE,  or  PON'TITTS  PI'LATE,  was  the 
fifth  or  sixth  Roman  procurator  in  the 
province  of  Judea,  after  the  banishment 
of  Archelaus.  He  was  appointed  A.  D.  26, 
and  continued  in  the  province  ten  years, 
usually  residing  at  Ca^sarea.  Pilate  be 
came  odious  both  to  the  Jews  and  to  the 
Samaritans  for  the  severity  and  cruelty 
of  his  administration,  Luke  13  :  1 ;  and 
being  accused  by  the  latter  before  Vitel- 
lius,  the  governor  of  Syria,  he  was  re 
moved  from  his  office  and  sent  to  Rome 
to  answer  to  their  accusations  before  the 
emperor.  Before  his  arrival,  Tiberius 
was  dead ;  and  Pilate  is  said  to  have 
been  banished  by  Caligula  to  Vienna  in 
Gaul,  and  there  to  have  died  by  his  own 
hand. 

The  character  of  Pilate  is  graphically 
described  in  the  gospels.  When  Jesus 
had  been  condemned  by  the  high-priest 
and  the  Sanhedrim,  he  was  brought  be 
fore  Pilate  the  governor,  without  whose 
consent  he  could  not  be  executed.  Pi 
late  saw  in  Jesus  an  innocent  victim  of 
Jewish  malice,  and  desired  to  save  him. 
'  Though  dull  and  ignorant  as  to  religious 
truth,  he  had  some  dim  sense  of  the  su 
periority  of  Christ's  character,  and  feared 
to  wrong  him.  All  that  he  saw  of  Christ 
deepened  this  feeling ;  and  he  tried  every 
method  to  soften  the  obduracy  of  the 
Jews.  But  he  had  not  the  firmness 
of  character,  the  deep-rooted  principle 
of  justice,  and  the  consciousness  of  rec 
titude  necessary  to  carry  him  through ; 
and  after  repeated  efforts,  Luke  23:7,  14- 
20 ;  John  18  :  31,  38 ;  19:4-6,  9-12,  15, 


PIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PIT 


he  at  length  gave  way,  and  sacrificed  a 
righteous  man,  rather  than  to  provoke 
complaints  against  his  administration 
and  an  investigation  by  the  emperor. 
His  washing  of  his  hands,  and  his  in 
scription  upon  the  cross,  only  condemned 
himself.  He  would  probably  send  a  de 
tailed  report  of  his  procedures  to  Tiberi 
us  ;  and  the  early  fathers  mention  such 
an  account  as  circulating  in  their  day. 
The  "Acts  of  Pilate,"  however,  now  in 
existence,  are  a  subsequent  fabrication. 
The  Roman  historian  Tacitus,  speaking 
of  Christians,  says,  "The  author  of  this 
name  was  Christ,  who  was  capitally  pun 
ished  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  by  Pontius 
Pilate." 

PIL'LAR  sometimes  means  a  monu 
mental  column,  Gen.  35  :  20 ;  2  Sam. 
18  :  18  ;  or  a  column  of  cloud  or  smoke, 
Ex.  13  :  21 ;  Judg.  20 :  40.  The  stately 
column  which  adorns  and  supports  the 
front  of  a  temple,  Judg.  16  :  25-30  ;  Job 
9:6;  26  i  11,  illustrates  the  position  of 
prophets,  Jer.  1:18,  apostles,  Gal.  2:9, 
believers,  Rev.  3  :  12,  and  the  church 
itself,  respecting  the  truth,  1  Tim.  3:15. 

PILLED,  peeled,  as  a  tree  of  its  bark, 
Gen.  30:37. 

PIL'LOWS  were  placed  on  the  divans 
around  an  Eastern  reception-room.  The 
luxurious  appliances  mentioned  in  Ezek. 
13  : 18,  19,  were  temptations  to  ease  and 
voluptuousness  ;  and  emblems  of  similar 
soporifics  for  the  conscience. 

PINE,  in  Neh.  8  :  15,  denotes  some 
tree  of  a  resinous  nature.  A  different 
word  in  Isa.  41:19  ;  60:13,  probably  in 
dicates  the  pine  ;  a  noble  emblem  of  the 
promised  prosperity  of  the  church.  Sev 
eral  varieties  of  pine  abound  upon  mount 
Lebanon,  the  largest  of  which  is  the 
sunobar  kubar ;  also  found  on  several 
sandy  plains  of  Palestine.  Its  wood  is 
much  used  for  beams  and  rafters. 

PIN'NACLE,  literally  a  wing  ;  proba 
bly  some  part  of  the  battlements  on  the 
outer  wall  of  the  temple,  perhaps  of  Sol 
omon's  porch,  accessible  by  stairs,  Matt. 
4:5,  6.  Josephus  describes  a  gallery 
coustmcted  by  Herod  to  overhang  the 
deep  valley  of  the  Kidron,  and  says  that 
the  beholder  on  looking  down  from  it 
would  become  dizzy.  See  TEMPTATION. 

PIPE,  a  musical  wind  instrument,  con 
sisting  of  a  tube  with  holes,  like  a  flute 
or  clarionet,  1  Sam.  10  :  5  ;  1  Kin.  1:40 ; 
Isa.  5  :  12  ;  30  :  29  ;  Jer.  48  :  36 ;  Matt. 
9:23.  The  double  pipe  had  two  tubes, 
15* 


uniting  in  the  mouth-piece;  the  tube 
played  with  the  left  hand  emitting  a 
few  deep  sounds,  and  serving  as  a  base. 
The  Scotch  Deputation  of  Inquiry  speak 
of  overtaking  among  the  hills  of  Judea 
"an  Arab  playing  with  all  his  might 
upon  a  shepherd's  pipe  made  of  two 
reeds.  This  was  the  first  time  we  had 
seen  any  marks  of  joy  in  the  land,  for 
certainly  '  all  joy  is  darkened,  the  mirth 
of  the  land  is  gone,'  "  Isa.  24  :  11.  See 
Music. 

PIS'GAH,  a  mountain  ridge,  the  north 
ern  part  of  the  Abarim  range,  east  of  the 
Dead  sea ;  Nebo  was  one  of  its  summits, 
Deut.  32 : 49  ;  34 : 1.  It  was  in  the  south- 
ern  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sihon,  Num. 
21:20;  23:24;  and  afterwards  belonged 
to  the  Reubenites,  Josh.  12  :  3  ;  13:20. 

PISID'IA,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
separated  from  the  Mediterranean  by 
Pamphylia,  lying  on  mount  Taurus  and 
the  high  table  land  north  of  it,  and  run 
ning  up  between  Phrygia  and  Lycaonia 
as  far  as  Antioch  its  capital.  The  Pisid- 
ians,  like  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Taurus  range,  were  an  unsubdued  and 
lawless  race  ;  and  Paul  in  preaching  the 
gospel  at  Antioch  and  throughout  Pi- 
sidia,  Acts  13:14 ;  14:24,  was  in  peril  by 
robbers  as  well  as  by  sudden  storms  and 
floods  in  the  mountain  passes.  Churches 
continued  to  exist  here  for  seven  or  eight 
centuries. 

PI'SON,  one  of  the  four  rivers  that 
watered  Paradise,  Gen.  2  :  11,  12,  and 
which  ran  through  all  the  land  of  Havi- 
lah,  where  excellent  gold  was  found.  It 
has,  of  course,  been  placed  as  variously 
as  the  garden  of  EDEN,  to  which  article 
and  EUPHRATES  the  reader  is  referred- 

PIT,  a  reservoir,  either  natural  or  arti 
ficial,  for  water.  Pits  were  sometimes 
used  as  dungeons,  Gen.  37 : 20 ;  Jer.  38 : 6  ; 
or  being  slightly  covered,  and  baited, 
they  served  as  traps  to  catch  wild  beasts, 
a  device  which  illustrates  the  plots  of 
designing  men  and  women,  Psa.  119:85 ; 
Prov.  22:14  ;  26:27  ;  Ezek.  19  :  4.  The 
word  pit  is  also  used  to  denote  the  grave, 
Psa.  28:1 ;  30:3,  9  ;  and  hell,  Rev.  20:1. 

PITCH,  Gen.  6 :  14,  Ex.  2:3,  translat 
ed  "slime"  in  Gen.  11:3;  14:10,  is 
properly  bitumen  or  asphaltum,  ancient 
ly  found  on  and  near  the  Dead  sea,  which 
was  hence  called  the  lake  Asphaltites. 
It  abounded  in  the  vicinity  of  Babylon, 
and  was  used  as  fuel.  The  ark  of  Noah 
and  that  of  Moses  were  rendered  water- 
345 


PIT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PLO 


proof  by  it ;  and  the  bricks  of  the  tower 
of  Babel  were  cemented  with  it.  It  is 
commonly  found  in  a  solid  state ;  but 
being  liquified  by  heat,  and  used  as  a 
mortar,  it  becomes  as  hard  as  the  rocks  it 
cements  together.  It  is  still  thrown  up 
by  earthquakes  from  the  bottom  of  the 
Dead  sea,  and  floats  to  the  shore  some 
times  in  large  masses.  See  SEA  III. 

PI'THOM,  one  of  the  cities  built  by 
the  children  of  Israel  for  Pharaoh  in 
Egypt,  during  their  servitude,  Ex.  1:11. 
This  is  probably  the  Pathumos  mention 
ed  by  Herodotus,  which  he  places  near 
Pi-beseth  and  the  Pelusiac  arm  of  the 
Nile,  not  far  from  the  canal  made  by  the 
kings  Necho  and  Darius  to  join  the  Red 
sea  with  the  Nile.  See  EGYPT. 

PLAGUE.     See  PESTILENCE. 

PLAIN.     See  CANAAN,  and  OAK. 

PLAN'ETS,  2  Kin.  23 : 5.  The  Hebrew 
word  means  inns  or  lodgings,  and  is  used 
with  reference  to  the  sun,  denoting  the 
twelve  constellations  of  the  zodiac,  the 
houses  of  the  sun  in  its  annual  apparent 
course  round  the  heavens.  These  con 
stellations  are  here  spoken  of  as  objects 
of  idolatrous  worship  in  Judah.  Com 
pare  Gen.  37:9. 

PLEDGE.  The  Jewish  law  protected 
the  poor  who  were  obliged  to  give  secu 
rity  for  a  loan  or  the  fulfilment  of  a  con 
tract.  If  a  man  pawned  his  robe,  the 
usual  covering  for  the  cool  nights,  it 
must  be  returned  on  the  same  day,  Ex. 
22:26,  27.  The  creditor  could  not  enter 
a  house  and  take  what  he  pleased ;  and 
the  millstone  being  a  necessary  of  life, 


]  could  not  be  taken,  Dent,  24  :  6,  10,  11. 
Compare  Job  22  :  6 ;  24  :  3,  7.  Idolaters 
sometimes  disregarded  these  prohibi 
tions,  Amos  2:6-8.  See  LOANS.  Pledges 
are  necessary  from  the  vicious,  who  can 
not  be  trusted,  Prov.  20:16. 

PLEI'ADES,  a  cluster  of  seven  stars  in 
the  neck  of  Taurus,  or  the  Bull,  one  of 
the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac.  The  sun 
enters  Taurus  about  the  middle  of  April ; 
and  the  appearance  of  the  Pleiades,  there 
fore,  marks  the  return  of  spring,  Job 
9:9;  38:31;  Amos  5:8. 


AXCIENT  PLOUGH,   YOKES.    SHARES,  AXD  GOAD. 

PLOUGH,  a  slight  and  inefficient  in 
strument  in  the  East,  but  used  from  the 
earliest  times,  Gen.  45:6;  Deut.  22:10; 
Job  1  :  14.  See  cut  in  MEROM.  The 
plough  now  generally  used  in  Syria  con 
sists  substantially  of  but  three  parts : 
the  beam  or  pole  fastened  to  the  yoke ; 
the  ploughshare  ;  and  the  handle.  The 
two  latter  parts,  and  even  all  three,  are 
sometimes  formed  of  a  single  branch  of 
a  tree  with  two  limbs  projecting  in  op 
posite  directions.  The  ploughshare  is 


PLOUGHING  AND  SOWING  ;    FROM  AN  ANCIENT  EGYPTIAN   PAINTING. 


sometimes  defended  by  a  strip  of  iron, 
Isa.  2:4;  Joel  3: 10.  As  the  handle  was 
single,  and  with  attention  was  easily 


ploughman  brandished  in  the  other  a 
formidable  goad,  six  or  eight  feet  long, 
armed  at  the  point  with  a  pike,  and  at 


managed  by  one  hand,  Luke  9:62,  the  I  the  heavy  eud,  which  was  two  inches 
346 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


POE 


thick,  with  a  small  iron  spade  for  clear 
ing  the  share  from  clay,  Judg.  3  :  31 : 
1  Sam.  13:21 ;  Acts  9:5.  Ploughs  were 
drawn  by  oxen,  asses,  and  heifers,  Deut. 
22:10  ;  Judg.  14:18  ;  at  this  day  camels 
and  cows  are  also  used  in  Palestine. 
Ploughing  commenced  soon  after  the 
autumnal  rains  had  set  in,  towards  the 
last  of  October. 

POETRY  OF  THE  HEBREWS.  Of  all  the 
fine  arts,  poetry  alone  was  cultivated 
among  the  Hebrews;  and  under  the  in 
spiration  of  the  Almighty  was  carried  to 
the  highest  degree  of  perfection.  The 
poetry  of  this  people  was  almost  wholly 
lyric ;  whether  didactic,  elegiac,  pasto 
ral,  or  prophetic,  it  was  still  LYRIC. 
The  essence  of  lyric  poetry  is  the  vivid 
expression  of  internal  emotions.  It  is 
therefore  subjective ;  in  opposition  to 
epic  poetry,  which  treats  of  external  ob 
jects,  and  is  therefore  objective.  The 
chief  subject  of  Hebrew  poetry  was  re 
ligion,  and  then  patriotism  ;  which, 
under  the  theocracy,  was  very  nearly 
allied  to  religion.  The  most  obvious 
and  striking  characteristic  of  the  poetry 
of  the  Hebrews  is  sublimity.  Religious 
poetry  was  in  ancient  times  almost  pe 
culiar  to  the  Jews ;  the  little  that  is 
found  among  other  ancient  nations  is 
unworthy  of  comparison  with  it ;  as  also 
is  the  Koran,  which  is  an  attempted  imi 
tation  of  the  poetical  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  present  prevailing  views 
of  the  nature  of  Hebrew  poetry  were  first 
developed  by  Bishop  Lowth  in  his  Lec 
tures  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews. 

Hebrew  poetry  differs  from  Hebrew 
prose  in  three  respects :  1.  In  the  pe 
culiar  poetical  nature  of  the  contents  ;  of 
which  the  characteristics  are  sublimity, 
boldness,  abruptness,  lofty  metaphors, 
personifications,  etc.  2.  In  the  peculi 
arities  of  the  poetic  dialect  or  diction, 
which,  however,  are  not  so  striking  as 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  3.  In 
rhythm,  which  differs  from  metre  ;  the 
latter  importing  a  measure  of  syllables 
or  feet,  the  former  a  harmonious  arrange 
ment  of  words  and  members.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  those  best  acquainted  with 
the  subject,  that  the  Hebrews  had  no 
prosody,  that  is,  no  measure  of  syllables 
into  poetic  feet,  as  dactyles,  trochees, 
and  spondees.  It  is  believed  that  the 
Hebrew  poetry,  much  of  which  was  de 
signed  to  be  sung  or  chanted,  was  char 
acterized  by  a  certain  melodious  flow  and 


cadence  which  is  now  irrecoverably  lost, 
together  with  the  true  pronunciation  of 
the  language. 

But  aside  from  this,  the  rhythm  of 
Hebrew  poetry  consists  in  Avhat  is  called 
its  PARALLELISM,  of  whk'h  the  fundament 
tal  principle  is,  that  every  verse  must 
consist  of  at  least  TWO  corresponding 
parts  or  members. 

The  parallelism  ot  Hebrew  poetry  oc 
curs  either  in  the  thought,  or  solely  in 
the  form.  Of  the  former  there  are  three 
kinds :  namely, 

1.  Synonymous  ;  where  the  two  mem 
bers  express  the  same  idea  in  different, 
but  closely,  and  often  literally,  corre 
sponding  words :  as  for  example, 

What  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him? 
And  the  son  of  man,  that  thou  dost  visit  him? 

Psa.  8:4. 

Why  do  the  heathen  rage  t 
And  the  people  imagine  a  vain  thing  I 

Tsa.  2 :  L 

He  that  sitteth  in  the  heavens  shall  laugh  ; 
The  Lord  shall  have  them  m  derision, 

Psa.  2:4. 

Doth  the  wild  ass  Dray  when  he  hath  grass  ? 
Or  loweth  the  ox  over  his  fodder  ? 

Job  6: 5. 

So  also  the  song  of  Lamech,  Gen. 
4:23,  and  Job  7:1,  etc. 

2.  Antithetical ;   where  an  antithesis 
of  thought  is  expressed  by  corresponding 
members :  as  for  example, 

The  house  of  the  wicked  shall  be  overthrown  . 
But  the  tabernacle  of  the  upright  shall  flour* 
ish.  Prov.  14  :  IL 

A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath  ; 
But  grievous  words  stir  up  anger. 

Prov.  15:1. 

3.  Synthetic ;  which  is  a  mere  juxta 
position  ;  or  rather,  the  thought  is  car 
ried  forward  in  the  second  member  with 
some   addition ;    the  correspondence  of 
words  and  construction  being  as  before : 
as  for  example, 

The  law  of  the  Lord  is  perfect,  converting  the 

soul  : 
The  testimony  of  the  Lord  is  sure,  making 

wise  the  simple. 
The  statutes  of  the  Lord  are  right,  rejoicing 

the  heart : 

The  commandment  of  the  Lord  is  pure,  en 
lightening  the  eyes. 
The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  clean,  enduring  for 

ever. 

The  judgments  of  the  Lord  are  true  and  right 
eous  altogether. 

Psa.  19:7,8,9. 

Mere  rhythmical  parallelism  is  that  in 
which   no  similarity  or  correspondence 
of  thought  exists ;  but  the  verse  is  di- 
347 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


POM 


vided  by  the  caesura,  as  it  were,  into  cor 
responding  numbers.  This  is  the  most 
imperfect  species  of  parallelism,  and  may 
be  compared  with  the  hexameter,  divid 
ed  by  the  caesura  :  as  for  example, 

Yet  have  I  set  my  king 
Upon  my  holy  hill  of  Zion. 

Psa.  2:6. 

Many  there  be  which  say  of  my  soul, 
There  is  no  help  for  him  in  God. 

Fsa.  3:2. 

This  is  most  common  in  the  book  of 
Lamentations,  where  there  is  hardly,  any 
other  species  of  parallelism. 

Thus  far  we  have  had  regard  to  the 
simplest  and  most  perfect  parallelisms 
of  two  members,  such  as  are  more  usu 
ally  found  in  the  Psalms,  Job,  etc.  But 
in  the  prophets  and  a  few  of  the  psalms, 
we  lind  a  less  regular,  and  sometimes 
compound  parallelism.  Thus  the  paral 
lelism  is  irregular  when  one  member  is 
shorter  than  the  other  ;  as  Hosea  4:17  : 

Ephraim  is  joined  to  idols  ; 

Let  him  alone. 

Of  compound  parallelisms  there  are  va 
rious  kinds ;  as  when  the  verse  has  three 
members  either  parallel  with  each  other, 
as  in  Job  3  :  4,  or  two  of  them  standing 
opposed  to  the  third  :  as  for  example, 

For  the  ways  of  the  Lord  are  right, 
And  the  just  shall  walk  in  them, 
But  the  transgressors  shall  fall  therein. 
Hos.  14 : 9. 

Or  when  the  verse  has  four  members, 
either  compounded  of  two  simple  paral 
lels,  or  the  first  line  answering  to  the 
third  and  the  second  to  the  fourth,  or 
all  four  nearly  parallel  to  each  other; 
as  for  example, 

The  ox  knoweth  his  owner, 
And  the  ass  his  master's  crib  ; 
But  Israel  doth  not  know, 
My  people  doth  not  consider. 

Isa.  1 : 3. 

As  the  heaven  is  high  above  the  earth, 

So  great  is  his  mercy  towards  them  that  fear 

him; 

As  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west, 
So  far  hath  he  removed  our  transgressions 

from  us. 

Psa.  103:11,12. 

They  have  mouths,  but  they  speak  not ; 
Eyes  have  they,  but  they  see  not ; 
They  have  ears,  but  they  hear  not ; 
Neither  is  there  any  breath  in  their  mouths. 
Psa.  135  : 16, 17. 

We  may  name  Psalms  2  and  15  as  afford 
ing  examples  of  most  of  the  species  of 
poetic  parallelism. 

In  the  common  manuscripts  and  edi- 
318 


tions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  the  members 
of  the  parallelisms  in  the  poetical  parts 
are  not  written  or  printed  separately  ; 
but  the  accents  serve  to  divide  them. 
In  other  editions,  however,  the  mem 
bers  are  printed  separately.  It  is  mat 
ter  of  regret  that  this  mode  was  not 
adopted  in  our  English  version;  since 
in  many  cases  the  common  reader  has 
now  no  means  of  distinguishing  whether 
what  he  reads  is  poetry  or  prose  in  He 
brew. 

The  preceding  principles  refer  solely 
to  the  rhythm  of  Hebrew  poetry.  Be 
sides  this,  there  are  other  peculiarities ; 
as  for  example,  the  strophe,  as  in  Psa. 
107,  and  in  Psa.  42,  43,  where  verses  5, 
11,  and  5,  are  a  burden  or  refrain,  re 
peated  at  the  end  of  each  strophe.  So 
also  the  alphabetic  psalms  and  poems, 
(see  LETTERS  ;)  and  the  psalms  of  degrees, 
in  which  the  chief  words  of  each  verse 
are  taken  up  and  repeated  at  the  begin 
ning  of  the  next  verse.  See  DEGREES. 

More  than  a  third  of  the  Old  Testa 
ment  is  poetry  in  Hebrew,  including 
most  of  Job,  the  Psalms,  Solomon's 
books,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
prophets ;  technically,  however,  in  the 
usage  of  the  Jews,  the  three  poetic  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  Job,  Psalms, 
and  Proverbs,  which  have  a  system  of 
accentuation  peculiar  to  themselves. 
Poetic  fragments  are  also  found  here  and 
there  in  the  historical  books,  as  in  Gen. 
4  :  23,  24  ;  Ex.  32  : 18  ;  Num.  21 : 14,  15, 
18,  27-30;  23:7,  18;  24:3,  15.  In  the 
New  Testament,  also,  many  passages  oc 
cur  in  which  this  Hebrew  style  seems  to 
be  transferred  to  the  Greek,  Matt.  8:20  ; 
Luke  1 : 46,  47  ;  Rom.  11 : 33-35  ;  Rev.  18  ; 
19:1-3. 

POLL,  the  head,  Num.  2:47.  To  poll 
the  head  is  to  cut  off  the  hair,  2  Sam. 
14:25.  26;  Ezek.  44:20, 

POLLUX.     See  CASTOR, 

POME'GRANATE,  grained  apple,  the 
Punica  Granatum  of  Linnasus  ;  called 
alsoMalum  Granatum,  in  French  pomme 
granate,  whence  its  English  name.  The 
tree  grows  wild  in  Persia  and  Syria,  as 
generally  in  the  south  of  Europe  and 
north  of  Africa.  It  is  low,  with  a  straight 
stem,  reddish  bark,  many  and  spread 
ing  branches,  dark  green  lancet-formed 
leaves,  and  large  and  beautiful  crimson 
blossoms.  The  fruit  is  of  the  size  of  an 
orange,  of  a  tawny  brown,  with  a  thick, 
astringent  coat,  containing  an  abundance 


POM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


POT 


of  seeds,  each  enveloped  in  a  distinct, 
very  juicy,  pink  coat,  whose  flavor,  in  a 
wild  state,  is  a  pure  and  very  strong 
acid  ;  but  in  the  cultivated  plant,  sweet 
and  highly  agreeable.  The  ripe  pulp 
was  eaten  by  itself,  or  with  a  sprinkling 
of  sugar;  or  its  juice  was  made  into  a 
sherbet.  The  value  of  the  fruit  and  the 
beauty  of  the  flower  made  the  pome 
granate  welcome  in  gardens,  Song  4:13  ; 
6:7,  11 ;  8:2;  Joel  1:12.  It  was  abun 
dant  in  Palestine,  Num.  13  : 23 ;  Deut. 
8:8.  Artificial  pomegranates  were  used 
as  ornaments  on  the  robe  of  the  high- 
priest,  Ex.  28  : 33,  and  also  as  an  archi 
tectural  ornament.  1  Kin.  7:18. 

POM'MELS,  globular  ornaments,  af 
fixed  to  the  capitals  of  columns,  2  Chr. 
4:12,  13. 

PON'TUS,  the  sea,  the  north-eastern 
province  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  north 
by  the  Euxine  sea,  west  by  Galatia  and 
Paphlagonia,  south  by  Cappadocia  and 
part  of  Armenia,  and  east  by  Colchis.  It 
was  originally  governed  by  kings,  and 
was  in  its  most  flourishing  state  under 
Mithridates  the  Great,  who  waged  a  long 
and  celebrated  war  with  the  Romans, 
but  was  at  length  subdued  by  Pompey  ; 
after  which  Pontus  became  a  province 
of  the  Roman  empire.  The  geographer 
Strabo  was  born  in  Amasia,  its  capital ; 
and  one  of  its  principal  towns,  Trapezus, 
still  flourishes  under  the  name  of  Trebi- 
zond.  Many  Jews  resided  there,  and 
from  time  to  time  "went  up  to  Jerusa 
lem  unto  the  feast,"  Acts  2:9.  The  de 
voted  Aquila  was  a  native  of  Pontus, 
Acts  18  :  2  ;  and  the  gospel  was  planted 
there  at  an  early  period,  1  Pet.  1:1. 

POOLS.     See  CISTERNS. 

POOR,  Psa.  12  :  5  ;  41  :  1-3,  especially 
cared  for  in  the  Jewish  dispensation,  Ex. 
23  :  6,  Prov.  14  :  31,  and  even  more  so 


under  the  gospel,  Matt.  25  :  42-45  ;  Jas. 
2:5.  The  slight  offerings  required  of 
them  by  the  law  were  as  acceptable  as 
the  hecatombs  of  the  rich,  Lev.  5:7-13  ; 
Mark  12 :  41-44.  The  gleanings  of  the 
fields,  the  olive-trees,  and  the  vines, 
were  to  be  left  for  them,  Lev.  19  :  9 ; 
Deut.  24:19;  Ruth  2:2.  Every  seventh 
year,  the  spontaneous  products  of  the 
ground  were  free  to  all,  Lev.  25:7  ;  and 
in  the  Jubilee  their  alienated  inheritance 
returned  to  their  possession.  Compare 
also  Lev.  25 ;  Deut.  24.  Neglect  and 
oppression  of  the  poor  were  severely 
reproved  by  the  prophets,  Isa.  10  :  2  ; 
Jer.  5  :  28 ;  Amos  2:6;  but  charity  to 
the  poor  was  an  eminent  virtue  among 
primitive  Christians,  Matt.  6 : 2-4  ;  Luke 
10  :  33-35 ;  19  :  8  ;  Acts  9  :  36-39  ;  10:2  ; 
11:29,  30. 

POPLAR,  Gen.  30  :  37,  Hosea  4  :  13, 
probably  the  white  poplar,  so  called 
from  the  whiteness  of  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves.  It  is  a  beautiful  and  shady 
tree,  common  in  Palestine  and  its  vicin 
ity.  According  to  some,  however,  the 
storax-tree  is  intended. 

PORCH.     See  HOUSE  and  TEMPLE. 

POR'TERS  kept  the  gates  of  private 
houses  and  of  cities,  2  Sam.  18 : 26  ;  2  Kin. 
7  :  10 ;  Mark  13  :  34 ;  John  10  :  3.  The 
porters  of  the  temple  were  Levites,  at 
one  period  four  thousand  in  number, 
divided  into  courses,  1  Chr.  16:42  ;  23:5. 
They  stood  on  guard  at  every  gate,  and 
were  on  duty  within  the  temple  in  their 
regular  courses,  1  Chr.  26  :  1,  13,  19  ; 
2  Chr.  8 : 14 ;  35 : 15.  By  night  also  they 
cheered  the  lonely  hours  with  songs  of 
praise,  Psa.  134.  We  read,  in  2  Cor. 
23:2-19,  of  the  faithful  service  they  ren 
dered  in  protecting  Joash  and  slaying 
Athaliah. 

POSSESSED'.     See  DEVIL. 

POSTS,  special  messengers  in  the  East, 
sent  on  occasions  of  importance,  when 
they  rode  swiftly,  and  in  many  cases 
with  fresh  horses  or  dromedaries  await 
ing  them  at  convenient  distances,  Esth. 
8: 10,  14.  Job  says,  "My  days  are  swift 
er  than  a  post,"  Job  9  :  25.  Foot-run 
ners  were  also  employed,  2  Sam.  18:22- 
27  ;  and  experienced  runners  will  tire 
down  and  outrun  a  horse  on  long  jour 
neys.  See  FOOTMEN. 

POT'IPHAR,  a  high  officer  of  Pha 
raoh,  who  purchased  Joseph  of  the  Mid- 
ianites,  and  made  him  master  of  his 
house,  but  afterwards  imprisoned  him 
349 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRA 


on  a  false  charge.  He  is  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  the  same  "captain 
of  the  guard"  who  promoted  Joseph  in 
prison,  Gen.  37:36  ;  39:40. 

POTIPHE'RA,  belonging  to  the  sun,  the 
priest  of  On,  city  of  the  sun,  whose 
daughter  Asenath  was  the  wife  of  Jo 
seph,  Gen.  41  :  45.  The  name  is  found, 
in  various  forms,  on  ancient  Egyptian 
monuments. 

POTS,  Job  41:20,  applied  in  Scripture 
to  a  great  variety  of  domestic  vessels,  of 
earthenware,  iron,  brass,  and  gold,  used 
for  cooking  and  serving  food,  etc.,  Judg. 
6  :  19  ;  2  Kin.  4  :  40  ;  Psa.  58  :  9  ;  Eccl. 
7:5;  Heb.  9:4.  In  Psa.  68:13-,  "though 
ye  have  lain  among  the  pots,"  the  He 
brew  word  means  originally  cattle-folds ; 
and  in  Psa.  81:6,  "his  hands  were  deliv 
ered  from  the  pots, ' '  it  refers  to  the  bas 
kets  used  by  the  Hebrews  in  the  hard 
service  exacted  of  them  in  Egypt,  Ex. 
1:14. 

POT'SHERDS,  broken  pieces  of  earth 
enware,  Job  2:8,  Isa.  30:14,  fit  types  of 
the  worthlessness  and  fragility  of  man, 
Psa.  22  :  15  ;  Prov.  26  :  23  ;  Isa.  45  :  9. 
The  ruins  of  many  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  in  the  world  show  little  but  such 
fragments  of  pottery  covering  the  ground; 
it  is  usually  coarse  in  grain,  but  well 
glazed.  Such  fragments  are  used  by  the 
poor  in  various  ways,  if  not  utterly  bro 
ken  into  bits,  Isa.  30:14.  At  this  day  it 
is  common  to  find  pieces  of  broken  jars 
at  eastern  wells  and  pools,  to  drink  from, 
and  to  see  hot  embers  and  coals  carried 
in  them  from  one  spot  to  another. 

POT'TAGE.     See  EDOM  and  FOOD. 

POT'TER,  a  maker  of  earthenware, 
Gen.  24  :  14,  15  ;  Judg.  7  :  16,  19  ;  Psa. 
2:9.  Ancient  Egyptian  paintings  repre 
sent  the  potter  turning  and  shaping,  on 
his  small  and  simple  wheel  made  to  re 
volve  rapidly  by  the  foot,  the  lump  of 
clay  which  he  had  previously  kneaded 
with  his  feet.  A  pan  of  water  stands 
by  his  side,  with  which  he  kept  the  clay 
moist.  After  the  body  of  the  vessel  was 
worked  into  shape  and  beauty,  the  han 
dle  was  affixed  to  it,  devices  traced  upon 
it,  and  after  drying  a  little,  it  was  care 
fully  taken  to  the  oven  and  baked.  The 
potter's  control  over  the  clay  illustrates 
the  sovereignty  of  God,  who  made  us  of 
clay,  and  forms  and  disposes  of  us  as  he 
deems  good  :  "0  house  of  Israel,  cannot 
I  do  with  you  as  this  potter  ?  saith  the 
Lord.  Behold,  as  the  clay  is  in  the  pot- 
350 


ter's  hand,  so  are  ye  in  my  hand,  saith 
the  Lord,"  Jer.  18:1-6.  "  Shall  the  thing 
formed  say  to  him  that  formed  it,  Why 
hast  thou  made  me  thus?  Hath  not  the 
potter  power  over  the  clay,  of  the  same 
lump  to  make  one  vessel  unto  honor  and 
another  unto  dishonor?"  Rom.  9:20,  21. 

POT'TER' S  FIELD.     See  ACELDAMA. 

POUND,  a  weight,  and  a  sum  of  mon 
ey,  put,  in  the  Old  Testament,  1  Kings 
10  :  17,  Ezra  2  :  69,  Neh.  7  :  71,  for  the 
Hebrew  MANEH,  which  see ;  and  in  the 
New  Testament,  for  the  Attic  MINA,  which 
was  equivalent  to  one  hundred  drachmas, 
or  about  fourteen  dollars. 

POW'ER.  For  the  use  of  this  word  in 
1  Cor.  11:10,  see  VEIL. 

PRAYER  is  the  offering  of  the  emo 
tions  and  desires  of  the  soul  to  God,  in 
the  name  and  through  the  mediation  of 
our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  It 
is  the  communion  "of  the  heart  with  God 
through  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
is  to  the  Christian  the  very  life  of  the 
soul.  Without  this  filial  spirit,  no  one 
can  be  a  Christian,  Job  21  :  15 ;  Psa. 
10:4. 

In  all  ages  God  has  delighted  in  the 
prayers  of  his  saints.  From  the  promul 
gation  of  the  law,  the  Hebrews  did  not 
intermit  public  worship  daily  in  the  tab 
ernacle  or  the  temple.  It  consisted  in 
offering  the  evening  and  morning  sacri 
fices,  every  day,  accompanied  with  pray 
ers  by  the  priests  and  Levites  in  that 
holy  edifice.  Every  day  also  the  priests 
offered  sacrifices,  incense,  offerings,  and 
first-fruits  for  individuals ;  they  per- 


PRA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRE 


formed  ceremonies  for  the  redemption  of 
the  first-born,  or  for  purification  from 
pollutions ;  in  a  word,  the  people  came 
thither  from  all  parts  to  discharge  their 
vows  and  to  perform  their  devotions,  not 
only  on  great  and  solemn  days,  but  also 
on  ordinary  days:  but  nothing  of  this 
was  performed  without  prayer,  1  Chr. 
23  :  30  ;  Neh.  11 : 17  ;  Luke  1 : 10.  Com 
pare  also  1  Kin.  8:22,  and  the  Psalms  of 
David  for  temple  worship. 

Pious  men  were  accustomed  to  pray 
thrice  in  the  day,  at  fixed  hours,  Psa.  55:7; 
Dan.  6:10.  See  HOURS.  Social,  family, 
and  secret  prayer  were  all  habitual  with 
Bible  saints ;  as  well  as  brief  ejacula 
tions  in  the  midst  of  their  ordinary  busi 
ness,  Neh.  2  :  4.  No  uniform  posture  in 
prayer  is  enjoined  in  the  Bible  ;  standing 
with  the  hands  outspread,  1  Kin.  8  :  22, 
bowing  the  head,  Gen.  24 :  26,  kneel 
ing,  Luke  22  :  41,  and  prostration  on  the 
ground,  Matt.  26  :  39,  were  all  practised. 
Prayer  should  be  offered  with  submission 
to  God's  will,  fervently,  perseveringly, 
and  with  a  confiding  reliance  on  God  in 
Christ ;  it  should  be  accompanied  by 
humble  confession  and  hearty  thanks 
giving,  and  with  supplications  for  all 
living  men,  as  well  as  for  our  friends 
and  those  nearest  to  us.  Habitual  pray 
er  to  God  is  a  duty  enjoined  upon  us  by 
sound  reason  and  by  right  affections ; 
and  he  who  lives  without  it  thereby  re 
veals  the  atheism  of  his  heart.  God 
requires  all  men  thus  to  worship  him, 
Ezek.  36:37  ;  Matt.  7  : 1-11 ;  Phil.  4:6; 
1  Tim.  2:1-3  ;  Jas.  1:5  ;  and  for  neglect 
ing  this  duty  there  can  be  no  sufficient 
excuse.  It  is  often  said  that  prayer  can 
not  alter  the  unchangeable  purposes  of 
God  ;  but  the  great  scheme  of  his  provi 
dence  embraces  every  prayer  that  shall 
be  offered,  as  well  as  the  answer  it  shall 
receive.  It  is  objected  that  prayer  can 
not  increase  his  knowledge  of  our  wants, 
nor  his  readiness  to  supply  them ;  and 
that  in  any  case  he  will  do  what  is  for 
the  best.  But  he  deems  it  best  to  grant 
many  blessings  in  answer  to  prayer, 
which  otherwise  he  would  withhold  ; 
"  He  will  be  very  gracious  unto  thee  at 
the  voice  of  thy  cry  ;  when  he  shall  hear 
it,  he  will  answer  thee."  The  words  of 
David  will  be  those  of  every  truly  pray 
ing  man  :  "This  poor  man  cried,  and  the 
Lord  heard  him,  and  delivered  him  out 
of  all  his  troubles,"  Psa.  34:6. 

False  and  formal   religion   makes   a 


merit  of  its  prayers,  as  though  "much 
speaking ' '  and  ' '  vain  repetitions ' '  could 
atone  for  heartlessness.  Hypocrites  also 
are  wont  to  pray  chiefly  that  they  may 
have  praise  of  men.  These  sins  Christ 
reproves  in  Matt.  6  :  5-15,  and  gives  to 
his  disciples  the  form  of  the  Lord's  pray 
er  as  a  beautiful  model.  In  Eph.  6:18  ; 

1  Thess.  5 :  17  ;  1  Tim.  2:8,  Paul  directs 
that  believers  should  pray  in  all  places 
and  at  all  times,  lifting  up  pure  hands 
towards  heaven,  and  blessing  God  for  all 
things,  whether  in  eating,  drinking,  or 
whatever  they  do  ;  and  that  every  thing 
be  done   to  the  glory  of  God,  1  Cor. 
10:31.     In  a  word,  our  Saviour  has  rec 
ommended  to  us  to  pray  without  ceas 
ing,  Luke  18:1;  21:36. 

PREACH'ING,  the  public  and  oral  in 
culcation  of  the  truths  of  religion,  espec 
ially  of  the  gospel  of  Christ,  Isa.  61  :  1 ; 
Acts  8:4  ;  2  Cor.  5:20 ;  Eph.  3:8.  Pub 
lic  instruction  in  religion  was  no  doubt 
given  in  the  earliest  ages.  Enoch  proph 
esied,  Jude  14,  15 ;  and  Noah  was  a 
preacher  of  righteousness,  2  Pet.  2  :  5. 
Frequent  instances  of  religious  addresses 
occur  in  the  history  of  Moses,  the  judges, 
and  the  prophets ;  and  these  were  to 
some  extent  in  connection  with  the  Jew 
ish  ritual,  Neh.  8.  The  psalms  sung  in 
the  temple  conveyed  instruction  to  the 
people.  After  the  captivity,  numerous 
synagogues  were  erected,  in  which  the 
word  of  God  was  read  and  expounded 
from  Sabbath  to  Sabbath.  Under  the 
gospel  dispensation,  the  preaching  of 
Christ  crucified,  by  those  whom  he  calls 
to  be  his  ambassadors,  is  an  established 
ordinance  of  prime  importance — God's 
chief  instrumentality  for  the  conversion 
of  the  world,  Mark  16:15  ;  1  Cor.  1:21 ; 

2  Tim.  2:2;  4:2. 
PREPARATION.     The  day  on  which 

our  Saviour  was  crucified  was  called  the 
"day  of  preparation,"  or  "the  prepara 
tion  of  the  Passover,"  as  preceding  the 
Passover  Sabbath,  which  commenced  at 
sunset,  Matt.  27:62;  John  19:31. 

PRETO'RIUM,  a  name  given  in  the 
gospels  to  the  house  in  which  dwelt  the 
Roman  governor  of  Jerusalem,  Mark 
15  :  16.  Here  he  sat  in  his  judicial  ca 
pacity,  and  here  Jesus  was  brought  be 
fore  him.  See  GABBATIIA.  This  was 
the  palace  built  by  Herod  at  Jerusalem, 
near  the  tower  of  Antonia,  with  which  it 
had  communication.  It  was  a  magnifi 
cent  building,  and  inclosed  a  spacious 
351 


PRE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRI 


court,  Matt.  27:27;  Mark  15:16;  John 
18:28,  33.  Here  the  Roman  procurators 
resided  whenever  they  visited  Jerusa 
lem,  their  head-quarters  being  at  C;«sa- 
rea,  Acts  23  :  23  ;  25  : 1.  The  pretorium 
or  palace  of  Herod  (English  translation, 
"judgment-hall")  at  Coesarea  is  also 
mentioned  in  Acts  23  :  35.  Paul  speaks 
also  of  the  pretorium  (English  transla 
tion,  "palace")  at  Rome,  in  which  he 
gave  testimony  to  Christ,  Phil.  1  :  13. 
Some  think  that  by  this  he  means  the 
palace  of  the  emperor  Nero ;  and  oth 
ers,  that  he  intends  the  place  where  the 
Roman  Pra;tor  sat  to  administer  justice, 
that  is,  his  tribunal.  Others  have  main 
tained,  with  greater  probability,  that 
under  the  name  of  the  pretorium  at 
Rome,  Paul  would  express  the  camp  of 
the  pretorian  soldiers,  whither  he  might 
have  been  carried  by  the  soldier  that 
always  accompanied  him,  and  who  was 
fastened  to  him  by  a  chain,  as  the  man 
ner  was  among  the  Romans. 


PRESS,  not  only  the  vat  in  which  the 
juice  was  trodden  out  from  the  grapes, 
but  in  some  cases  the  whole  place  for  the 
reception  of  wine,  grapes,  and  orchard- 
fruit.  It  was  often  a  room  excavated 
in  the  ground ;  thus  the  husbandman 
"digged  a  wine-press"  in  his  vineyard, 
Matt.  21:33.  See  also  Prov.  3:10 ;  Joel 
3:13  ;  Hag.  2:16.  See  WINE. 

PREVENT',  in  the  Bible  means,  not 
to  hinder,  but  to  precede,  Psa.  59  :  10 ; 

1  Thess.    4  :  15 ;    to    anticipate,    Psalm 
119:147,  148;  Matt.  17:25;  or  to  seize, 

2  Sam.  22:6;  Job  30:27. 

PRICKS,  the  points  with  which  ox- 
goads  were  armed,   by  kicking  against 
which  a  refractory  bullock  only  hurt  it- 
352 


self  the  more.  Hence  a  proverb,  found 
in  Greek  and  Latin  as  well  as  in  He 
brew,  applied  to  those  who  resist  lawful 
authority,  or  the  power  of  God,  Acts 
9:5;  26  : 14.  Compare  Job  15  :  25,  26. 
See  Ox. 

PRIEST,  one  who  officiated  in  the  pub 
lic  worship  of  God,  especially  in  making 
expiation  for  sin,  being  "ordained  for 
men  in  things  pertaining  to  God,  to  offer 
both  gifts  and  sacrifices  for  sins."  In 
the  Old  Testament,  the  priesthood  was 
not  annexed  to  a  certain  family  till  after 
the  promulgation  of  the  law  by  Moses. 
Before  that  time,  the  iirst-born  of  each 
family,  the  fathers,  the  princes,  the 
kings,  were  priests  in  their  own  cities 
and  in  their  own  houses.  Cain  and 
Abel,  Noah,  Abraham,  and  Job,  Abime- 
lech  and  Laban,  Isaac  and  Jacob,  offered 
personally  their  own  sacrifices.  In  the 
solemnity  of  the  covenant  made  by  the 
Lord  with  his  people,  at  the  foot  of 
mount  Sinai,  Moses  performed  the  office 
of  mediator,  and  young  men  were  chosen 
from  among  Israel  to  perform  the  office 
of  priests,  Ex.  24 : 5.  But  after  the  Lord 
had  chosen  the  tribe  of  Levi  to  serve  him 
in  his  tabernacle,  and  the  priesthood  was 
annexed  to  the  family  of  Aaron,  the  right 
of  offering  sacrifices  and  oblations  to  God 
was  reserved  to  the  priests  of  this  family, 
Num.  16:40.  The  punishment  of  Uzziah 
king  of  Judah  is  well  known,  who  having 
presumed  to  offer  incense  to  the  Lord, 
was  suddenly  smitten  with  a  leprosy, 
2  Chr.  26 : 19.  See  also  the  case  of  -Saul, 
1  Sam.  13:7-14.  However,  it  seems  that 
on  certain  occasions  the  Hebrew  proph 
ets  offered  sacrifice  to  the  Lord,  especial 
ly  before  a  constant  place  of  worship  was 
fixed  at  Jerusalem.  See  1  Sam.  7  :  9, 
where  Samuel,  who  was  not  a  priest, 
offered  a  lamb  for  a  burnt-sacrifice  to 
the  Lord.  See  also  1  Sam.  9:13  ;  16:5  ; 
1  Kin.  18:31,  33. 

The  Lord  having  reserved  to  himself 
the  first-born  of  Israel  because  he  had; 
preserved  them  from  the  hand  of  the 
destroying  angel  in  Egypt,  by  way  of 
exchange  and  compensation,  he  accepted 
the  tribe  of  Levi  for  the  service  of  his 
tabernacle,  Num.  3:41.  Thus  the  whole 
tribe  of  Levi  was  appointed  to  the  sacred 
ministry,  but  not  all  in  the  same  man 
ner  ;  for  of  the  three  sons  of  Levi,  Ger- 
shom,  Kohath,  and.Merari,  the  heads  of 
the  three  great  families,  the  Lord  chose 
the  family  of  Kohath,  and  out  of  this, 


PRI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRI 


family  the  house  of  Aaron,  to  exercise 
the  functions  of  the  priesthood.  All  the 
rest  of  the  family  of  Kohath,  even  the 
children  of  Moses  and  their  descendants, 
remained  among  the  Levites. 

The  high-priest  was  at  the  head  of  all 
religious  affairs,  and  was  the  ordinary 
judge  of  all  difficulties  that  belonged 
thereto,  and  even  of  the  general  justice 
and  judgment  of  the  Jewish  nation,  as 
being  at  the  head  of  all  the  priests  by 
whom  this  was  administered,  Deut. 
17:8-12;  19:17;  21:5;  33:8,  10;  Ezek. 
44 :  24.  He  only  had  the  privilege  of 
entering  the  sanctuary  once  a  year,  on 
the  day  of  solemn  expiation,  to  make 
atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  peo 
ple,  Lev.  16  :  2,  etc.  He  was  to  be  born 
of  one  of  his  own  tribe,  whom  his  father 
had  married  a  virgin ;  and  was  to  be  ex 
empt  from  corporal  defect,  Lev.  21  :  13. 
In  general,  no  priest  who  had  any  such 
defect  could  offer  sacrifice,  or  enter  the 
holy  place  to  present  the  show-bread. 
But  he  was  to  be  maintained  by  the  sac 
rifices  offered  at  the  tabernacle,'  Lev. 
21 : 17-22.  The  high-priest  also  received 
a  tithe  from  the  Levites,  Num.  18:28. 

God  also  appropriated  to  the  high- 
priest  the  oracle  of  his  truth  :  so  that 
when  he  was  habited  in  the  proper  orna 
ments  of  his  dignity,  and  with  the  urim 
and  thummim,  he  answered  questions 
proposed  to  him,  and  God  disclosed  to 
him  secret  and  future  things.  He  was 
forbidden  to  mourn  for  the  death  of  any 
of  his  relations,  even  for  his  father  or 
mother ;  or  to  enter  into  any  place  where 
a  dead  body  lay,  that  he  might  not  con 
tract  or  hazard  the  contraction  of  un- 
cleanness,  Lev.  21 : 10-12. 

The  priests  served  immediately  at  the 
altar.  They  slew  and  dressed  the  public 
sacrifices,  or  at  least  it  was  done  by  the 
Levites  under  their  direction.  Private 
offerers  slew  their  own  victims,  except 
in  the  case  of  turtle-doves  or  young  pig 
eons.  But  all  offerings  upon  the  altar, 
the  sprinkling  of  blood  included,  were 
made  by  the  priests  alone.  They  kept 
up  a  perpetual  lire  on  the  altar  of  burnt 
sacrifices,  and  in  the  lamps  of  the  golden 
candlestick  in  the  sanctuary ;  they  knead 
ed  the  loaves  of  show-bread,  baked  them, 
offered  them  on  the  golden  altar  in  the 
sanctuary,  and  changed  them  every  Sab 
bath-day.  Compare  Ex.  28:29;  Lev.  8. 
Every  day,  night  and  morning,  a  priest, 
appointed  by  casting  of  lots  at  the  begin 


ning  of  the  week,  brought  into  the  sano, 
tuary  a  smoking  censer  of  incense,  and 
set  it  on  the  golden  table,  otherwise 
called  the  altar  of  incense,  Luke  1 : 9. 


The  sacred  dress  of  the  priests  consist 
ed  of  the  following  articles :  short  linen 
drawers  ;  a  close-fitting  tunic  of  fine  lin 
en  or  cotton,  of  woven  work,  broidered, 
reaching  to  the  feet,  and  furnished  with 
sleeves ;  a  girdle  of  fine  linen.  Plain 
linen  ephods  are  also  ascribed  to  them, 
1  Sam.  22  :  18  ;  and  a  bonnet  or  turban, 
also  of  fine  linen,  in  many  folds.  The 
priests  always  officiated  with  uncovered 
feet.  The  high-priest  wore  nearly  the 
same  dress  with  the  priests,  and  four  ar 
ticles  in  addition  :  an  outer  tunic,  called 
the  robe  of  the  ephod,  woven  entire, 
blue,  with  an  ornamented  border  around 
the  neck,  and  a  fringe  at  the  bottom 
made  up  of  pomegranates  and  golden 
bells  :  an  ephod  of  blue,  and  purple, 
and  scarlet,  and  fine  linen,  with  golden 
threads  interwoven,  covering  the  body 
from  the  neck  to  the  thighs ;  having 
shoulder- pieces  joined  on  the  shoulders 
by  clasps  of  gold  in  which  were  set  onyx- 
stones  graven  with  the  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel ;  and  also  a  girdle 
of  fine  linen,  woven  with  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  gold,  passed  several  times 
round  the  body  :  a  breastplate,  attached 
at  its  four  corners  to  the  ephod,  and  like 
wise  bearing  the  names  of  the  twelve 
tribes  on  twelve  precious  stones  ;  and  the 
mitre,  a  high  and  ornamented  turban 
353 


PRI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRO 


having  on  the  front  a  gold  plate  with  the 
inscription,  "HOLINESS  TO  THE  LORD." 
Neither  he  nor  the  priests  wore  their 
sacred  dresses  out  of  the  temple,  as  we 
infer  from  Ezek.  42:14;  44:17-19;  Acts 
23:5. 

The  Lord  had  given  no  lands  of  inher 
itance  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  in  the  Land 
of  Promise.  He  intended  that  they 
should  be  supported  by  the  tithes,  the 
first-fruits,  the  offerings  made  in  the 
temple,  and  by  their  share  of  the  sin- 
offerings  and  thanksgiving-offerings  sac 
rificed  in  the  temple  ;  of  which  certain 
parts  were  appropriated  to  them.  In  the 
peace-offerings,  they  had  the  shoulder 
and  the  breast,  Lev.  7  : 33,  34 ;  in  the 
sin-offering,  they  burnt  on  the  altar  the 
fat  that  covers  the  bowels,  the  liver,  and 
the  kidneys ;  the  rest  belonged  to  them 
selves,  Lev.  7:6,  10.  The  skin  or  fleece 
of  every  sacrifice  also  belonged  to  them. 
When  an  Israelite  sacrificed  any  animal 
for  his  own  use,  he  was  to  give  the  priest 
the  shoulder,  the  stomach,  and  the  jaws, 
Deut.  18:3.  The  priest  had  also  a  share 
of  the  wool  when  sheep  were  shorn, 
Deut.  18  :  4.  Thus,  though  the  priests 
had  no  lands  or  inheritances,  their  tem 
poral  wants  were  supplied.  God  provid 
ed  them  houses  and  accommodations,  by 
appointing  forty-eight  cities  for  their  res 
idence,  Nam.  35  :  1-7.  In  the  precincts 
of  these  cities  they  possessed  a  thousand 
cubits  beyond  the  walls.  Of  these  forty- 
eight  cities,  six  were  appointed  as  cities 
of  refuge  for  those  who  had  committed 
casual  and  involuntary  manslaughter. 
The  priests  had  thirteen  of  these  cities ; 
the  others  belonged  to  the  Levites,  Josh. 
21:10. 

A  principal  employment  of  the  priests, 
next  to  attending  on  the  sacrifices  and 
the  temple  service,  was  the  instruction 
of  the  people  and  the  deciding  of  contro 
versies  ;  distinguishing  the  several  sorts 
of  leprosy,  divorce  causes,  the  waters  of 
jealousy,  vows,  causes  relating  to  the 
law  and  uncleannesses,  etc.  They  pub 
licly  blessed  the  people  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord.  In  time  of  war  their  duty 
was  to  carry  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  to 
consult  the  Lord,  to  sound  the  holy 
trumpets,  and  to  encourage  the  army, 
Num.  10:8,  9;  Deut.  20:2. 

The  priesthood  of  Christ  is  the  sub 
stance  and  truth,  of  which  that  of  the 
Jews    was   but   a    shadow   and   figure. 
Christ,  the  everlasting  priest  according 
354 


to  the  order  of  Melchizedek,  abides  for 
ever,  as  Paul  observes;  whereas  the 
priests  according  to  the  order  of  Aaron 
were  mortal,  and  therefore  could  not 
continue  long,  Heb.  7.  The  Lord,  to 
express  to  the  Hebrews  what  great  favors 
he  would  confer  on  them,  says  he  would 
make  them  kings  and  priests,  Ex.  19:0; 
and  Peter  repeats  this  promise  to  Chris 
tians,  or  rather,  he  tells  them  that  they 
are  in  truth  what  Moses  promised  to 
Israel,  1  Pet.  2:5,  9.  See  also  Rev.  1:6. 
In  an  important  sense  every  Christian 
offers  himself  a  spiritual  sacrifice,  "ac 
ceptable  to  God  through  Jesus  Christ;" 
but  in  the  Christian  church,  there  is  no 
priest  to  make  expiation  for  sin  by  a  sac 
rifice  but  Christ  alone,  Heb.  9:11-26. 

PRIS'CA,  or  PRISCIL'LA,  the  wife  of 
Aquila.  See  AQUILA. 

PROCH'ORUS,  one  of  the  seven  origi 
nal  deacons,  Acts  6: 5,  of  whom  nothing 
more  is  known. 

PROGNOSTICATORS,  Isaiah  47  : 13, 
Chaldeans,  who  pretended  to  foretell 
future  events  by  the  varying  aspects  of 
the  moon,  or  month  by  month. 

PROM'ISE,  used  by  Paul  to  denote  the 
spiritual  gifts  of  God,  chiefly  the  Mes 
siah,  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  fulness  of 
gospel  blessings,  of  which  an  assurance 
was  given  to  Abraham  and  other  saints 
in  behalf  of  themselves,  and  of  believers 
who  should  come  after  them,  Romans 
4 : 13,  14  ;  Gal.  3 : 14-29.  The  ' '  children 
of  the  promise"  are  either  Isaac's  pos 
terity,  as  distinguished  from  Ishmael's; 
Jews  converted  to  Christianity  ;  or  all 
true  believers,  who  by  faith  lay  hold  on 
the  promise  of  salvation  in  Christ.  In 
Heb.  11:39,  "promise"  means  the  thing 
promised,  Acts  1:4.  The  "exceeding 
great  and  precious  promises"  of  God, 
include  all  good  things  for  this  life  and 
the  future  ;  which  are  infallibly  secured 
to  his  people  in  Christ,  2  Cor.  1  :  20 ; 
1  Tim.  4:8  ;  2  Pet.  1:4.  On  the  ground 
of  the  infinite  merits  of  their  Redeemer, 
infinite  love,  unbounded  wisdom,  and 
almighty  power  are  pledged  for  their 
benefit ;  and  having  given  them  his  only 
Son,  God  will  with  him  freely  give  them 
every  inferior  blessing  he  sees  to  be  de 
sirable  for  them,  Rom.  8:32. 

PROPHECY,  the  foretelling  of  future 
events,  by  inspiration  from  God.  It  is 
very  different  from  a  sagacious  and  hap 
py  conjecture  as  to  futurity,  and  from  a 
vague  and  equivocal  oracle,  without  any 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PRO 


certain  meaning.  A  true  prophecy  can 
come  only  from  God  ;  and  is  the  highest 
proof  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  message 
of  which  it  is  a  part.  A  true  prophecy 
may  be  known  by  these  marks:  being 
announced  at  a  suitable  time  before  the  i 
event  it  foretells ;  having  a  particular  ' 
and  exact  agreement  with  that  event; 
being  such  as  no  human  sagacity  or  fore 
sight  could  produce ;  and  being  deliver 
ed  by  one  claiming  to  be  under  the  in 
spiration  of  the  Almighty.  Many  of  the 
prophecies  of  Scripture  foretold  events  | 
ages  before  they  occurred — events  of 
which  there  was  then  no  apparent  prob 
ability,  and  the  occurrence  of  which  de 
pended  on  innumerable  contingencies, 
involving  the  history  of  things  and  the 
volitions  of  persons  not  then  in  exist 
ence  ;  and  yet  these  predictions  were  ful 
filled  at  the  time  and  place  and  in  the 
manner  prophesied.  Such  were  the  pre 
dictions  respecting  the  coming  and  cru 
cifixion  of  the  Messiah,  the  dispersion 
and  preservation  of  the  Jews,  etc.  The 
Scripture  prophecies  are  a  scheme  of  vast 
extent,  the  very  earliest  predictions 
reaching  down  to  the  end  of  the  world's 
history — a  scheme  gradually  and  harmo 
niously  developed  from  age  to  age,  and 
by  many  different  persons,  some  of  them 
not  fully  apprehending,  and  "  searching 
diligently  what  the  Spirit  of  Christ 
which  was  in  them  did  signify,"  1  Pet. 
1:11,  the  whole  manifestly  the  work  of 
Jehovah,  and  marvellous  in  our  eyes. 
A  degree  of  obscurity  rests  on  the  pro 
phetic  writings,  which  patient  and  pray 
erful  study  alone  can  dispel ;  while  those 
which  are  yet  unfulfilled  must  await  the 
coming  of  the  events  which  will  make  \ 
all  at  length  clear.  Many  predictions 
relating  primarily  to  events  and  deliver-  • 
ances  near  at  hand,  were  also  designed 
of  God  as  sure  prophecies  of  yet  more 
illustrious  events  hi  the  future.  For  ex 
ample,  the  general  subject  of  the  predic 
tions  in  -Matt.  24  is  the  coming  of  Christ,  to 
judge  big  foe*  and  deliver  his  friends. 
In  penning  a  sketch  of  this  subject,  Mat 
thew  imitates  a  painter  depicting  from 
an  eminence  the  landscape  before  him  : 
the  tower  of  the  village  church  in  the 
near  foreground,  and  the  mountain  peak 
in  the  dim  and  remote  horizon,  rise  side 
by  side  on  his  canvas.  80  in  painting 
the  coming  of  Christ,  Matthew  sketches 
first  some  features  of  his  coming  in  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  to  occur  within 


forty  years,  and  in  the  next  verse  some 
distinctive  features  of  his  second  coming 
at  the  end  of  the  world  ;  yet  both  belong 
to  the  same  general  view.  Respecting 
the  New  Testament  phrase,  ''This  was 
done  that  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  etc., 
see  FULFILLED.  For  other  meaning*  of 
"prophecy,"  see  PROPHETS. 

PROPH'ETS,  a  class  of  men  of  God, 
especially  in  the  Old  Testament  dispen 
sation,  inspired  to  foretell  future  and  se 
cret  events ;  and  who  also  revealed  the 
will  of  God  as  to  current  events  and  du 
ties,  and  were  his  ambassadors  to  men. 
But  the  word  is  sometimes  used  in  a 
wider  sense:  thus  Aaron  was  Moses' 
prophet,  Ex.  7:1,  appointed  to  deliver  to 
the  people  the  messages  that  Moses  re 
ceived  from  God ;  the  sacred  musicians 
are  said  to  prophecy,  1  Chr.  25  : 1 ;  and 
Paul  gives  the  name,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  Greeks,  to  the  poet  Ara- 
tus,  "a  prophet  of  their  own,"  Tit.  1:12. 
Scripture  does  not  withhold  the  name  of 
prophet  from  impostors,  although  they 
falsely  boasted  of  inspiration.  As  true 
prophets,  when  filled  by  the  energy  of 
God's  Spirit,  were  sometimes  fervidly 
and  vehemently  agitated,  similar  mo 
tions  were  called  prophesying  when  ex 
hibited  by  persons  who  were  filled  with 
an  evil  spirit.  Saul,  being  moved  by  an 
evil  spirit,  "prophesied  in  his  house," 
1  Sam.  18  :  10.  In  the  New  Testament, 
the  "prophets"  were  a  class  of  men 
supernaturally  endowed,  and  standing 
next  to  the  apostles.  They  seem  to 
have  spoken  from  immediate  inspiration, 
whether  in  reference  to  future  events  or 
to  the  mind  of  the  Spirit  generally,  as 
in  expounding  the  oracles  of  God.  See 
1  Cor.  11 :  4,  5 ;  14  : 1,  30,  etc.  Thus  it 
is  said  in  Acts  13:1,  that  Judas  and  Silas 
were  prophets;  that  there  were  in  the 
church  at  Antiocb  certain  prophets  and 
teachers,  that  is,  official  instructors.  God 
has  set  in  the  church,  first  apostles,  then 
prophets,  1  Cor.  12 : 28.  See  also  Eph. 
2:20;  Rev.  18:20;  Acts  21:9. 

The  Old  Testament  prophets  were  spe 
cial  agents  of  Jehovah,  raised  up  and 
sent  as  occasion  required,  to  incite  to 
duty,  to  convict  of  sin,  to  call  to  repent 
ance  and  reformation,  to  instruct  kings, 
and  denounce  against  nations  the  judg 
ments  of  God,  2  Kin.  17  : 13 ;  Jer.  26:1. 
They  aided  the  priests  and  Levites  in 
teaching  religion  to  the  people,  especial 
ly  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  from  which 
355 


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the  true  priests  of  the  Lord  withdrew, 
2  Kin.  4  :  23  ;  and  cooperated  with  the 
kings  in  public .  measures  to  promote 
piety  and  virtue.  They  were  humble, 
faithful,  self-denying,  fearless  men, 
2  Kin.  1:8;  Zech.  13  :  4 ;  Matt.  3:4; 
aloof  from  the  pleasures  and  luxuries  of 
life,  2  Kin.  5  :  15  ;  often  persecuted,  and 
slain,  Matt.  23  :  34-37 ;  Heb.  11  :  32-38 ; 
James  2 :  10 ;  but  exerting  a  powerful 
influence  as  witnesses  for  God.  Some  of 
them  were  called  from  the  plough  and 
the  herd,  1  Kin.  19  :  20 ;  Amos  7  : 14  ; 
Zech.  13:5.  There  were  also  "schools 
of  the  prophets,"  first  mentioned  in  the 
time  of  Samuel,  established  at  Gibeah, 
Naioth,  Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Jericho, 
where  young  men  were  instructed  in  re 
ligion  and  prepared  to  guide  in  religious 
worship,  1  Sarn.  10  :  5  ;  19  :  20 ;  2  Kin. 
2:3,  5 ;  4 : 38.  Many  of  the  ' '  sons  of  the 
prophets"  here  taught  became  not  only 
religious  teachers,  but  inspired  prophets. 
Amos  speaks  of  his  own  case  as  an  ex 
ception,  Amos  7 : 14,  15.  There  are  sev 
eral  prophetesses  mentioned  in  Scripture ; 
as  Miriam,  Deborah,  and  Huldah ;  and 
in  the  New  Testament,  Anna,  Elisabeth, 
and  Mary,  and  the  four  daughters  of 
Philip  seem  to  have  partaken  for  a  time 
of  prophetic  inspiration. 

The  prophets  received  their  messages 
from  God,  sometimes  in  visions,  trances, 
and  dreams.  Compare  Num.  24  :  2-16  ; 
Joel  2  :  28  ;  Acts  10  :  11,  12 ;  Eev.  1 : 10- 
20.  These  revelations  were  at  times 
attended  with  overpowering  manifesta 
tions  of  the  Godhead ;  and  at  other  times 
were  simply  breathed  into  the  mind  by 
the  Spirit  of  God.  Their  messages  were 
delivered  to  the  kings,  princes,  and 
priests  whom  they  most  concerned,  or  to 
the  people  at  large,  in  writing,  or  by 
word  of  mouth  and  in  public  places ; 
often  with  miracles,  or  Avith  symbolic 
actions  designed  to  explain  and  enforce 
them,  Isa.  20  ;  Jer.  7:2  ;  19  ;  Ezek.  3:10. 

The  Old  Testament  contains  the  in 
spired  writings  of  sixteen  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets  ;  four  of  whom,  Isaiah,  Jeremi 
ah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel,  are  called  the 
greater  prophets,  and  the  other  twelve 
the  minor  prophets.  Respecting  the  true 
chronological  order  of  the  prophets,  there 
is  in  some  cases  great  diversity  of  opin 
ion.  Below  is  given  the  arrangement 
preferred  by  some  ;  while  others,  so  far 
as  the  minor  prophets  are  concerned,  ad 
here  to  that  given  in  the  Hebrew  Bible 
358 


and  our  common  version.    See  each  name 
in  its  place,  for  further  particulars. 

I.  JONAH,  during  the  reign  oi  Jeroboam  II., 
king  oi  Israel,  which  commenced  8L5  B.  c.  ;  or 
perhaps  as  early  as  Joash,  the  predecessor  oi 
Jeroboam. 

'2.  JOEL,  under  Uzziah  king  ot  Judah,  nearly 
800  B.  c.,  before  Amos  and  Hosea  came  upon 
the  stage. 

3.  AMOS,  under  Uzziah  king  of  Judah,  and 
during  the  latter  years  ol  Jeroboam  11.,  king 
of  Israel.     About  787  B.  c. 

4.  HOSEA,  under  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and 
Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah,  and  under  Jerobo 
am  II.   and   his  successors,  kings  oi  Israel. 
From  about  785  to  725  B.  c. 

5.  ISAIAH,  near  the  death  oi  Uzziah  king  of 
Judah,  and  the  beginning  oi  the  reign  of  Jo 
tham,  B.  c.  758,  to  the  reign  oOlanasseh.  B.  c. 
697. 

6.  MICAH,  under  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Heze 
kiah,  kings  of  Judah.   Jotham  began  to  reign 
B.  c.  758,  and  Hezekiah  died  B.  c.  697.    Ihus 
Micah  was  contemporary  with  Isaiah. 

7.  NAHIM,  in  the  latter  part  oi  the  reign  ol 
Hezekiah,  and  after  the  expedition  of  fcen- 
nacherib.     Between  710  and  700  B.  c. 

8.  ZEPHANIAH,  soon  after  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  Josiah,  and  before  the  destruc 
tion  of  Nineveh.     About  B.  c.  630. 

9.  JEREMIAH,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  Josiah 
king  of  Judah,  B.  c.  628.     Jeremiah  continued 
to  prophesy  under  Shallum,  Jehoiakim,  Jec- 
oniah,  and  Zedekiah,  to  the  taking  of  Jeru 
salem  by  the  Chaldeans,  B.  c.  588.     It  is  sup 
posed  he  died  two  years  afterwards,  in  Egypt. 

10.  HABAKKUK,  in  Judah,  near  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  duout  610  B.  c.,  and 
before  the  coming  oi  Nebuchadnezzar. 

II.  OBADIAH,  near  the  iall  and  captivity  of 
Jerusalem,  B.  c,  588,  and  before  the  desolation 
of  Idumaea. 

12.  EZEKIEL,  carried  captive  to  Eabylon  with 
Jeconiah  king  oi  Judah,  598  B.  c.     He  began 
to  prophesy  about  B.  c.  5PO ;  and  continued, 
under  Nebuchadnezzar,   till  iourteen   years 
after  the  final  capture  of  Jerusalem  «.  c.  588. 

13.  DAMKI,,  taken  into  Chaldea  while  young, 
B.  c.  606,  the  lourth  year  ol  Jehoiakim  king 
of  Judah.     He  prophesied  in  Eabylon  to  the 
end  oi  the  captivity,  and  probably  finished 
about  534  B.  c. 

14.  HAGGAI,  returned  from  the  captivity  B.  c. 
53R,  and  prophesied  in  the  second  year  oi  Da- 
rius  son  of  Hysiaspes,  B.  c.  520. 

15.  ZECHARIAH,  prophesied  in  Judea  at  the 
same  time  as  Haggai,  B.  c.  520,  and  seems  to 
have  continued  after  him. 

16.  MALACHI,  supposed  to  have  prophesied 
about  416  B.  c. ,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  admin 
istration  of  Nehemiah  at  Jerusalem. 

Christ,  of  whom  all  the  prophets  bore 
witness,  Luke  24  :  27.  44  ;  Acts  10  :  43  ; 
1  Pet.  1:10,  11,  is  eminently  THE  PRom- 
KT  of  his  church  in  all  ages,  Dent.  18: 15- 
19 ;  Acts  3  :  22-24 ;  revealing  to  them, 
by  his  inspired  servants,  by  himself,  and 
by  his  Spirit,  all  we  know  of  God  and 
immortality. 

PROPITIATION,  the  offering  which 
appeases  the  wrath  of  one  against  whom 


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PSA 


an  offence  has  been  committed.  Christ 
is  "the  propitiation  for  our  sins,"  Horn. 
3 : 25,  inasmuch  as  his  sacrifice  alone  re 
moves  the  obstacles  which  prevented  the 
mercy  of  God  from  saving  sinners,  and 
appeases  the  just  wrath  of  the  law, 
1  John  2:2;  4  :  10.  The  same  Greek 
word  is  used  in  the  Septuagint  to  denote 
an  "atonement,"  Num.  5:8;  a  "sin- 
offering,"  Ezek.  44:27  ;  and  the  covering 
of  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  Lev.  16  :  14  ; 
Heb.  9:5.  See  MERCY-SEAT. 

PROS'ELYTE,  in  the  Jewish  sense,  a 
foreigner  who  adopted  the  Jewish  relig 
ion,  a  convert  from  heathenism  to  Juda 
ism.  The  laws  of  the  Hebrews  make 
frequent  mention  of  "the  stranger  that 
is  within  thy  gates,"  Lev.  17:8-16; 
24  :  16  ;  Num.  15  :  14-16,  and  welcomed 
him  to  all  the  privileges  of  the  people  of 
God.  Our  Saviour  rebukes  the  blind 
zeal  of  the  Pharisees  to  make  proselytes 
to  ceremonial  Judaism,  without  caring 
for  the  circumcision  of  the  heart,  Matt. 
23  : 15  ;  Horn.  2  :  28,  29.  According  to 
the  later  rabbins,  there  were  two  species 
of  proselytes  among  the  Jews.  The  first 
were  called  "proselytes  of  the  gate," 
and  were  foreigners,  either  bond  or  free, 
who  lived  among  the  Jews  and  conform 
ed  to  their  customs  in  regard  to  what 
the  rabbins  call  "the  seven  precepts  of 
Noah  ;"  that  is,  they  abstained  from  in 
jurious  language  in  respect  to  God,  from 
idolatry,  homicide,  incest,  robbery,  re 
sistance  to  magistrates,  and  from  eating 
blood,  or  the  flesh  of  animals  killed 
without  shedding  their  blood.  The  other 
class  were  called  "proselytes  of  justice ;" 
that  is,  complete,  perfect  proselytes,  and 
were  those  who  had  abandoned  their  for 
mer  religion,  and  bound  themselves  to 
the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law  in  its 
full  extent.  These,  according  to  the  rab 
bins,  by  means  of  circumcision,  baptism, 
and  an  offering,  obtained  all  the  rites  of 
Jewish  citizenship,  Ex.  12:48,  49.  This 
distinction,  however,  is  not  observable 
in  the  Bible.  Proselytes  were  numerous 
in  our  Saviour's  day,  and  were  found  in 
many  places  remote  from  Jerusalem, 
Acts  2  : 10  ;  8  :  27.  Many  converts  to 
Christianity  were  gathered  from  among 
them,  John  12  :  20;  Acts  6:5;  13  :  43\ 
17:4. 

PROV'ERBS,  THE  BOOK  OF,  a  collection 
of  pointed  and  sententious  moral  max 
ims,  the  fruit  of  Solomon's  profound  sa 
gacity  and  unexampled  experience,  but 


above  all,  of  the  inspiration  of  God.  Sol 
omon  is  said  to  have  uttered  three  thou 
sand  proverbs,  1  Kin.  4  :  32,  B.  c.  1000. 
The  first  nine  chapters  of  Proverbs  are 
written  in  an  admirable  poetic  style,  and 
are  more  continuous  than  the  succeed 
ing  chapters,  10-22,  which  consist  of 
separate  maxims.  Chapters  25-29  are 
proverbs  of  Solomon  collected  under  the 
direction  of  king  Hezekiah.  Chapter  30 
is  ascribed  to  Agur,  and  affords  exam 
ples  of  the  enigmatic  proverbs  so  popu 
lar  in  the  East.  Chapter  31,  by  "king 
Lemuel,"  is  mainly  a  beautiful  picture  of 
female  excellence.  By  whose  care  this 
book  was  compiled  in  Its  present  form, 
is  unknown  ;  there  is  no  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  however,  whose  canonical 
authority  is  better  attested.  The  New 
Testament  contains  frequent  quotations 
and  allusions  to  it!}  Rom.  12:20  ;  1  Thess. 
5  :  15 ;  Heb.  12  :  5,  6  ;  Jas.  4:6;  1  Pet. 
4 : 8  ;  2  Pet.  2 : 22.  Its  ' '  winged  words ' ' 
are  a  rich  storehouse  of  heavenly  wis 
dom,  and  few  questions  can  arise  in  ac 
tual  life  on  which  they  do  not  shed  light. 

PROV'IDENCE,  Acts  24  :  2,  a  superin 
tending  and  forecasting  care.  The  prov 
idence  of  God  upholds  and  governs  every 
created  thing.  Its  operation  is  coex 
tensive  with  the  universe,  and  as  un 
ceasing  as  the  flow  of  time.  All  his 
attributes  are  engaged  in  it.  He  pro- 
videth  for  the  raven  his  food,  and  satis- 
fieth  the  desire  of  every  living  thing. 
The  Bible  shows  us  o!l  nature  looking 
up  to  him  and  depending  upon  him,  Job 
38:41;  Psa.  104;  145:15,  16;  147:8,  9; 
and  uniformly  declares  that  every  occur 
rence,  as  well  as  every  being,  is  perfectly 
controlled  by  him.  There  is  no  such 
thing  as  chance  in  the  universe  ;  ' '  the 
lot  is  cast  into  the  lap,  but  the  whole 
disposing  thereof  is  of  the  Lord,"  Prov. 
16:23.  Not  a  sparrow,  nor  a  hair  of  the 
head,  falls  to  the  ground  without  his 
knowledge,  Isa.  14:26,  27  ;  Matt.  10:29, 
30 ;  Acts  17  :  24-29.  Nothing  that  was 
not  too  minute  for  God  to  create,  is  too 
minute  for  him  to  preserve  and  control. 
The  history  of  each  man,  the  rise  and 
fall  of  nations,  and  the  progress  of  the 
church  of  Christ,  reveal  at  every  step  the 
hand  of  Him  who  "worketh  all  things 
after  the  counsel  of  his  own  will." 

PSALMS,  THE  BOOK  or.  The  Hebrew 
name  for  this  book  is  TEHILLIM,  praises, 
though  many  of  the  psalms  are  rather 
elegiac.  Most  of  the  psalms  have  the  su- 
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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PSA 


perscription  mizmbr,  a  poem,  song.  This 
word  is  rendered  in  the  Septuagint  by 
psalmos,  that  is,  a  song  sung  to  music,  a 
lyric  poem.  The  Greek  psalterion  means 
a  stringed  instrument ;  hence  by  a  met 
aphor  the  book  of  Psalms  is  called  Psal 
ter.  For  the  poetical  characteristics  of 
the  Psalms,  see  POETRY. 

CLASSIFICATION. — Some  writers  have 
classified  the  psalms  according  to  their 
poetic  character,  into  odes,  elegies,  etc. 
A  preferable  method  is  to  divide  them 
according  to  their  contents.  In  this  way 
they  have  been  divided  into  six  classes. 

I.  Hymns  in  praise  of  Jehovah  ;  tehil- 
lim  in  the  proper  sense.     These  are  di 
rected  to  Jehovah  as  the  God  of  all  na 
ture  and  the  Creator  of  the  universe, 
Psa.  8,  104  ;  as  the  protector  and  patron 
of  Israel,  Psa.  20,  29,  33,  or  of  individ 
uals,  with  thanksgiving  for  deliverance 
from  evils,  Psa.  18,  30,  46,  47 ;  or  they 
refer  to  the  more  special  attributes  of 
Jehovah,  Psa.   90,  139.      These  psalms 
express  thoughts  of  the  highest  sublim 
ity  in  respect  to  God,  providence,   re 
demption,  etc. 

II.  Temple  hymns ;  sung  at  the  con 
secration  of  the  temple,  the  entrance  of 
the  ark,  etc.,  or  intended  for  the  temple 
service,  Psa.  24,  132.     So  also  "pilgrim 
songs, ".sung  by  those  who  came  up  to 
worship  in  the  temple,  etc.  ;  as  for  ex 
ample,  the  "songs  of  degrees,"  Psa.  120, 
etc.     See  DEGREES. 

III.  Religious  and  moral  songs  of  a 
general  character ;  containing  the  poet 
ical  expression  of  emotions  and  feelings, 
and  therefore  subjective:  as  for  example, 
confidence  in  God,  Psa.  23,  62,  125 ;  de- 
votedness  to  God,  Psa.  16  ;  longing  for 
the  worship  of  the  temple,  Psa.  42,  43 ; 
prayers  for  the  forgiveness  of  sin,  etc. 
To  this  class  belong  the  seven  peniten 
tial  psalms,  as  they  are  termed,  Psa.  6, 
25,  32,  35,  38,  51,  130.      Also  didactic 
songs ;    the  poetical  expression  of  some 
truth,  maxim,  etc.,  Psa.  1,  34,  128 ;  Psa. 
15,  32,  50,  etc.      This  is  a  numerous 
class. 

IV.  Elegiac  psalms,  that  is,  lamenta 
tions,    psalms    of   complaint,   generally 
united  with  prayer  for  help. 

V.  Messianic  psalms,  as  2,  22,  45,  69, 
72,  110,  etc. 

VI.  Historical  psalms,   in  which  the 
ancient  history  of  the  Israelites  is  re 
peated  in  a  hortatory  manner,  Psa.  78, 
105,  106,  114. 

358 


But  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  per 
fect  arrangement,  because  some  psalms 
belong  in  part  to  two  or  more  different 
classes.  Besides  the  proper  Messianic 
psalms,  predictions  of  the  Messiah  are 
widely  scattered  through  this  book,  and 
the  attention  of  the  devout  reader  is 
continually  attracted  by  passages  fore 
telling  His  character  and  His  works. 
Not  a  few  of  these  are  alluded  to  in  the 
New  Testament ;  and  it  is  unquestion 
able  that  the  language  and  structure  of 
many  others  not  quoted  were  intended 
to  bear  witness  to  the  Son  of  God.  Da 
vid  himself  was  an  eminent  type  of  the 
Saviour,  and  many  events  of  his  life 
shadowed  forth  his  Son  and  Lord.  The 
mention  of  these  in  the  inspired  writings 
is  not  undesigned  ;  the  recorded  trials 
and  victories  of  David  find  in  their  refer 
ence  to  the  Messiah  their  highest  claim 
to  a  place  in  the  sacred  writings.  Lord 
Bacon  has  remarked  that  many  prophetic 
passages  in  the  Old  Testament  are  "of 
the  nature  of  their  Author,  to  whom  a 
thousand  years  are  as  one  day ;  and 
therefore  they  are  not  fulfilled  punctu 
ally  at  once,  but  have  springing  and  ger- 
minant  accomplishment  through  many 
ages,  though  the  height  or  fulness  of 
them  may  refer  to  some  one  age." 

INSCRIPTIONS. — With  the  exception  of 
twenty-five  psalms,  hence  called  orphan 
psalms,  all  the  rest  have  inscriptions  of 
various  kinds.  They  refer  to  the  author, 
the  occasion,  different  kinds  of  song,  the 
melody  or  rhythm,  the  instrumental  ac 
companiment,  the  choir  who  shall  per 
form,  etc.  These  are  mostly  very  ob 
scure,  because  the  music  and  musical 
instruments  of  the  Hebrews  are  almost 
unknown  to  us.  They  are  of  very  high 
antiquity,  if  not  as  old  as  the  psalms 
themselves  ;  and  in  the  Hebrew  are  not 
detached  from  the  psalms,  as  in  modern 
translations.  They  appear  with  numer 
ous  variations  in  the  ancient  Greek  and 
Syriac  versions.  Many  words  in  these  in 
scriptions  remain  untranslated,  and  can 
only  be  conjecturally  interpreted.  See 
HIGGAION,  MASCHIL,  etc. 

AUTHORS  AND  AGE  OF  THE  PSALMS. — • 
To  David  are  assigned  seventy  -  three 
psalms  in  the  Hebrew,  and  in  the  Sep 
tuagint  eleven  more.  Psalm  90  is  as- 
.cribed  to  Moses.  As  to  the  authorship 
of  the  other  psalms,  much  diversity  of 
opinion  has  prevailed  among  biblical 
critics. 


PSA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PUB 


The  whole  collection  of  the  Psalms  ap 
pears  to  have  first  existed  in  five  books, 
after  the  example,  perhaps,  of  the  Penta 
teuch.  Each  book  closes  with  a  doxology . 

Book    I.  comprises  psalms   1-41. 
«      II.          «  «         42-72. 

"     III.          "  "         73-89. 

"IV.  «  "        90-106. 

"       V.  "  "      107-150. 

One  psalm  occurs  twice,  Psa.  14 ;  com 
pare  Psa.  63.  Some  occur  as  parts  of 
other  psalms  ;  as  for  example,  Psa.  70 
forms  also  a  part  of  Psa.  40.  So  also 
some  psalms  are  repeated  from  other 
books  of  Scripture ;  thus  Psa.  18  is  the 
same  with  2  Sam.  22.  The  final  arrange 
ment  of  the  whole  is  generally  referred 
to  Ezra,  450  B.  c. 

These  invaluable  sacred  songs  exhibit 
the  sublimest  conceptions  of  God,  as  the 
creator,  preserver,  and  governor  of  the 
universe ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  pro 
phetical  character  of  many  of  them,  and 
their  relation  to  the  Messiah  and  the 
great  plan  of  man's  redemption.  They 
present  us  with  the  most  perfect  models 
of  child-like  resignation  and  devoted- 
ness,  of  unwavering  faith  and  confidence 
in  God.  They  are  an  inspired  epitome 
of  the  Bible,  for  purposes  of  devotion ; 
and  are  peculiarly  dear  to  the  people  of 
God,  as  expressing  every  phase  of  re 
ligious  experience.  Luther,  in  his  pre 
face  to  the  Psalter,  has  the  following 
beautiful  language :  ' '  Where  canst  thou 
find  nobler  words  of  joy,  than  in  the 
psalms  of  praise  and  thanksgiving? 
There  thou  mayest  look  into  the  hearts 
of  all  good  men,  as  into  beautiful  and 
pleasant  gardens,  yea,  as  into  heaven 
itself.  How  do  grateful  and  fine  and 
charming  blossoms  spring  up  there,  from 
every  kind  of  pleasing  and  rejoicing 
thoughts  towards  God  and  his  goodness ! 
Again,  where  canst  thou  find  more  deep 
or  mournful  words  of  sorrow,  than  in  the 
psalms  of  lamentation  and  woe  ?  There 
thou  mayest  look  again  into  the  hearts 
of  all  good  men,  as  upon  death,  yea,  as 
if  into  hell.  How  dark  and  gloomy  is  it 
there,  from  anxious  and  troubled  views 
of  the  wrath  of  God !  I  hold,  however, 
that  no  better  or  finer  book  of  models, 
or  legends  of  saints  and  martyrs,  has 
existed,  or  can  exist  on  earth,  than  the 
Psalter.  For  we  find  here,  not  alone 
what  one  or  two  saints  have  done,  but 
what  the  Head  of  all  saints  has  done, 
and  what  all  holy  men  still  do  ;  in  what 


attitude  they  stand  towards  God  and 
towards  their  friends  and  enemies ;  and 
how  they  conduct  themselves  in  all  dan 
gers  and  sufferings.  And  besides  this, 
all  sorts  of  divine  doctrines  and  precepts 
are  contained  in  it.  Hence  it  is  that  the 
Psalter  is  THE  BOOK  of  all  good  men  ;  and 
every  one,  whatever  his  circumstances 
may  be,  finds  in  it  psalms  and  words 
suited  to  his  circumstances,  and  which 
are  to  him  just  as  if  they  had  been  put 
there  on  his  very  account,  and  in  such  a 
way  that  he  himself  could  not  have  made 
or  found  or  wished  for  better." 

In  Luke  24  :  44,  the  word  "psalms" 
denotes  one  of  the  three  divisions  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  the  Hagiographa  or  devo 
tional  writings.  See  BIBLE.  With  re 
gard  to  alphabetical  psalms  and  psalms 
of  degrees,  see  DEGREES,  and  LETTERS. 
PSAL'TERY.  See  HARP,  and  Music. 
PTOLEMA'IS.  See  ACCHO. 
PUB'LICAN,  an  officer  of  the  revenue, 
employed  in  collecting  taxes.  Among 
the  Romans  there  were  two  sorts  of  tax- 
gatherers  :  some  were  general  receivers, 
who  in  each  province  had  deputies  ;  they 
collected  the  revenues  of  the  empire, 
and  accounted  to  the  emperor.  These 
were  men  of  great  consideration  in  the 
government ;  and  Cicero  says  that  among 
these  were  the  flower  of  the  Roman 
knights,  the  ornaments  of  the  city,  and 
the  strength  of  the  commonwealth.  But 
the  deputies,  the  under-collectors,  the 
publicans  of  the  lower  order,  were  look 
ed  upon  as  so  many  thieves  and  pick 
pockets.  Theocritus  being  asked  which 
was  the  most  cruel  of  all  beasts,  answer 
ed,  "Among  the  beasts  of  the  wilder 
ness,  the  bear  and  the  lion ;  among  the 
beasts  of  the  city,  the  publican  and  the 
parasite."  Among  the  Jews,  the  name 
and  profession  of  a  publican  were  espe 
cially  odious.  They  could  not,  without 
the  utmost  reluctance,  see  publicans  ex 
acting  tributes  and  impositions  laid  on 
them  by  foreigners,  the  Romans.  The 
Galileans,  or  Herodians,  especially,  sub 
mitted  to  this  with  the  greatest  impa 
tience,  and  thought  it  even  unlawful, 
Deut.  17 : 15.  Those  of  their  own  nation 
who  undertook  this  office  they  looked 
upon  as  heathen,  Matt.  18  :  17.  It  is 
even  said  that  they  would  not  allow 
them  to  enter  the  temple  or  the  syna 
gogues,  to  engage  in  the  public  pray 
ers  or  offices  of  judicature,  or  to  give 
testimony  in  a  court  of  justice. 
359 


PUB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


PUR 


There  were  many  publicans  in  Judea 
in  the  time  of  our  Saviour ;  Zaccheus, 
probably,  was  one  of  the  principal  receiv 
ers,  since  he  is  called  "  chief  among  the 
publicans,"  Luke  19:2;  but  Matthew 
was  only  an  inferior  publican,  Luke 
5  :  27.  The  Jews  reproached  Jesus  with 
being  a  "friend  of  publicans  and  sin 
ners,  and  eating  with  them,"  Luke  7 : 34  ; 
but  he,  knowing  the  self-righteousness, 
unbelief,  and  hypocrisy  of  his  accusers, 
replied,  "The  publicans  and  harlots  go 
into  the  kingdom  of  G-od  before  you," 
Matt.  21 :  31.  Compare  also  the  beauti 
ful  demeanor  of  the  penitent  publican  in 
the  temple,  and  the  self -justify  ing  spirit 
of  the  Pharisee,  Luke  18:10-14. 

PUB'LIUS,  the  prefect  of  Melita  when 
Paul  was  shipwrecked  on  that  island 

A.  D.  60,  Acts  28:7-9.     Publius  received 
the  apostle  and  his   company  into   his 
house,  and  entertained  them  with  great 
humanity.     The  governor's  father,  dan 
gerously   sick,  and  many  others   ill   of 
various  diseases,  were  miraculously  heal 
ed  ;   and  their  hospitable  care  of  Paul 
and  his  friends  continued  through  the 
three  wintry  months  of  their  stay,  and 
furnished   them  abundant  supplies   on 
their  departure. 

PUL,  I.,  an  Assyrian  king,  about  765 

B.  c. ,  when  Assyria  is  first  mentioned  in 
Scripture  after  the  time  of  Nimrod.     He 
invaded  Israel  during  the  reign  of  Mena- 
hem,  but  was  induced  to  retire  by  a 
present  of  a  thousand  talents  of  silver, 
equivalent  to  at  least  a  million  and  a  half 
of  dollars,   2  Kin.  15  :  19,  20 ;  1   Chr. 
6:26. 

II.  Isa.  66 : 19,  a  region  remote  from 
Judea,  associated  with  Lud,  and  sup 
posed  by  Bochart  to  be  traceable  in  the 
island  Philae  in  the  Nile,  near  the  con 
fines  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia. 

PULSE,  a  general  name  for  peas, 
beans,  and  all  large  or  leguminous  seeds. 

PUN'ISHMENTS.  The  penalties  in 
flicted  in  ancient  times  for  various  crimes 
and  offences,  varied  in  different  nations, 
and  at  different  times.  Capital  punish 
ment  for  murder  is  generally  agreed  to 
have  been  permanently  instituted  at  the 
origin  of  the  human  race  ;  and  Cain  was 
only  saved  from  it  by  a  special  interposi 
tion  of  God,  Gen.  4 :  14,  15.  It  was  re- 
enacted,  with  reasons,  after  the  deluge, 
Gen.  9:5,  6,  and  in  the  wilderness,  Num. 
35 : 9-34 ;  and  was  early  and  widely  recog 
nized  among  mankind. 
3CO 


The  mode  of  capital  punishment  usual 
among  the  Hebrews  was  stoning,  Deut. 
13:9,  10;  17:5  ;  Josh.  17:25  ;  John  8:7; 
but  various  other  modes  became  known 
to  them  by  intercourse  with  other  na 
tions  :  as  decapitation,  2  Kin.  10  :  6-8 ; 
Matt.  14:8-12  ;  precipitation  from  rocks, 
2  Chr.  25  : 12  ;  Luke  4  :  29  ;  hanging, 
Josh.  8:29 ;  Esth.  7  :  10;  burning,  Dan. 
3 ;  cutting  asunder,  Dan.  2:5;  3  :  29  ; 
Heb.  11 :  27  ;  beating,  on  a  wheel-like 
frame,  Heb.  11  : 35 ;  exposure  to  wild 
beasts,  Dan.  6;  1  Cor.  15:32;  drowning, 
Matt.  18:6;  bruising  in  a  mortar,  Prov. 
27 : 22 ;  and  crucifixion,  John  19 : 18. 

Minor  punishments  were  scourging, 
Lev.  19:20;  2  Cor.  11:24;  retaliation  in 
kind  for  an  injury  done,  Exod.  21 :  23- 
25;  Deut.  19:19;  imprisonment,  2  Chr. 
16  :  10  ;  Matt.  4 :  12 ;  the  stocks,  Acts 
16:24;  banishment,  Rev.  1:9;  and  per 
sonal  torture,  2  Chr.  18  :  26 ;  Isa.  50  :  6  ; 
Matt.  18:30;  Heb.  11:37. 

PU'RIM,  lots,  a  Jewish  festival  insti 
tuted  by  Esther  and  Mordecai,  during 
the  reign  of  Ahasuerus  king  of  Persia,  in 
memory  of  the  providential  deliverance 
of  the  Jews  from  the  malignant  designs 
of  Haman.  The  propriety  of  the  name 
appears  from  the  fact  that  the  lot  was 
cast  in  the  presence  of  Haman  for  every 
day  from  the  first  month  to  the  twelfth, 
before  an  auspicious  day  was  found  for 
destroying  the  Jews;  and  thus  the  su 
perstition  of  Haman  was  made  the  means 
of  giving  them  time  to  turn  his  devices 
against  himself,  Prov.  16:33  ;  Esth.  3:7  ; 
9  :  20-32.  This  festival  was  preceded  by 
a  day  of  fasting,  and  was  observed  by 
reading  the  book  of  Esther  publicly  in 
the  synagogues,  and  by  private  festivi 
ties,  mutual  presents,  alms,  plays,  and 
self-indulgence.  Some  think  it  is  allud 
ed  to  in  John  5:1.  It  is  still  observed 
by  the  Jews,  in  the  month  of  March. 

PUR'PLE.  The  famous  and  costly 
Tyrian  purple,  the  royal  color  of  the 
ancients,  is  said  to  have  been  discovered 
by  the  Tyrian  Hercules,  whose  dog  hav 
ing  by  chance  eaten  a  shell -fish  called 
Purpura,  and  returning  to  his  master 
with  his  lips  tinged  with  a  purple  color, 
occasioned  the  discovery  of  this  precious 
dye.  Purple,  however,  is  much  more 
ancient  than  this,  since  we  find  it  men 
tioned  by  Moses  in  several  places.  Two 
kinds  of  purple  are  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament :  1.  ARGAMON,  rendered  in  our 
version  "purple,"  denoting  a  reddish 


PUT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


QUA 


purple  obtained  from  a  species  of  muscle 
or  shell-fish  found  on  the  coasts  of  the 


HELIX   IANTHINA  AND  MUREX  TRUNCULUS. 

Mediterranean.  2.  TECIIELETH,  rendered 
in  the  English  Bible  "blue."  This  was 
a  bluish  or  coerulean  purple,  likewise  ob 
tained  from  another  species  of  shell-fish. 
The  "scarlet"  or  "crimson,"  for  the 
two  words .  denote  essentially  the  same 
color,  was  produced  from  the  coccus  in 
sect,  coccus  ilicis.  All  these  were  sacred 
colors  among  the  Jews ;  and  the  latter 
was  used  for  the  high-priest's  ephod, 
and  for  veils,  ribbons,  and  cloths,  Ex. 
26  :1,  4,  31,  36  ;  28  :  31 ;  Num.  4  :  6-12 ; 
15:38. 

The  ' '  purple ' '  of  the  ancients  seems 
.to  have  included  many  different  tints 
derived  originally  from  the  shell-fish, 
and  modified  by  various  arts  in  which 
the  Tyrians  excelled.  As  each  fish  yield 
ed  but  a  few  drops  of  coloring  matter, 
the  choicest  purple  bore  a  very  high 
price.  Purple  robes  were  worn  by  the 
kings  and  first  magistrates  of  ancient 
Rome,  and  Nero  forbade  their  use  by 
his  subjects  under  pain  of  death.  Our 
Saviour  was  clothed  with  a  royal  robe  of 
purple,  in  mockery  of  his  title,  "The 
King  of  the  Jews,"  John  19:2,  5.  Com 
pare  also  Judg.  8:26  ;  Esth.  8:15  ;  Prov. 
31 :22  ;  Dan.  5:7;  Luke  1G  :  19.  Moses 
used  much  wool  dyed  of  a  crimson  and 
purple  color  in  the  work  of  the  taber 
nacle,  and  in  the  ornaments  of  the  high- 
priest,  Ex.  25  :  4  ;  26  : 1,  31,  36  ;  39  :  1 ; 
2  Chr.  3  : 14.  The  Babylonians  also 
clothed  their  idols  in  robes  of  a  purple 
and  azure  color,  Jer.  10:9  ;  Ezek.  23:15; 
27:7,16. 

PUTE'OLI,  the  wells,  now  Pozzuoli,  a 
maritime  town  in  the  Campania  of  Na 
ples,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  bay, 
eight  miles  north-west  from  that  city, 
16 


It  was  a  Roman  colony.  Here  i'aul 
abode  seven  days,  on  his  famous  voyage 
and  journey  from  Ciesarea  to  Rome,  Acts 
28:13. 

PY'GARG,  white-rump.  This  is  proper 
ly  the  name  of  a  species  of  eagle  ;  but  is 
applied,  in  Deut.  14  :  5,  to  a  quadruped, 
apparently  a  species  of  gazelle  or  ante 
lope.  So  the  Syriac  version  and  Tar- 
gums.  Both  the  Arabic  versions  refer  it 
to  a  species  of  mountain  goat. 


THE  QUAIL  :     COTURNIX  COMMUNIS. 

QUAILS.  The  oriental  quail  is  a  bird 
of  passage,  about  the  size  of  a  turtle 
dove,  and  nearly  resembling  the  Ameri 
can  partridge.  Hasselquist  states  that 
it  is  plentiful  near  the  shores  of  the  Dead 
sea  and  the  Jordan,  and  in  the  deserts  of 
Arabia ;  and  Diodorus  affirms  that  it  is 
caught  in  immense  numbers  about  Rhi- 
nocolura,  at  the  south-west  corner  of  Pal 
estine.  Burckhardt  also  found  great 
quantities  of  them  in  the  regions  south 
of  the  Dead  sea.  The  flocks  of  quails, 
therefore,  which  came  up  to  the  camp  of 
Israel,  are  entirely  credible ;  and  the 
miracle  seems  especially  to  have  consist 
ed  in  these  immense  flocks  being  directed 
to  a  particular  spot,  in  the  extreme  emer 
gency  of  the  people,  by  means  of  "a 
wind  from  the  Lord,"  Ex.  10:13;  Num. 
11:31;  Psa.  78:27. 

QUAR'TUS,  a  Christian  residing  at 
Corinth,  but  according  to  his  name  of 
Roman  origin,  whose  salutation  Paul 
sends  to  the  brethren  at  Rome,  Rom. 
16:23. 

QUATERNION  OF  SOLDIERS,  a  detach 
ment  or  division  consisting  of  four  men, 
Acts  12  : 4.  The  Romans  detached  a 
quarternion  of  four  men  for  a  night 
361 


QUE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RAB 


guard,  and  divided  the  night  into  four 
watches,  so  that  each  soldier  should  in 
his  turn  be  on  guard  three  hours.  (See 
HOURS.)  When  therefore  Herod,  who 
adopted  the  Roman  customs,  is  said  to 
have  delivered  Peter  to  four  quaterni 
ons  of  soldiers,  it  is  to  be  understood 
that  he  was  guarded  by  four  men  at  a 
time,  namely,  two  in  the  prison  with 
him,  and  two  before  the  doors,  (compare 
ver.  6,)  and  that  they  were  relieved 
every  three  hours  by  four  others ;  mak 
ing  in  all  sixteen  men. 

QUEEN  OF  HEAVEN,  a  name  given 
by  the  Hebrew  idolaters  to  the  moon, 
Jer.  7:18;  44:17,  18.  See  ASHTORETII. 

QUICK,  in  the  old  English  sense, 
means  alive,  or  living.  Num.  16  :  80 ; 
2  Tim.  4:1 ;  and  quicken,  to  make  alive. 
God  bestows  spiritual  life,  on  men  dead 
in  trespasses  and  sins,  Eph.  2:5,  through 
Christ  the  second  Adam,  who  is  a  quick 
ening  Spirit,  1  Cor.  15:45. 

QUICK-SANDS,  Acts  27  : 17,  probably 
the  dangerous  sandbanks  and  whirlpools 
in  two  gulfs  on  the  African  coast  south 
of  Malta ;  they  were  called  the  Greater 
and  the  Lesser  Syrtis,  and  were  much 
dreaded  by  ancient  mariners.  The  course 
of  the  wind  by  which  Paul  and  his  com 
panions  were  driven,  threatened  to  cast 
them  into  the  Lesser  Syrtis. 


R. 


RAAMAH,  1  Chr.  1 :9,  a  region  settled 
by  Cushites,  descendants  of  a  grandson 
of  Ham  of  the  same  name,  Gen.  10  :  7. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  adjoined  the  Per 
sian  gulf  on  its  Avestern  shore  towards 
the  north,  Ezek.  27 : 12. 

RAAM'SES,  or  RAME'SES,  a  city  built 
by  the  Hebrews  during  their  servitude 
in  Egypt,  Ex.  1  :  11.  It  was  situated  in 
the  land  of  Goshen  ;  and  appears  to  have 
been  the  capital  of  that  country,  Gen. 
47  :  10,  From  it  they  commenced  their 
united  exodus  from  Egypt,  Ex.  12  :  37  ; 
Num.  33  :  3,  5.  It  is  thought  to  have 
been  on  the  line  of  the  ancient  canal 
from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  sea,  and  some 
thirty-five  miles  north-west  of  Suez. 

RAB,  RAB'BI.  The  word  RAB  in  He 
brew  signifies  chief;  thus  Nebuzaradan 
is  the  chief  or  captain  of  the  guard, 
2  Kin.  25:8,  in  Hebrew  rab-tabbachim ; 
go  Ashpenaz  is  the  rab,  chief  or  master 
302  ' 


of  the  eunuchs,  and  Daniel  of  the  , 
Dan.  1:3;  5:11.  See  RAB-MAG.  Atalater 
period,  it  was  introduced  as  a  solemn  title 
of  honor  in  the  Jewish  schools,  meaning 
master,  teacher,  doctor.  There  were  va 
rious  distinctions  and  degrees  ;  the  term 
rab  was  accounted  the  least  honorable ; 
that  of  rabbi,  signifying  my  master,  being 
of  higher  dignity.  Another  form  of  the 
word  was  rabban  or  rabbon,  from  which 
comes  also  rabboni,  John  20  : 16 ;  this 
was  regarded  as  the  highest  title  of  hon 
or,  and  was  never  formally  bestowed  on 
more  than  seven  persons,  who  all  be 
longed  to  the  celebrated  school  of  Hillel, 
and  were  preeminently  distinguished  by 
their  rank  and  learning.  See  GAMALIEL. 
The  more  common  and  usual  appellation 
afterwards  was  rabbi ;  and  this  has  de 
scended  among  the  Jews  to  the  present 
day,  Matt.  23  :  7,  8.  It  was  a  title  often 
given  to  the  Saviour  both  by  his  disci 
ples  and  the  people,  Mark  9:5;  10  :  51 ; 
11:21;  John  1:88,  49;  4:31. 

EAB'BATH,  or  RAB'BATH-AM'MON,  af 
terwards  called  Philadelphia,  the  capital 
of  the  Ammonites,  was  situated  near  the 
southern  source  of  the  Jabbok,  some 
twenty-two  miles  beyond  Jordan.  It 
was  famous  even  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
Deut.  3:11  ;  Josh.  13:25.  When  David 
declared  war  against  the  Ammonites,  his 
general,  Joab,  laid  siege  to  Rabbath- 
Ammon,  where  Uriah  lost  his  life  by  a 
secret  order  of  his  prince  ;  and  when  the 
city  was  reduced  to  the  last  extremity, 
Joab  sent  for  David  to  hasten  and  go 
thither,  to  enjoy  the  honor  of  taking  it, 
2  Sam.  11 ;  12.  From  this  time  it  became 
subject  to  the  kings  of  Judah ;  but  the 
kings  of  Israel  subsequently  became  mas 
ters  of  it,  with  the  tribes  beyond  Jordan. 
Towards  the  conclusion  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  Tiglath-pileser  having  taken 
away  a  great  part  of  the  Israelites,  the 
Ammonites  were  guilty  of  many  cruelties 
against  those  who  remained ;  for  which 
the  prophets  Jeremiah  a*nd  Ezekiel  pro 
nounced  very  severe  prophecies  against 
Rabbath,  their  capital,  and  against  the 
rest  of  the  country  ;  which  probably  had 
their  completion  live  years  after  the  de 
struction  of  Jerusalem,  Jer.  49  : 1-3  ; 
Ezek.  21 : 20.  Antiochus  the  Great  after 
wards  took  the  city.  It  was  long  known 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  Philadel 
phia  ;  but  this  name  is  now  unknown  in 
that  vicinity,  while  the  more  ancient 
name  still  survives.  It  is  now  called 


RAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RAG 


Amman,  and  is  about  fifteen  miles  south 
east  of  Szalt,  the  ancient  Ramoth-Gilead. 
Burckhardt  found  there  extensive  ruins, 
which  he  has  described.  He  and  numer 
ous  other  travellers  found  it  desolate,  as 
had  been  foretold;  it  was  literally  "a 
stable  for  camels, "  "  a  couching-place  for 
flocks,"  Ezek.  25:5. 

RAB'BATH-MO'AB.     See  An. 

RAB'BI  and  RABBO'NI.     See  RAB. 

RAB-MAG,  a  general  officer  of  Nebu 
chadnezzar's  army,  at  the  taking  of  Je 
rusalem,  Jer.  39 : 3.  He  was,  as  his  name 
signifies,  a  chief  of  the  Magi ;  a  dignitary 
who  had  accompanied  the  king  of  Baby 
lon  in  his  campaign.  See  MAGI. 

RAB'-SARIS,  an  officer  sent  with  Rab- 
shakeh  and  Tartan,  to  summon  Heze- 
kiah,  2  Kin.  18:17  ;  Jer.  39:3.  It  signi 
fies  "the  chief  of  the  eunuchs."  Such 
officers,  high  in  honor  and  in  trust,  are 
found  on  the  mural  tablets  of  Nineveh 
so  wonderfully  preserved  to  this  day  ; 
and  in  the  Ottoman  Porte  of  our  own 
times  the  Kislar  Aga,  or  chief  of  the 
black  eunuchs,  is  one  of  the  highest  dig 
nitaries.  See  SlIALMANEZER. 

RAB'-SHAKEH,  chief  butler  or  cup 
bearer,  an  officer  sent  from  Lachish  by 
Sennacherib  king  of  Assyria,  to  summon 
Hezekiah  to  surrender ;  which  message 
he  delivered  in  a  most  audacious  and 
insolent  manner.  The  history  is  told  in 
2  Kin.  19  : 17,  etc.  ;  2  Chr.  32  :  9,  etc.  ; 
Isa.  36.  See  NINEVEH  and  SENNACHERIB. 

RA'CA,  a  word  derived  from  a  Hebrew 


word  signifying  vain,  trifling,  brainless; 
otherwise,  beggarly,  worthless.  It  is 
thus  translated  by  the  Vulgate,  in  Judg. 
11:3  ;  in  the  English,  "vain  men."  The 
word  includes  a  strong  idea  of  contempt. 
Christ  says,  Matt.  5  :  22,  whoever  shall 
say  to  his  brother,  "Raca,"  shall  be  con 
demned  by  the  council,  or  sanhedrim. 
The  term  translated  ' '  fool ' '  in  the 
same  passage,  means  vile  and  abandoned 
wretch. 

RACE,  Psa.  19  :  5  ;  Eccl.  9:11.  Vari 
ous  games  were  instituted  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  in  honor  of  their 
gods,  and  with  the  design  of  training 
young  men  to  personal  vigor  and  activ 
ity,  and  to  intrepidity  and  skill  in  war. 
These  games  were  celebrated  at  stated 
places  and  times,  with  great  pomp ;  re 
nowned  statesmen,  legislators,  and  kings 
engaged  in  them  ;  and  it  was  deemed  the 
highest  of  all  honors  to  be  crowned  with 
a  simple  chaplet  of  laurel,  olive,  pine,  or 
parsley,  in  the  presence  of  the  vast  as 
semblage  of  witnesses  who  delighted  to 
honor  the  victor.  The  preparatory  train 
ing  was  very  severe,  and  every  weaken 
ing  indulgence  was  forbidden.  Among 
the  most  famous  games  were  those  cele 
brated  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  hence 
called  the  Isthmian  games ;  and  to  these 
Paul  alludes  in  his  letters  to  Corinth, 
1  Cor.  9  :  24-27.  The  foot-race  was  a 
game  of  the  first  rank ;  other  games  were 
the  chariot-race,  wrestling,  boxing,  leap 
ing,  and  throwing  the  quoit  or  the  jave 


lin.  The  foot-race  well  illustrates  the 
Christian  warfare,  the  sacrifices  to  be 
made,  the  diligent  bringing  the  body 


under  subjection,  the  laying  aside  every 
weight,  the  myriads  of  spectators  lining 
the  course,  and  among  them  those  pre- 
363 


RAG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RAM 


riously  crowned  victors,  the  exhausting 
efforts  required,  (from  which  the  word 
agonize  is  derived,)  and  the  glorious 
prize,  Phil.  3  :  13,  14 ;  2  Tim.  4:7,  8 ; 
Heb.  12:1. 

EA'CHEL,  ewe  or  sheep,  Ruth  4  : 11, 
the  younger  sister  of  Leah,  daughter  of 
Laban,  and  the  chosen  wife  of  Jacob, 
though  her  sister  was  favored  wTith  more 
children.  Rachel  was  the  mother  of 
Joseph  and  Benjamin,  and  died  soon 
after  the  birth  of  the  latter.  See  her 
history  in  Gen.  29-35.  Her  sepulchre, 
half  an  hour's  walk  north  of  Bethlehem, 
is  shown  unto  this  day,  the  spot  being 
marked  by  a  Mohammedan  wely  or 
tomb,  a  stone  enclosure  and  a  dome. 
The  prophecy,  Jer.  31  :  15,  representing 
her  as  mourning  over  her  posterity,  the 
tribes  of  Ephraim,  Manasseh,  and  Benja 
min,  is  quoted  in  Matt.  2  :  18,  in  refer 
ence  to  the  massacre  at  Bethlehem,  in 
which  undoubtedly  many  of  her  de 
scendants  suffered.  It  is  supposed  that 
one  of  the  many  places  called  Ramah 
was  adjacent  to  Bethlehem. 

RAGU'EL,  Num.  10:29,  or  REUEL,  Ex. 
2:15,  18,  21,  the  Hebrew  word  being  the 
same  in  both  places.  These  passages 
represent  him  as  the  father  of  Hobab 
and  Zipporah,  and  he  is  generally  sup 
posed  to  be  the  same  as  Jethro,  Moses' 
father-in-law.  Some,  however,  think  he 
was  Jethro' s  father,  and  that  he  is  called 
the  father  of  the  others  as  being  the  head 
of  the  family.  Compare  Gen.  31 :  43  ; 
2  Kin.  14:3;  16:2. 

RA'HAB.  The  English  word  Rahab 
represents  two  different  Hebrew  words : 
I.  RAIIAB,  a  Canaanite  woman  of  Jeri 
cho,  who  gave  shelter  to  the  two  spies 
sent  in  thither  by  Joshua;  and  in  re 
turn  was  spared,  with  all  her  kindred, 
when  the  city  was  taken  and  destroyed, 
Josh.  2  :  1-21 ;  6  :  17-25.  Her  faith,  in 
doing  this,  is  commended  in  Heb.  11:31 ; 
James  2:25.  The  Jews  and  many  Chris 
tians  endeavor  to  show  that  Rahab  was 
only  an  honest  innkeeper ;  but  more  prob 
ably  the  designation  of  "harlot"  given 
to  her  in  our  Bible  is  correct.  If  she  had 
at  some  time  led  a  dissolute  life,  she  had 
evidently  repented ;  and  she  afterwards 
became  a  worshipper  of  Jehovah,  and 
the  wife  of  Salmon,  a  prince  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  Ruth  4  :  21 ;  Matt.  1  : 4.  The 
penitent  publican  and  sinner  are  always 
\felcome  to  Christ;  and  many  such  a 
one,  through  the  renovating  power  of 
364 


grace,  will  shine  gloriously  in  heaven, 
while  the  unbelieving  moralist  will  per 
ish  in  his  sins. 

II.  RAHAB,  pride,  insolence,  a  symbol 
ical  name  for  Egypt,  Psa.  87:4;  89:10; 
Isa.  30  :  7  ;  51 :  9.  In  the  last  of  these 
passages,  Egypt  is  further  symbolized  as 
a  ferocious  sea-monster  ;  but  it  is  doubt 
ful  whether  the  word  Rahab  itself  is  ever 
used  to  denote  a  sea-monster. 

RAIN.  In  Scripture  the  "early"  and 
the  "latter"  rain  of  Palestine  is  spoken 
of,  Deut.  11:14;  Hos.  6:3.  The  former 
falls  in  the  latter  part  of  October,  the 
seed-time  of  Palestine ;  and  the  weather 
then  continues  variable,  with  more  or 
less  rain  the  whole  winter,  until  after 
the  latter  or  spring  rain  in  April.  After 
wards,  the  weather  becomes  serene,  and 
the  crops  ripen.  The  wheat  harvest 
takes  place  in  May ;  by  the  middle  of 
August,  the  fruits  are  gathered  in ;  and 
from  that  time  to  the  coming  of  the  first 
or  October  rains,  prevail  the  scorching 
heats  and  droughts  of  summer.  Noth 
ing  can  more  expressively  represent  spir 
itual  blessings  than  copious  showers  of 
rain  after  this  trying  season  is  past, 
Deut,  32:2;  Job  29:23;  Isa.  44:3;  Hos. 
10:12. 

It  appears  from  meteorological  records 
kept  at  Jerusalem,  that  the  average  an 
nual  fall  of  rain  is  fifty-six  and  a  half 
inches;  the  average  fall  in  the  United 
States  is  forty-five  inches.  It  would 
seem  therefore,  that  if  the  rains  of  Pales 
tine  could  be  preserved  in  pools  and  res 
ervoirs,  and  employed  in  irrigating  the 
ground  during  the  summer,  the  old  fer 
tility  might  be  restored ;  it  would  be 
clothed  again  with  verdure,  and  become 
like  "the  garden  of  the  Lord." 

RAIN'BOW,  Genesis  9  :  13-15.     This 
beautiful  phenomenon  is  owing  to  the 
refraction  of  the   beams  of  the  sun  in 
passing  the  drops  of  falling  rain ;  the 
rays  are  separated   into   the   prismatic 
colors,  and  then  reflected  from  the  cloud 
opposite  to  the  sun  and  the  spectator. 
We  need  not  suppose  that  the  rainbow 
was  unknown  before  the  flood  ;  but  God  . 
then  appointed  it  to  be  the  cheering  seal/ 
of  his  covenant  with  the  earth,  which  is4 
as  steadfast  as  the  natural  laws  from 
which  the  rainbow  springs. 

RA'MAH,  plural  RA'MOTH,  an  eminence; 
and  hence  many  places  in  Palestine  are 
named  Piamah,  Ramath,  Ramoth,  Ra- 
mathaim,  etc.  Sometimes  the  same 


RAM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RAV 


place  is  called  by  one  or  other  of  these 
names  indiscriminately,  all  signifying 
the  same,  2  Kin.  8  :  28,  29.  Sometimes 
Rama,  or  Ramoth,  is  joined  to  another 
name,  to  determine  the  place  of  such 
city  or  eminence ;  and  it  is  sometimes 
put  simply  for  a  high  place,  and  signifies 
neither  city  nor  village. 

I.  The  principal  Ramah  was  a  city  of 
Benjamin,    near    Gibeah,    towards    the 
mountains  of  Ephraim,  six  miles  from 
Jerusalem  north,  and  on  the  road  from 
Samaria  to  Jerusalem,  Josh.  18:25 ;  Judg. 
19  :  13  ;  Neh.  11 :  33.     It  was  near  the 
border   line  between  Judah  and  Israel, 
and  Baasha  king  of  Israel  caused  it  to  be 
fortified,  to  obstruct  the  passage  from 
the  land  of  Judah  into  his  own  territory, 
1  Kin.  15:17,  21,  22.     It  is  also  referred 
to  in  Isa.  10:29;  Jer.  31:15;  40:1 ;  Hos. 
5  :  8.     Dr.  Robinson  finds  it  in  the  mod 
ern  village  Er-Ram.  on  a  conical  hill  a 
little  east  of  the  road  above  mentioned. 
The  ruins  are  broken  columns,  a  few 
bevelled  stones,  and  large  hewn  stones, 
and  an  ancient  reservoir  on  the  south 
west  side.  The  village  is  almost  deserted. 

II.  A  city  in  mount  Ephraim,  called 
also  Ramathaim-Zophim,  or  Ramah  of 
the  Zuphites,  the  place  of  Samuel's  birth, 
residence,  and  burial,  1  Sam.   1:1,  19 ; 
7  : 17  ;  8  :  4 ;  25  :  1 ;  28  :  3.     Dr.  Robin- 

.  son  suggests  Soba,  five  miles  west  of 
Jerusalem,  as  its  possible  site.  The  re 
semblance  of  its  name  Ramathaim  to 
Arimathea  of  the  New  Testament,  to 
gether  with  intimations  of  early  histo 
rians,  have  led  to  the  general  belief  that 
these  two  places  were  identical.  Arima 
thea,  there  is  little  doubt,  lay  on  one  of 
the  hills  east  of  Lydda,  some  twenty 
miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  this 
site  would  meet  most  of  the  scriptural 
intimations  as  to  the  Ramah  of  Samuel. 
The  chief  difficulty  is  found  in  the  ac 
count  of  Saul's  first  visit  to  Samuel, 
1  Sam.  9:4-12;  10:2.  The  young  prince 
"passed  through  the  land  of  the  Ben- 
jamites,"  going  south  or  south-west, 
' '  and  came  to  the  land  of  Zuph ' '  and 
the  city  where  Samuel  then  was.  After 
his  interview  with  the  prophet,  and  on 
his  return  home  to  Gibeah  of  Benjamin, 
he  passed  "  by  Rachel's  sepulchre  in  the 
border  of  Benjamin  at  Zelzah. ' '  But  the 
only  ' '  Rachel' s  sepulchre' '  we  know  of 
was  near  Bethlehem,  many  miles  south 
of  the  direct  road  from  Arimathea  to 
Gibeah.  Accordingly,  if  we  suppose  this 


interview  took  place  at  Arimathea,  we 
seem  obliged  to  suppose  another  Rachel's 
sepulchre  between  it  and  Gibeah  ;  or,  if 
' '  Rachel's  sepulchre ' '  was  at  Bethlehem, 
to  infer  that  the  city  where  Saul  actual 
ly  found  Samuel,  and  at  which  the  proph 
et  had  only  that  day  arrived,  1  Sam. 
9:10,  was  not  his  usual  residence,  but 
some  place  south  or  south-west  of  Beth 
lehem,  only  visited  by  him  at  intervals 
in  his  annual  circuits  as  judge. 

III.  A  city  of  Asher,  Josh.  19:29. 

IV.  A  city  of  Naphtali,  Josh.  19  :  36. 
The  site  of  both  these  places,  visited  by 
Dr.  Robinson,  is  still  called  Rameh. 

V.  A  city  of  Gilead,  2  Kin.  8  :  28,  29. 
See  RAMOTII. 

VI.  A  town   belonging   to   Simeon, 
called  Ramah  of  the  south,  Josh.  19  : 8 ; 
1  Sam.  30:27. 

RAMATHA'IM.     See  RAMAH. 

RAME'SES.    See  RAAMSES. 

RA'MOTH,  a  famous  city  in  the  moun 
tains  of  Gilead;  often  called  Ramoth- 
Gilead,  and  sometimes  Ramath-Mizpeh. 
or  the  Waton-tower,  Josh.  13  :  26.  It 
belonged  to  Gad,  was  assigned  to  the 
Levites,  and  became  one  of  the  cities  of 
refuge  beyond  Jordan,  Deut.  4:43 ;  Josh. 
20:8  ;  21 :38.  It  was  famous  during  the 
reigns  of  the  later  kings  of  Israel,  and 
was  the  occasion  of  several  wars  between 
these  princes  and  the  kings  of  Damas 
cus,  who  had  conquered  it,  and  from 
whom  the  kings  of  Israel  endeavored  to 
regain  it.  Here  Ahab  died,  Joram  was 
wounded,  and  Jehu  was  anointed  king 
of  Israel,  1  Kin.  22  ;  2  Kin.  8  :  28,  29  ; 
9:1-14;  2  Chr.  22:5,  6. 


RA'VEN,  Gen.  8:7,  Lev.  11:15,  a  bird 
similar  to  the  crow,  but  larger,  and  not 
gregarious.  It  feeds  on  dead  bodies  ; 
and  in  its  general  characteristics  resem 
bles  the  crow  of  America.  The  eyes  of 
its  victim  are  the  first  part  to  be  devour 
ed,  Prov.  30  :  17  ;  and  it  drives  away  its 
young  as  soon  as  they  can  begin  to  shift 
3C5 


REA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REE 


for  themselves,  Job  38.:  41 ;  Psa.  147  :  9. 
Elijah  was  miraculously  fed  by  ravens, 
IKin.  17:6. 

REAR'WARD,  the  strong  battalion 
that  closed  and  guarded  the  rear  of  an 
army,  Josh.  6:13;  Isa.  52:12;  58:8. 

REBEK'AH,  a  daughter  of  Bethuel, 
and  sister  of  Laban  in  Mesopotamia, 
who  became  the  wife  of  Isaac,  and  twen 
ty  years  afterwards  the  mother  of  Jacob 
and  Esau.  The  manner  in  which  she 
was  sought  and  obtained  as  the  wife  of 
Isaac,  exhibits  a  striking  picture  of  ori 
ental  manners  and  customs.  Through 
her  partiality  for  Jacob,  she  was  tempted 
into  the  use  of  unjustifiable  means  to 
secure  for  him  the  inheritance,  not  hav 
ing  faith  to  leave  to  God  the  fulfilment 
of  his  own  purposes,  Gen.  25 :  22,  23. 
Her  deceit  led  to  disastrous  results :  Ja 
cob  fled  from  home  ;  and  when  he  re 
turned  from  Mesopotamia  twenty  years 
afterwards,  his  mother  lay  buried  in  the 
cave  of  Machpelah,  Gen.  24-28  ;  49:31. 

RECH'ABITES.  Scripture  acquaints 
us,  Jer.  35  :  2-11,  that  Jonadab  son  of 
Rechab,  in  the  time  of  Jehu  king  of  Is 
rael,  laid  an  injunction  on  his  posterity 
not  to  drink  Avine,  not  to  build  houses, 
not  to  plant  vineyards,  to  have  no  lands, 
and  to  dwell  in  tents  all  their  lives.  This 
they  continued  to  observe  for  above  three 
hundred  years ;  but  in  the  last  year  of 
Jehoiakim  king  of  Judah,  Nebuchad 
nezzar  coming  to  besiege  Jerusalem,  the 
llechabites  were  forced  to  take  refuge  in 
the  city,  though  still  lodging  in  tents. 
During  this  siege,  Jeremiah  received  or 
ders  from  the  Lord  to  invite  them  into  the 
temple,  and  to  offer  them  wine  to  drink. 
They  refused  to  partake  of  it ;  and  their 
fidelity  to  their  father's  injunction  was 
a  severe  reproof  to  the  Jews  for  break 
ing  their  covenant  with  God.  The  Rech- 
abites,  originally  from  the  land  of  Mid- 
ian,  are  supposed  to  have  retired  to  the 
desert  at  the  captivity  of  the  Jews ;  and 
the  divine  promise  concerning  the  per 
petuity  of  the  family,  Jer.  35 :  19,  was 
undoubtedly  fulfilled,  though  it  may 
now  be  impossible  to  distinguish  them, 
as  some  profess  to  do,  among  the  tribes 
'of  Central  Arabia. 

REDEEM'ER,  a  name  given  to  Jesus 
Christ,  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  because 
he  redeems  mankind  from  the  bondage 
and  guilt  of  their  sins,  by  dying  in  their 
place,  and  thus  paying  their  ransom, 
,Matt.  20  :  28 ;  Gal.  3  :  13  ;  Eph.  1:7; 
366 


ITim.  2:6;  Tit.  2:14;  1  Pet.  1:18,  19; 
Rev.  5  :  9.  In  the  law  of  Moses,  Lev. 
25:25,  48,  this  title  is  given  to  one  who 
has  the  right  of  redemption  in  an  inher 
itance,  especially  to  a  near  kinsman,  who 
may  redeem  it  from  a  stranger  or  any 
Jew  who  had  bought  it.  Such  was  Boaz, 
who,  being  one  of  the  nearest  relations 
of  Elimelech,  married  Ruth  the  heiress 
of  Elimelech,  and  thereby  reentered  into 
the  possession  of  her  estate.  Jeremiah 
redeemed  the  field  of  his  nephew  Hana- 
meel,  which  was  on  the  point  of  being 
sold  to  another,  Jer.  32:7,  8.  So  Christ 
became  a  partaker  of  flesh  and  blood, 
that  as  our  near  kinsman  he  might  re 
deem  for  us  the  heavenly  inheritance, 
Job  19:25,  26. 

The  nearest  kinsman  was  also  called 
the  redeemer  of  blood — in  our  English 
translation,  the  avenger,  or  revenger 
of  blood ;  and  had  a  right  to  revenge 
the  blood  of  his  murdered  kinsman, 
Num.  35  : 12,  19,  21 ;  Deut.  19  :  6,  12. 
To  protect  the  innocent  from  these  aven 
gers,  or  redeemers,  God  appointed  cities 
of  refuge  throughout  Israel.  See  REF 
UGE. 

RECORD'ER,  or  remembrancer,  a  sort 
of  registrar  of  affairs  at  the  court  of 
Judah,  2  Sam.  8:16;  1  Kin.  4:3;  2 Kin. 
18:18. 

RED  SEA.     See  SEA. 

RECONCILIATION,  in  Scripture,  is 
the  restoration  of  harmony  between  two 
persons  at- variance,  by  the  removal  of 
existing  obstacles,  1  Sam.  29  :  4.  Christ 
bids  the  man  who  has  wronged  his 
brother,  to  make  peace  with  him,  and 
secure  his  favor  by  confession  and  repa 
ration,  before  presenting  his  gift  at  God's 
altar,  Matt.  5  :  23,  24.  In  the  far  more 
important  matter  of  peace  with  God,  to 
make  human  salvation  possible,  a  just 
God  must  be  reconciled  to  the  sinner, 
and  the  rebellious  sinner  be  reconciled 
to  God.  This  reconciliation  is  effected 
by  the  blood  of  the  Lamb  through  the 
power  of  the  Spirit,  Rom.  5  :  10 ;  2  Cor. 
5:19;  Eph.  2:16. 

REED,  sometimes  a  stalk  or  rod  of 
any  plant,  as  of  the  hyssop,  Matt.  27 : 48 ; 
John  19 : 29.  Usually,  however,  the  word 
reed  denotes  a  reed  or  cane  growing  in 
marshy  grounds,  Job  40:21;  Isa.  19:6; 
slender  and  fragile,  and  hence  taken  as 
an  emblem  of  weakness,  1  Kin.  14  :  15 ; 
2  Kin.  18  :  21  ;  Isa.  36  :  6 ;  Ezek.  29  :  6, 
and  of  instability,  Matt.  11:7.  "A  bruis- 


REF 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REF 


ed  reed,"  Isa.  42  :  3,  Matt.  12  :  20,  is  an 
emblem  of  a  soul  crushed  and  ready  to 
sink  in  despair  under  a  sense  of  its  guilty 
and  lost  condition.  Such  a  soul  the  Sav 
iour  will  graciously  sustain  and  strength 
en.  The  reed  of  spice,  or  good  reed,  (Eng 
lish  version,  "sweet  calamus,"  Exod. 
30:23,  "sweet  cane,"  Jer.  6  :  20,)  also 


called  simply  reed,  (English  version,  "cal 
amus"  or  "sweet  cane,")  Isa.  43:24, 
Song.  4 :  14,  Ezek.  27  :  19,  is  the  sweet 
flag  of  India,  calamus  odoratus.  Reeds 
were  anciently  used  as  pens  and  as  meas 
uring-rods,  Ezek.  40:5  ;  42:16.  The  He 
brew  ' '  reed ' '  is  supposed  to  have  been 
ten  feet  long. 


REF'UGE,  CITIES  OF.  To  provide  se 
curity  for  those  who  should  undesign- 
edly  kill  a  man,  the  Lord  commanded 
Moses  to  appoint  six  cities  of  refuge,  or 
asylums,  that  any  one  who  should  thus 
shed  blood  might  retire  thither,  and 
have  time  to  prepare  his  defence  be 
fore  the  judges,  and  that  the  kinsmen 
of  the  deceased  might  not  pursue  and 
kill  him,  Ex.  21  :  13;  Num.  35  :  11-34. 
Of  such  cities  there  were  three  on  .each 
side  Jordan.  On  the  west  were  Kedesh 
of  Naphtali,  Shechem,  and  Hebron ;  on 
the  east,  Golan,  Ramoth-Gilead,  and  Be- 
zer,  Josh.  20  :  7,  8.  These  cities  served 
not  only  for  Hebrews,  but  for  all  stran 
gers  who  resided  in  the  country,  Deut. 
19  : 1-10.  The  Lord  also  commanded 
that  when  the  Hebrews  should  multiply 
and  enlarge  their  land,  they  should  add 
three  other  cities  of  refuge.  But  this 
command  was  never  fulfilled. 

The  custom  of  blood-revenge  appears 
to  have  been  an  institution  or  principle 
very  early  introduced  among  the  no 
madic  oriental  tribes.  So  firmly  was 
this  practice  established  among  the  Is 


raelites  before  their  entrance  into  the 
promised  land,  and  probably  also  even 
before  their  sojourning  in  Egypt,  that 
Moses  was  directed  by  Jehovah  not  to 
attempt  to  eradicate  it  entirely,  but  only 
to  counteract  and  modify  it  by  the  insti 
tution  of  cities  of  refuge.  The  custom 
of  avenging  the  blood  of  a  member  of  a 
family  or  tribe  upon  some  member  of 
the  tribe  or  family  of  the  slayer,  still 
exists  in  full  force  among  the  modern 
Bedaweens,  the  representatives  in  a  cer 
tain  sense  of  the  ancient  Israelites  in  the 
desert.  They  prefer  this  mode  of  self- 
vengeance.  Niebuhr  informs  us  that 
"the  Arabs  rather  avenge  themselves, 
as  the  law  allows,  upon  the  family  of 
the  murderer  ;  and  seek  an  opportunity 
of  slaying  its  head,  or  most  considerable 
person,  whom  they  regard  as  being  prop 
erly  the  person  guilty  of  the  crime,  as  it 
must  have  been  committed  through  his 
negligence  in  watching  over  the  conduct 
of  those  under  his  inspection.  From  this 
time  the  two  families  are  in  continual 
fears,  till  some  one  or  other  of  the  mur 
derer's  family  be  slain.  No  reconcilia- 
367 


REG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


REH 


tion  can  take  place  between  them,  and 
the  quarrel  is  still  occasionally  renewed. 
There  have  been  instances  of  such  fam 
ily  feuds  lasting  forty  years.  If  in  the 
contest  a  man  of  the  murdered  person's 
family  happens  to  fall,  there  can  be  no 
peace  until  two  others  of  the  murderer's 
family  have  been  slain."  How  far  su 
perior  to  this  was  the  Mosaic  institution 
of  cities  of  refuge,  where  the  involuntary 
homicide  might  remain  in  peace  till  the 
death  of  the  high-priest,  and  then  go 
forth  in  safety,  while  a  really  guilty  per 
son  did  not  escape  punishment. 

Among  most  of  the  nations  of  antiqui 
ty,  temples,  and  particularly  the  altars 
within  them,  were  regarded  as  proffer 
ing  an  asylum  for  fugitives  from  vio 
lence.  Among  the  Hebrews  we  find  in 
dications  of  the  custom  on  the  part  of 
the  culprit  of  fleeing  to  the  Lord's  altar. 
But  this  was  not  allowed  to  screen  the 
guilty  from  deserved  punishment,  Ex. 
21:14;  IKin.  2:28-34. 

There  is  an  appointed  city  of  refuge 
for  sinners  exposed  to  the  second  death, 
and  an  altar  of  refuge  sprinkled  with 
atoning  blood.  Happy  the  soul  that 
flees  and  is  safe  in  Christ,  ere  it  is  over 
taken  by  the  avenging  law  of  God. 

REGENERATION,  the  new  birth ; 
that  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  which 
the  soul,  previously  dead  in  sins,  is  cre 
ated  anew  in  Christ  unto  righteousness. 
It  is  expressed  in  Scripture  by  being  born 
again  and  born  from  above,  John  3 : 3-7 ; 
becoming  a  new  creature,  2  Cor.  5  :  17  ; 
being  quickened  to  a  new  life  of  holi 
ness,  Eph.  2:1 ;  having  Christ  formed  in 
the  heart,  Gal.  4 : 19  ;  and  being  made 
partaker  of  the  divine  nature,  2  Pet.  1:4. 
The  sole  author  of  this  change  is  the 
Holy  Spirit,  John  1 : 12,  13  ;  3:4;  Eph. 
2  :  8-10 ;  and  he  effects  it  ordinarily  by 
the  instrumentality  of  gospel  truth, 
1  Cor.  4  :  15  ;  Jas.  'l :  18  ;  1  Pet.  1  :  23. 
In  this  change  the  moral  image  of  God 
is  brought  back  into  the  soul,  and  the 
principle  of  supreme  love  to  him  and 
unselfish  love  to  our  neighbor  is  im 
planted.  Regeneration,  producing  faith, 
is  accompanied  by  justification,  and  by 
actual  holiness  of  life,  or  sanctification 
begun,  and  completed  when  the  "babe 
in  Christ"  reaches  in  heaven  "the  ful 
ness  of  the  stature  of  the  perfect  man  " 
in  Him.  In  Matt.  19  :  28,  regeneration 
means  Christ's  making  all  things  new. 
In  Titus  3:5,  "  the  washing  of  regener- 
3G8 


ation"  denotes  the  purifying  work  of 
the  Spirit  in  the  new  birth. 

REHABI'AH,  a  grandson  of  Moses, 
and  the  only  son  of  Eliezer  ;  his  numer 
ous  posterity  are  mentioned  as  betoken 
ing  the  divine  favor,  1  Chr.  23:17. 

RE'HOB,  L,  a  Levitical  city  in  Asher, 
Josh.  19  :  28  ;  21  :  31,  on  the  northern 
border  of  the  Holy  Land,  called  also 
Beth-rehob,  and  lying  in  a  valley  south 
of  Anti-Lebanon,  not  far  north  of  Dan, 
Num.  13:21  ;  Judg.  18:28.  It  was  long 
governed  by  its  own  kings,  Judg.  1 :  31, 
but  in  the  time  of  David  was  rendered 
tributary,  2  Sam.  10  :  6,  8,  19.  Some 
think  there  were  two  cities  of  this  name 
in  Asher. 

II.  The  father  of  Hadadezer  king  of 
Zobah  in  Syria,  2  Sam.  8:3. 

REHOBOAM,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Solomon,  by  Naamah,  an  Ammonitess, 
1  Kin.  12  ;  14:21-31 ;  2  Chr.  10-12.  He 
was  forty-one  years  old  when  he  began 
to  reign,  and  was  therefore  born  at  the 
beginning  of  his  father's  reign.  He  as 
cended  the  throne  about  975  B.  c.,  and 
reigned  seventeen  years  at  Jerusalem. 
Under  his  reign  the  ten  tribes  revolted, 
and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel  under 
Jeroboam.  The  immediate  cause  of  this 
schism  was  Rehoboam's  headstrong  folly 
in  rejecting  experienced  counsellors,  and 
claiming  tyrannical  power.  He  at  once 
sought  to  recover  the  revolted  tribes  by 
force ;  and  though  directed  by  God  not 
to  make  war,  he  did  not  long  delay  hos 
tilities,  and  these  continued  during  his 
whole  reign.  The  people  also  fell  into 
idolatry,  and  were  punished  in  the  fifth 
year  of  Rehoboam  by  an  Egyptian  army, 
which  subjected  them  to  a  heavy  tribute. 
See  SHISHAK.  Scripture  leads  us  to  trace 
the  sins  and  misfortunes  of  Rehoboam 
in  part  to  the  influence  of  his  heathen 
mother,  2  Chr.  12:13.  The  latter  portion 
of  his  reign  seems  to  have  passed  more 
quietly. 

REHO'BOTH,  L,  a  city  of  ancient  As 
syria,  site  unknown,  Gen.  10:11. 

II.  A  place  in  the  wilderness  south  of 
Gerar  and  Beersheba,  so  named  by  Isaac 
on  the  occasion  of  his  digging  a  well 
there,  Gen.  26:22. 

III.  A  city  on  the  Euphrates,  thought 
to  be  the  modern  Er-rahabeh,  south  of 
Carchemish,  Gen.  36:37  ;  1  Chr.  1:48. 

RE'HUM,  an  officer  of  the  king  of  Per 
sia,  in  Samaria,  during  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple ;  by  an  insidious  letter  to  the 


REI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RES 


king  he  procured  an  edict  for  the  discon 
tinuance  of  this  work  for  a  time,  proba 
bly  two  years  or  more  preceding  520  B.  c. , 
when  it  was  resumed. 

REINS,  or  KIDNEYS.  The  Hebrews 
often  make  the  reins  the  seat  of  the 
affections,  and  ascribe  to  them  know 
ledge,  joy,  pain,  pleasure ;  hence  in 
Scripture  it  is  said  that  God  searches  the 
heart  and  tries  the  reins. 

REM'PHAN,  an  idol,  the  same  as  Chi- 
un.  Compare  Amos  5:26,  and  Acts 
7:43.  SeeCmuN. 

REPENT' ANCE,  a  change  of  mind, 
accompanied  with  regret  and  sorrow  for 
something  done,  and  an  earnest  wish 
that  it  was  undone.  Such  was  the  re 
pentance  of  Judas,  Matt.  27  :  3  ;  and  so 
it  is  said  that  Esau  found  ' '  no  place  of 
repentance ' '  in  his  father  Isaac,  although 
he  sought  it  with  tears,  Heb.  12:17;  that 
is,  Isaac  would  not  change  what  he  had 
done,  and  revoke  the  blessing  given 
to  Jacob,  Gen.  27.  God  is  sometimes 
said  to  "repent"  of  something  he  had 
done,  Gen.  6:6;  Jonah  3:9,  10;  not  that 
he  could  wish  it  undone,  but  that  in  his 
providence  such  a  change  of  course  took 
place  as  among  men  would  be  ascribed 
to  a  change  of  mind.  But  the  true 
gospel  repentance,  or  "repentance  unto 
life,"  is  sorrow  for  sin,  grief  for  having 
committed  it,  and  a  turning  away  from 
it  with  abhorrence,  accompanied  with 
sincere  endeavors,  in  reliance  on  God's 
grace  and  the  influences  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  to  live  in  humble  and  holy  obe 
dience  to  the  commands  and  will  of  God. 
This  is  that  repentance  which  always 
accompanies  true  faith,  and  to  which  is 
promised  the  free  forgiveness  of  sin 
through  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  Matt. 
4:17;  Acts  3:19;  11:18;  20:12. 

REPETITIONS  in  prayers,  which  our 
Saviour  censures,  Matt.  6  :  7,  were  short 
forms  or  particular  expressions  in  pray 
er,  which  the  Jews  were  accustomed  to 
repeat  a  certain  number  of  times.  So 
Roman-catholics  still  repeat  the  Lord's 
prayer,  Ave  Marias,  etc.,  a  great  num 
ber  of  times ;  and  think  that  the  oftener 
a  prayer  is  repeated,  the  more  meritori 
ous  and  efficacious  it  is.  The  repeated 
cry  of  a  soul  in  earnest  is  indeed  welcome 
to  God,  Gen.  18 ;  Matt.  26  :  44 ;  Luke 
18  :  1 ;  but  he  regards  the  heart  and  not 
the  lips ;  and  the  greater  the  number  of 
prayers  one  repeats  as  a  task  by  which 
to  acquire  merit,  the  greater  his  sin. 
16* 


REPH'AIM  ;  the  Hebrew  word  is  used 
in  two  distinct  significations. 

I.  KEPHAIM  is  used  to  comprehend  all 
the  gigantic  races  of  the  Canaanites,  of 
whom  there  were  several  families.   There 
were  Rephaim  beyond  Jordan,  at  Ashta- 
roth  Karnaim,  in  the  time  of  Abraham, 
Gen.  14: 5 ;  also  some  in  the  time  of  Moses. 
Og  king  of  Bashan  was  of  the  Rephaim. 
In  the  time  of  Joshua,  some  of  their  de 
scendants  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Canaan, 
Josh.  12:4  ;  17:15,  and  we  hear  of  them 
in  David's  time,  in  the  city  of  Gath, 
1  Chr.  20  :  4-6.     The  giant  Goliath  and 
others  were  the  remains  of  the  Repha 
im,  or  of  the  kindred  family  of  Anakim. 
Their  magnitude  and  strength  are  often 
spoken  of  in  Scripture.     They  appear  to 
have  excelled  in  violence  and  crime,  and 
hence  are  monuments  of  divine  justice. 

II.  REPHAIM,  the  shades  or  spirits  of 
the  departed,  dwelling  in  Sheol  or  Ha 
des,  generally  rendered  in  our  version, 
' '  the  dead, ' '  ("  dead  things, ' '  Job  26 : 5 ;) 
Psa.  88:10;  Prov.  2:18;  21:16,  etc. 

TlIB  VALLEY  OF  THE  PvEPHAIM,  Or  GIANTS, 

was  famous  in  Joshua's  time,  Josh.  15:8  ; 
17:15;  18:16,  and  in  the  time  of  David, 
who  here  defeated  the  Philistines,  2  Sam. 
5:18,  22;  1  Chr.  11:15;  14:9.  It  was  a 
broad  and  fertile  valley,  Isa.  17:5,  begin 
ning  near  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  and 
extending  several  miles  south-west  from 
Jerusalem,  when  it  contracted  to  a  nar 
row  passage  leading  off  towards  the  Med 
iterranean.  It  was  in  Judah,  but  near 
the  border  of  Benjamin. 

REPH'IDIM,  an  encampment  of  the 
Israelites  between  the  wilderness  of  Sin 
and  mount  Sinai,  where  the  people  mur 
mured,  and  God  gave  them  water  from 
the  rock.  Here  also  the  Amalekites 
attacked  them,  and  were  defeated,  Ex. 
17.  It  is  thought  to  have  been  in  the 
valley  now  called  esh-Sheikh,  a  day's 
march  north-west  of  Sinai,  and  near  the 
western  border  of  the  Horeb  group  of 
mountains.  See  SINAI. 

REP'ROBATE,  rejected  as  not  endur 
ing  the  test  of  worthiness,  Jer.  6 :  30. 
Some  men  are  spoken  of  as  reprobate 
.even  in  this  life,  being  hardened  in  sin 
and  unbelief,  Rom.  1  :  28  ;  2  Tim.  3:8; 
Tit.  1:16. 

RE'SEN,  an  ancient  Assyrian  city,  be- 
frvveen  Nineveh  and  Calah,  Gen.  10  :  12. 
Its  exact  position  cannot  now  be  deter 
mined. 

RESPECT' OF  PERSONS.  The  judges 
369 


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RES 


of  the  Hebrews  were  directed  to  give 
sentence  strictly  according  to  truth  and 
justice,  without  regard  to  the  compara 
tive  wealth,  influence,  or  other  advan 
tage  of  one  party  over  the  other,  Lev. 
19  : 15  ;  Deut.  16  :  17,  19  ;  Prov.  24  :  23. 
Thus  God  judges,  not  according  to  out 
ward  appearance  or  station,  but  accord 
ing  to  the  heart,  Acts  10:34  ;  Rom.  2:6- 
11.  Thus  ought  men  to  estimate  and 
treat  their  fellow-men;  and  to  court  the 
favor  of  the  rich  and  influential  is  sharp 
ly  censured  in  Scripture,  Prov.  28  :  21 ; 
Jas.  2:1-9;  Jude  16. 

REST,  in  Acts  9  :  31,  refers  to  the  res 
pite  from  persecution  enjoyed  by  the 
Christians  in  Palestine,  after  the  conver 
sion  of  Saul  of  Tarsus,  during  the  last 
two  years  of  Caligula's  short  reign,  A.  D. 
39  and  40,  when  the  Jews  were  so  har 
assed  by  the  attempts  of  the  emperor 
to  force  them  to  worship  him  as  a  god, 
that  they  forbore  to  afflict  the  followers 
of  Christ. 

RESTITUTION,  Job  20 :  10,  18.  The 
repairing  of  wrongs  done,  and  the  restor 
ing  of  what  one  has  wrongfully  taken 
from  another,  are  strictly  enjoined  in 
Scripture,  and  are  a  necessary  evidence 
of  true  repentance,  Ex.  22  :  1-15  ;  Neh. 
6:1-13  ;  Luke  19 : 8.  Restoration  should 
be  perfect  and  just ;  replacing,  so  far  as 
possible,  all  that  has  been  taken,  with 
interest,  Lev.  6  :  1-6  ;  24  :  21.  In  Acts 
3:21,  the  time  of  the  "restitution  of  all 
things,"  is  the  time  when  Christ  shall 
appear  in  his  glory,  arid  establish  his 
kingdom  as  foretold  in  the  Scriptures. 

RESURRECTION  of  CHRIST.  This  is 
of  fundamental  importance  in  Christi 
anity,  both  historically  and  doctrinally. 
As  a  fact  indisputably  proved,  it  was  the 
crowning  demonstration  of  the  truth  of 
all  Christ's  claims,  1  Cor.  15: 14-18.  He 
had  repeatedly  foretold  it ;  and  his  ene 
mies  were  careful  to  ascertain  that  he 
was  actually  dead,  and  to  guard  his  tomb 
for  additional  security.  Yet  he  rose  from 
the  dead  on  the  third  day,  and  appeared 
on  eleven  different  occasions  to  numer 
ous  witnesses,  convincing  even  those  who 
were  the  most  doubtful,  and  after  forty, 
days  ascended  to  heaven  from  the  mount 
of  Olives.  To  this  all-important  fact  the 
apostles  gave  great  prominence  in  their 
preaching,  Acts  1 :22  ;  2  :  24-32 ;  4  :  33  ; 
10  :  40,  41.  In  its  relation  to  Christian 
doctrine  it  stands  as  a  rock  of  strength, 
assuring  us  of  God's  acceptance  of  the 
370 


expiatory  Sacrifice,  of  Christ's  trium 
phant  accomplishment  of  the  work  of 
redemption,  and  of  his  raising  to  immor 
tal  life  the  souls  and  bodies  of  his  peo 
ple.  He  was  buried  under  the  load  of  our 
offences ;  but  he  rose  again,  almighty  to 
justify  and  save  us.  His  dying  proved 
the  greatness  of  his  love ;  his  rising 
again  shows  that  his  love  had  secured 
its  object. 

RESURRECTION  OF  THE  DEAD.  It  is  the 
peculiar  glory  of  the  New  Testament  that 
it  makes  a  full  revelation  of  this  great 
doctrine,  which  was  questioned  or  derided 
by  the  wisest  of  the  heathen,  Acts  17 :32. 
In  the  Old  Testament  also  we  find, 
though  less  frequently,  the  doctrine  as 
serted  ;  as  for  example,  Isa.  26: 19 ;  Dan. 
12 : 2.  When  our  Saviour  appeared  in  Ju- 
dea,  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead  was  received  as  a  principal  article 
of  religion  by  the  whole  Jewish  nation 
except  the  Sadducees.  Their  denial  of 
it  rested  on  the  assumption  that  at  death 
the  whole  man,  soul  and  body,  perishes. 
"The  Sadducees  say  that  there  is  no 
resurrection,  neither  angel,  nor  spirit," 
Acts  23:8.  Hence  the  refutation  of  this 
unscriptural  assumption  was  a  complete 
overthrow  of  the  ground  on  which  their 
denial  of  a  future  resurrection  rested ; 
for  if  the  soul  can  survive  the  body,  it  is 
plain  that  God  can  give  it  another  body. 
In  this  way  our  Lord  met  and  effectually 
refuted  them,  Matt.  22  :  31,  32 ;  Mark 
12:26,  27. 

The  resurrection  of  Christ  is  every 
where  represented  in  the  New  Testa 
ment  as  a  pledge  and  an  earnest  of  the 
resurrection  of  all  the  just,  who  are 
united  to  him  by  faith,  1  Cor.  15  :  49  ; 
1  Thess.  3  :  14,  in  virtue  of  their  union 
with  him  as  their  Head.  He  is  "the 
resurrection  and  the  life,"  John  11  :  25  ; 
they  "sleep  in  Jesus,"  and  shall  be 
brought  to  glory  "with  him,"  1  Thess. 
4  : 13-17  ;  5  :  10  ;  their  "  life  is  hid  with 
Christ  in  God,"  Col.  3:3;  and  because 
he  lives,  they  shall  live  also,  John  14:19. 
The  Scriptures  also  teach  that  there  will 
be  a  resurrection  of  the  unjust.  But 
they  shall  be  raised,  not  to  be  glorified 
with  Christ,  but  to  be  judged  by  him, 
and  sentenced  to  eternal  punishment, 
Dan.  12:2  ;  John  5:28,  29  compared  with 
Matt.  35:31-46;  Acts  24: 15. 

To  cavillers  against  this  doctrine  in 
his  own  day,  Christ  replied,  "Ye  do 
err,  not  knowing  the  Scriptures,  nor  the 


REU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RHO 


power  of  God."  The  work  is  miracu 
lous  ;  and  He  who  is  omniscient  and  om 
nipotent  will  permit  nothing  to  frustrate 
his  designs.  He  has  not  revealed  to  us 
the  precise  nature  of  the  spiritual  body, 
nor  in  what  its  identity  with  the  earthly 
body  consists ;  but  it  will  be  incorrupt 
ible,  fashioned  like  Christ's  glorious 
body,  Phil.  3:21,  and  a  meet  companion 
of  the  soul  made  perfect  in  his  likeness. 

REU'BEN,  behold,  a  son  !  the  eldest  son 
of  Jacob  and  Leah,  so  called  in  reference 
to  the  sentiment  of  his  mother,  "The 
Lord  hath  looked  on  my  affliction," 
Gen.  29:32.  Reuben,  having  defiled  his 
father's  concubine  Bilhah,  lost  his  birth 
right  and  all  the  privileges  of  primo 
geniture,  the  preeminence  in  the  family 
being  given  to  Judah,  and  the  double 
portion  to  the  two  sons  of  Joseph,  Gen. 
35  :  22  ;  48  :  5  ;  49  :  3,  4,  8,  10  ;  1  Chron. 
6:1,  2.  He  shared  in  his  brothers'  jeal 
ousy  of  Joseph,  and  yet  interposed  to 
save  his  life  at  Dothan  with  the  design 
of  restoring  him  privately  to  his  father, 
Gen.  37 : 18-30.  See  also  his  well-meant 
proposal  in  Gen.  42 :  37.  His  tribe  was 
never  numerous  or  powerful  in  Israel. 
Dathan,  Abiram,  and  On  were  members 
of  it.  It  was  the  ninth  of  the  tribes  in 
the  order  of  population  when  they  en 
tered  Canaan,  Num.  1:21 ;  26:7.  Their 
inheritance  was  the  fine  pasture-land 
east  of  the  Jordan,  between  the  Arnon 
on  the  south  and  Gilead  on  the  north  ; 
it  is  now  called  Belka,  Num.  32 ;  Josh. 
22.  We  afterwards  find  them  reproved 
by  Deborah  for  remissness,  Judg.  5  :  15, 
16.  Their  position  on  the  frontier  ex 
posed  them  to  many  assaults  from  the 
east,  2  Kin.  10:33  ;  and  they  were  among 
the  first  captives  to  Assyria,  1  Chr.  5:26, 
B.  c.  740. 

REVELATION,  an  extraordinary  and 
supernatural  disclosure  made  by  God, 
whether  by  dream,  vision,  ecstasy,  or  oth 
erwise,  of  truths  beyond  man's  unaided 
power  to  discover.  Paul,  alluding  to  his 
visions  and  revelations,  2  Cor.  12  :  1,  7, 
speaks  of  them  in  the  third  person,  out 
of  modesty ;  and  declares  that  he  could 
not  tell  whether  he  was  in  the  body  or 
out  of  the  body.  Elsewhere  he  says  that 
he  had  received  his  gospel  by  a  particu 
lar  revelation,  Gal.  1:12. 

For  the  BOOK  OF  REVELATION,  see  APOC 
ALYPSE. 

REVEN'GER,  or  AVENGER  OP  BLOOD, 
is  a  name  given  in  Scripture  to  the  man 


who  had  the  right,  according  to  the  Jew 
ish  polity,  of  taking  revenge  on  him  who 
had  killed  one  of  his  relations.  If  a  man 
had  been  guilty  of  manslaughter  invol 
untarily  and  without  design,  he  fled  to 
a  city  of  refuge.  See  REFUGE. 

RE'ZEPH,  a  city  conquered  by  the 
Assyrians,  2  Kin.  19:12;  Isa.  37:12.  It 
is  thought  to  have  been  afterwards  call 
ed  Rasapha.  and  to  have  stood  some 
twenty-live  miles  west  of  the  Euphrates 
towards  Palmyra. 

RE'ZIN,  a  king  of  Damascene  Syria, 
who  united  with  Pekah  king  of  Israel  to 
invade  Judah,  B.  c.  742,  2  Kin.  15  :  37  ; 
16:5-10;  Isa.  7:1.  Turning  away  from 
before  Jerusalem,  Rezin  extended  his 
conquests  to  the  south  as  far  as  Elath ; 
but  was  erelong  conquered  and  slain  by 
Tiglath-pileser  king  of  Assyria,  whose 
aid  had  been  procured  by  king  Ahaz. 
His  people  also  were  carried  captive  be 
yond  the  Tigris,  Isa.  8:6;  9:11. 

RE'ZON,  the  founder  of  a  dynasty  in 
Syria-Damascus  in  the  time  of  David, 
and  a  great  annoyance  to  Solomon,  1  Kin. 
11:23-25.  He  had  been  an  officer  under 
Hadadezer  king  of  Zobah. 

RHE'GIUM,  now  Reggio,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Calabria  Ultra,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  on  the  coast  near 
the  south-west  extremity  of  Italy,  eight 
miles  south-east  of  Messina  in  Sicily. 
The  ship  in  which  Paul  was  on  his  way 
to  Rome  touched  here,  Acts  28  :  13,  14. 
Rhegium  was  a  city  of  considerable  note 
in  ancient  times.  The  modern  city  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1783,  and  now  contains  about  eighteen 
thousand  inhabitants. 

RHO'DA,  rose,  a  young  damsel  in  the 
household  of  Mary  mother  of  John  Mark, 
when  Peter  was  miraculously  released 
from  prison,  Acts  12:13. 

RHODES,  an  island  and  a  famous  city  in 
the  Levant,  the  ancient  name  of  which 
was  Ophiusa.  Its  modern  name  alludes 
to  the  great  quantity  and  beauty  of  the 
roses  that  grew  there.  The  island  is 
about  forty  miles  long  and  fifteen  wide  ; 
its  mountains  are  well  wooded,  and  its 
valleys  highly  fertile.  The  city  of 
Rhodes,  at  the  north-east  extremity  of 
the  island,  was  one  of  the  most  cele 
brated  of  the  Greek  cities.  It  was  fa 
mous  for  its  brazen  Colossus,  which  was 
one  hundred  and  five  feet  high,  made  by 
Chares  of  Lyndus  :  it  stood  at  the  mouth 
of  the  harbor  of  the  city,  on  sixty  mar- 
371 


IUB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


KIN 


ble  columns,  and  continued  perfect  only 
^ifty-six  years,  being  thrown  down  by  an 
earthquake,  under  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Euergetes  king  of  Egypt,  who  began  to 
reign  B.  c.  244.  When  Paul  went  to 
Jerusalem,  A.  D.  58,  he  visited  Khodes, 
Acts  21 : 1.  Modern  Rhodes  is  a  Turkish 
walled  town  of  15,000  inhabitants,  and 
considerable  commerce.  The  air  of 
Rhodes  is  proverbially  pure,  and  its  cli 
mate  serene. 

RIB'LAH,  a  city  of  Syria,  in  the  coun 
try  of  Hamath,  at  the  north-east  extrem 
ity  of  Canaan,  Num.  34  :  11.  Its  site  is 
probably  found  in  the  modern  village 
Ribleh,  on  the  river  Orontes,  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  great  vallev  of  Leb- 
anon,  El-Bukaa.  Through  this  valley, 
by  way  of  Hamath  and  Riblah,  was  the 
readiest  access  to  Palestine  from  the 
north.  At  Riblah  king  Jehoahaz  was 
taken  and  deposed  by  Pharaoh  -  necho  ; 
here  also  Nebuchadnezzar  established  his 
head-quarters  when  warring  against  Ju- 
dah,  2  Kin.  23  :  33  ;  25  :  6,  20,  21 ;  Jer. 
39:5;  52:10. 

RIGHT'EOUSNESS,  rectitude,  justice, 
holiness ;  an  essential  perfection  of  God's 
character,  Job  36  :  3,  Isa.  51:5-8,  John 

17  :  25,  and  of  his  administration,  Gen. 
18:25  ;  Rom.  3:21,  22  ;  10:3.     It  is  the 
wonder  of  grace  that,  as  the  righteous 
guardian  of  the  law,  he  can  acquit  the 
unrighteous.       "The    righteousness    of 
Christ"   includes  his  spotless   holiness, 
his  perfect  obedience  to  the  law  while 
on  earth,  and  his  suffering  its  penalty  in 
our  stead.     It  is  called  "the  righteous 
ness  of  God,"  because  accepted  by  him, 
Rom.  3:25.     "The  righteousness  of  the 
law"  is  that  perfect  obedience  the  law 
demands ;    and    ' '  the    righteousness    of 
faith ' '    is  that  imputed   to   the   sinner 
who  believes  in  Christ.     With  reference 
to  personal  character,   righteousness  is 
used  both  for  uprightness  between  man 
and  man,   and  for  true  religion,   Gen. 

18  :  23 ;  Lev.  19  :  15  ;  Isa.  60  :  17  ;  Rom. 
14:17;  Eph.  5:9. 

RIGHT-HAND,    the    most    efficient 
member  of  the  body,  Matt.  5 :  30,  and 
the  ready  executor  of  the  behests  of  the 
will.    Hence  its  use  as  a  symbol  of  many 
of  the  strongest  emotions  of  the  inner 
man.      The  right-hand  is  significant  of 
power,  especially  the  almighty  power  of  j 
God,  Ex.  15:6;  Psa.  21  :  8  :  77  :  10 ;  of  ! 
honor,  Psa.  45  :  9  ;   Matt.  25  :  34  ;  Acts  ' 
7:55  ;  of  special  benediction,  Gen.  48:14 ; 
372 


of  fraternal  love,  Gal.  2:9;  of  hostility, 
Psa.  109:6 ;  Zech.  3: 1 ;  and  of  allegiance, 
1  Chr.  29  :  24.  It  was  raised  in  the  act 


of  prayer,  and  also  in  taking  an  oath, 
Gen.  14  :  22  ;  hence  the  right-hand  of  a 
perjured  man  was  "a  right-hand  of  false 
hood,"  Psa.  144  :  8.  In  regard  to  the 
points  of  the  compass,  the  right-hand  in 
Hebrew  denotes  the  south,  1  8am.  23 : 19 ; 
24,  as  the  left-hand  means  the  north, 
Gen.  14:15.  See  EAST. 

RIM'MON,  pomegranate,  I.,  a  town  of 
Palestine,  near  the  frontier  of  Edom, 
Josh.  15 :  21,  32,  Zech.  14  :  10,  in  the 
region  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon, 
Josh.  19:7  ;  1  Chr.  4:32;  Neh.  11:29. 

II.  A  town  on  a  high  chalky  hill,  a 
few  miles  east  of  Bethel,  Judg.  20  :  45- 
47  ;  21  :  13.     A  village  called  Rummon 
still  exists  there. 

III.  A  city  of  Zebulun,  assigned  to  the 
Levites,  Josh.  19  : 13  ;  perhaps  the  same 
as  Rimmono,  1  Chr.  6:77,  which  may  be 
traced  in  the  modern  village  Rimmaneh, 
north-west  of  mount  Tabor. 

IV.  An  unknown  encampment  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  desert,  Num.  33:19. 

V.  An  idol  of  the  Syrians,  2  Kin.  5:18. 
See  NAMAAN. 


RINGS,  ornaments  for  the  ears,  nose, 
legs,  arms,  or  fingers.     The  antiquity  of 


RIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RIZ 


rings  appears  from  Scripture  and  from 
profane  authors.  Judah  left  his  ring 
with  Tamar,  Gen.  38  : 18.  When  Pha 
raoh  committed  the  government  of 
Egypt  to  Joseph,  he  gave  him  his  ring 
from  his  finger,  Gen.  41 :  42.  After  -the 
victory  of  the  Israelites  over  the  Midian- 
ites,  they  offered  to  the  Lord  the  rings, 
the  bracelets,  and  the  golden  necklaces 
taken  from  the  enemy,  Num.  31  :  50. 


The  Israelitish  women  wore  rings,  not 
only  on  their  fingers,  but  also  in  their 


nostrils  and  their  ears,  and  on  their 
ankles.  See  BRACELETS.  James  distin 
guishes  a  man  of  wealth  and  dignity  by 
the  ring  of  gold  on  his  finger,  Jag.  2  :  2. 
At  the  return  of  the  prodigal  son,  his 
father  ordered  a  handsome  apparel  for 


his  dress,  and  that  a  ring  should  be  put 
on  his  finger,  Luke  15:22. 

The  ring  was  used  chiefly  as  a  signet 
to  seal  with,  and  Scripture  generally 
assigns  it  to  princes  and  great  persons ; 
as  the  king  of  Egypt,  Joseph,  Ahaz,  Jez 
ebel,  king  Ahasuerus,  his  favorite  Ha- 
man,  Mordecai,  king  Darius,  etc.,  1  Kin. 
21:8;  Esth.  3:10;  Jer.  22:24;  Dan.  6:17. 
The  patents  and  orders  of  these  princes 
were  sealed  with  their  rings  or  signets, 
an  impression  from  which  was  their  con 
firmation.  See  SEAL. 

RING-STREAKED,  marked  with  cir 
cular  streaks  of  various  colors,  Gen. 
39  :  35. 

RI'PHATH,  a  northern  nation  de 
scended  from  a  grandson  of  Japheth, 
Gen.  10:3,  called  Diphath  in  1  Chr.  1:6. 
The  name  is  traced  in  that  of  the  Ri- 
phcean  mountains,  in  Russia. 

RIV'ER.  This  word  answers  in  our 
Bible  to  various  Hebrew  terms,  of  which 
the  principal  are  the  following  : 

1.  Yeor,  an  Egyptian  word  signifying 
river.     It  is  always  applied  to  the  Nile 
and  its  various  canals,   except  in  Job 
28:10;  Dan.  12:5,  6,  7. 

2.  Nahar,  applied,  like  our  word  river, 
to  constantly  flowing  streams,  such  as 
the  Euphrates.    In  our  version  this  word 
is  sometimes  rendered    "flood,"    Josh. 
24:2,  3,  etc. 

3.  Nahal,    a   torrent -bed,    or  valley 
through  which  water  flows  in  the  rainy 
season  only,  Num.  34:5,  etc.  ;  frequent 
ly  rendered  "brook,"  Num.  13:28;  Job 
6  :  15,  etc.     Such  streams  are  to  the  ori 
entals  striking  emblems  of  inconstancy 
and  faithlessness.     Flowing  only  in  the 
rainy  season,  and  drying  up  when  the 
summer  heat  sets  in — and  some  of  them 
in  desert  places  failing   prematurely — 
they  sadly  disappoint  the  thirsty  and  per 
haps  perishing  traveller  who  has  looked 
forward  to  them  with  longing  and  with 
hope,  Job  6 : 15-20;  Jer.  15:18. 

In  some  passages  in  our  Bible  the  word 
' '  rivers ' '  seems  to  denote  rivulets  or  ca 
nals,  to  conduct  hither  and  thither  small 
streams  of  water  from  a  tank  or  foun 
tain,  Ezek.  31 :  4.  Such  conduits  were 
easily  turned  by  moulding  the  soil  with 
the  foot ;  and  some  think  this  is  the  idea 
in  Deut.  11  :  10 ;  "where  thou  sowedst 
thy  seed,  and  wateredst  it  with  thy  foot, 
as  a  garden  of  herbs."  See  also  Prov. 
21:1. 

RIZ'PAH,  a  concubine  of  Saul,  taken 
373 


ROB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ROM 


after  his  death  by  the  ambitious  Abner. 
Her  two  sons  were  afterwards  hung,  with 
five  other  sons  of  J3aul,  to  avenge  the 
wrongs  he  had  inflicted  on  the  Gibeon- 
ites.  With  the  most  devoted  maternal 
affection,  RizpahVatched  over  their  re 
mains  day  and  night,  apparently  from 
May  to  October ;  and  David,  being  in 
formed  of  her  painful  watchings,  gath 
ered  the  bones  of  all  the  family  of  Saul 
and  gave  them  an  honorable  burial, 
2  Sam.  3:7-11;  21:1-14. 

ROBES.     See  GARMENTS. 

ROD,  an  offshoot  from  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  Gen.  30:37  ;  Isa.  11:1 ;  Ezek.  87:15- 
22.  It  also  denotes  a  staff,  used  by  one 
walking,  Isa.  3:1 ;  Ezek.  29:6  ;  by  a  di 
viner,  Hosea  4  : 12  ;  by  a  surveyor,  Psa. 
74:2  ;  by  a  shepherd,  Lev.  27:32  ;  Zech. 
11  :  10-14;  as  an  instrument  of  correc 
tion,  Prov.  23  : 13  ;  29  : 15  ;  as  a  sceptre, 
Esth.  8:4;  Isa.  14  :  5  ;  and  as  a  symbol 
of  power,  Psa.  2  :  9,  support  and  direc 
tion,  Psa.  23:4. 


ROE  and  ROEBUCK,  not  the  animal 
still  found  in  Scotland  and  Germany,  but 
the  oriental  antelope  or  gazelle,  the  Anti- 
lopa  Cervicapra,  or  Dorcas,  of  Linnaeus. 
It  is  often  referred  to  in  the  Bible,  Deut. 
12  : 15,  22  ;  14  :  5  ;  1  Kin.  4  :  23  ;  Prov. 
6:5;  Song  2:7,  9,  17;  8:14:  Isa.  13:14. 
It  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet  in  height, 
of  a  reddish-brown  color,  with  the  belly 
and  feet  white,  has  long  naked  ears,  and 
a  short,  erect  tail.  The  horns  are  black, 
about  twelve  inches  long,  and  bent  like 
a  lyre.  It  inhabits  Barbary,  Egypt,  Ara 
bia,  and  Syria,  and  is  about  half  the  size 
of  a  fallow-deer.  It  goes  in  large  flocks, 
is  easily  tamed,  though  naturally  very 
timid ;  and  its  flesh  is  reckoned  excel 
lent  food. 

374 


There  are  no  less  than  twenty -nine 
species  of  antelopes  in  all.  This  animal 
constitutes  a  genus  between  the  deer  and 
the  goat.  They  are  mostly  confined  to 
Asia  and  Africa,  inhabiting  the  hottest 
regions  of  the  old  world,  or  the  temper 
ate  zones  near  the  tropics.  None  of 
them,  except  the  chamois  and  the  saiga, 
are  found  in  Europe.  In  America  only 
one  species  has  yet  been  found,  namely, 
the  Missouri  antelope,  which  inhabits 
the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi.  An 
telopes  chiefly  inhabit  hilly  countries, 
though  some  reside  in  the  plains ;  and 
some  species  form  herds  of  two  or  three 
thousand,  while  others  keep  in  small 
troops  of  five  or  six.  These  animals  are 
elegantly  formed,  active,  restless,  timid, 
shy,  and  astonishingly  swift,  running 
with  vast  bounds,  and  springing  or  leap 
ing  with  surprising  agility ;  they  fre 
quently  stop  for  a  moment  in  the  midst 
of  their  course  to  gaze  at  their  pursuers, 
and  then  resume  their  flight.  The  grey 
hound,  the  fleetest  of  dogs,  is  usually 
outrun  by  them;  and  the  sportsman  is 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  aid  of 
the  falcon,  which  is  trained  to  the  work, 
for  seizing  on  the  animal  and  impeding 
its  motion,  that  the  dogs  may  thus  have 
an  opportunity  of  overtaking'it.  In  In- 

i  dia  and  Persia  a  sort  of  leopard  is  made 
use  of  in  the  chase  ;  and  this  animal  takes 

|  its  prey,  not  by  swiftness  of  foot,  but  by 
its  astonishing  springs,  which  are  similar 

I  to  those  of  the  antelope ;  and  yet,  if  the 
leopard  should  fail  in  its  first  attemptf 
the  game  escapes. 

The  fleetness  of  this  animal  has  been 
proverbial  in  the  countries  which  it  in 
habits,  from  the  earliest  time,  2  Sam. 
2:18  ;  1  Chr.  12:8 ;  as  also  the  beauty  of 
its  eyes ;  so  that  to  say,  ' '  You  have  the 
eyes  of  a  gazelle,"  is  to  pay  a  high  com 
pliment. 

ROLL.     See  BOOK. 

ROME,  ROMANS.  The  city  of  Rome 
is  in  some  respects  the  most  celebrated 
on  earth ;  as  it  was  long  the  mistress  of 
the  heathen  world,  and  has  since  been 
for  many  centuries  the  chief  ecclesiasti 
cal  capital  of  the  nominal  Christian 
world.  It  was  situated  on  the  river 
Tiber  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  Med 
iterranean,  in  the  plain  now  called  the 
Qampagna  di  Roma.  At  the  period  of 
its  greatest  glory  its  walls  were  nearly 
twenty  miles  in  circumference,  and  en 
closed  the  famous  seven  hills  of  which 


ROM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ROM 


their  poets  speak,  Rev.  17  :  9.  It  sur 
passed  all  other  cities  in  the  magnificence 
of  its  structures,  filled  with  paintings  and 
sculptures ;  and  contained,  it  is  thought, 
two  millions  of  inhabitants.  Famous 
for  its  progress  in  the  arts  and  in  luxury, 
it  was  still  more  renowned  for  its  con 
quests  ;  and  there  was  scarcely  a  nation 
then  known  whose  spoils  and  captive 
princes  had  not  contributed  to  swell  the 
pomp  and  pride  of  the  imperial  city. 
The  idols  of  all  conquered  nations  were 
admitted  among  the  thousands  there 
worshipped  ;  and  the  people  were  full  of 
superstition,  and  in  morals  exceedingly 
corrupt.  The  painful  representation  of 
the  sins  of  heathenism  given  by  Paul  in 
his  letter  to  the  Romans,  1  :  21-32,  has 
been  fully  confirmed  by  their  own  writ 
ers. 

Rome  was  founded  by  Romulus  752 
B.  c.,  and  governed  for  a  time  by  kings. 
After  the  expulsion  of  Tarquin,  B.  c.  509, 
it  was  governed  by  two  consuls,  elected 
annually  ;  and  this  form  of  government 
continued  several  centuries,  and  indeed 
after  the  real  power  had  passed  into  the 
hands  of  a  sovereign.  Julius  Caasar  first 
acquired  the  sovereign  power,  though  he 
refused  the  name  of  emperor.  His  neph 
ew  Octavius,  afterwards  Augustus,  took 
the  name  of  emperor  about  30  B.  c.  In 
his  reign  our  Saviour  was  born.  The  suc 
ceeding  Roman  emperors,  who  ruled  over 
the  larger  part  of  the  then  known  world, 
were  mostly  distinguished  for  their  cru 
elties,  debaucheries,  and  licentiousness ; 
until  Constantino  embraced  Christianity 
and  made  it  the  religion  of  his  empire. 
By  transferring  the  seat  of  his  empire  to 
Constantinople,  A.  D.  328,  he  gave  a  fatal 
blow  to  the  power  and  influence  of  Rome  ; 
which  thenceforth  continued  to  be  only 
the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  the  west 
ern  church.  But  as  such  she  acquired 
afterwards,  under  the  popes,  an  immense 
power,  which  still  continues  in  Catholic 
countries ;  but  which  has  received  its 
death-wound  through  Protestantism,  and 
the  consequent  enlightening  of  the  pop 
ular  mind.  At  the  present  day,  Rome 
is  rendered  especially  interesting  by  the 
magnificent  ruins  of  its  former  greatness, 
temples,  pillars,  public  baths,  aqueducts, 
triumphal  arches,  and  amphitheatres. 
It  retains  also  its  preeminence  as  a  treas 
ure-house  of  the  fine  arts.  It  has  three 
hundred  and  sixty  churches,  among 
which  is  St.  Peters,  the  largest  in  the 


world,  and  many  others  truly  gorgeous. 
It  conta-ins  also  large  libraries,  including 
that  of  the  Vatican  ;  numerous  galleries 
and  museums  full  of  the  choicest  paint 
ings  and  sculptures,  besides  palaces,  vil 
las,  schools,  and  hospitals.  Yet  it  groans 
under  priestly  tyranny,  and  perpetuates 
the  superstition,  immorality,  and  misery 
of  pagan  Rome. 

In  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  no 
direct  allusion  is  apparently  made  to 
Rome,  or  to  the  Roman  power,  except  in 
the  prophetic  visions  of  Daniel,  2:33,  40 ; 
7:7,  19.  Up  to  the  time  when  the  can 
on  of  the  Old  Testament  was  closed,  be 
fore  B.  c.  400,  the  Romans  had  not  so 
far  extended. their  conquests  as  to  bring 
them  in  contact  with  the  Jews.  But  in 
the  books  of  the  Maccabees  and  in  the 
New  Testament  they  are  often  mention 
ed.  See  1  Mac.  8.  The  first  alliance 
between  the  Jews  and  Romans  was  made 
by  Judas  Maccabeus,  B.  c.  162.  This 
was  renewed  by  his  brother  Jonathan, 
B.  c.  144.  After  this  time,  the  Romans 
had  much  to  do  with  Judea,  not  only 
under  the  Herods,  but  also  when  reduced 
to  the  form  of  a  Roman  province ;  until  at 
last  they  utterly  exterminated  the  Jews 
from  the  country.  They  took  the  city  of 
Jerusalem  not  less  than  three  times  :  first 
under  Pompey,  B.  c.  63  ;  again  under  So- 
sius,  B.  c.  33 ;  and  lastly  under  Titus, 
A.  D.  70,  when  both  the  city  and  temple 
were  destroyed.  See  JUDEA. 

There  were  thousands  of  Jews  resident 
at  Rome,  where  a  part  of  the  city  was 
anciently,  as  now,  appropriated  to  them, 
and  where  they  were  usually  allowed 
the  free  exercise  of  their  national  relig 
ion.  Among  these,  and  among  the  Ro 
mans  themselves,  the  gospel  was  early 
introduced,  perhaps  by  those  who  were 
at  Jerusalem  at  the  Pentecost,  Acts  2 : 10. 
Under  Claudius,  about  A.  D.  50,  both  Jews 
and  Christians  were  expelled  from  Rome  ; 
and  among  them  apparently  Aquila  and 
Priscilla,  Acts  18: 2;  Rom.  16:3.  At  the 
time  of  Paul's  epistle,  A.  D.  58,  the  faith 
of  the  Christian  church  at  Rome  was 
everywhere  celebrated,  Rom.  1:8;  16 : 91. 
In  A.  D.  64,  another  fierce  persecution 
against  Christians  in  that  city  was  insti 
tuted  by  Nero.  These  persecutions  were 
followed  by  others  more  or  less  severe, 
with  intervals  of  repose,  making  ten  in 
all  before  the  time  of  Constantino.  At 
this  period  the  corruption  of  doctrine 
and  of  practice,  which  had  previously 
375 


ROM  BIBLE  DICTIONARY.  ROM 


RUINS  OF  THE  COLISEUM.  AT  ROME. 


appeared  in  the  church,  began  to  spread 
more  rapidly ;  and  by  degrees  the  papal 
apostasy,  with  its  fatal  perversions  of  the 
truth  as  it  is  in  Christ,  became  enthron 
ed  at  Rome  according  to  the  predictions 
of  Paul,  Peter,  and  John. 

The  arena  of  the  Coliseum,  whose  ma 
jestic  ruins  are  now  the  most  impressive 
monument  of  the  ancient  mistress  of  the 
world,  was  the  theatre  of  many  a  conflict 
of  Christian  martyrs  with  wild  beasts  ; 
and  its  sands  drank  the  blood  of  thou 
sands  of  unresisting  victims,  men,  wom 
en,  and  children,  who  met  a  violent 
death — some  tremblingly,  some  trium 
phantly,  but  all  resolutely — rather  than 
deny  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  The  Col 
iseum  was  erected  for  gladiatorial  shows, 
by  the  labors  of  fifteen  thousand  men  for 
ten  years.  .  It  was  an  elliptical  struc 
ture,  620  feet  long  and  513  broad  ;  with 
an  arena  290  feet  by  180,  surrounded  by 
tiers  on  tiers  of  seats,  the  upper  and 
outer  circle  being  160  feet  from  the 
ground.  The  vast  amphitheatre  is  said 
to  have  contained  seats  for  eighty  thou 
sand  spectators ;  and  its  ruins  will  long 
stand,  a  melancholy  proof  of  the  cruelty 
of  heathenism. 

THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  ROMANS  was  writ 
ten  by  Paul  during  the  three  months  he 
376 


remained  at  Corinth,  A.  D.  58,  before 
going  to  Jerusalem,  Rom.  15:25.  Com 
pare  Acts  20  :  2,  3,  16 ;  Rom.  16  :  23  ; 
1  Cor.  1  : 14 ;  2  Tim.  4  :  20.  It  is  the 
most  important,  systematic,  and  argu 
mentative  of  the  epistles  of  Paul.  Its 
immediate  occasion  seems  to  have  been 
the  misunderstanding  which  existed  be 
tween  Jewish  and  Gentile  converts,  not 
only  at  Rome,  but  everywhere.  The 
Jew  felt  himself  in  privilege  superior  to 
the  Gentile  ;  who,  on  the  other  hand, 
did  not  allow  this  superiority,  and  was 
vexed  by  the  assertion  of  it.  In  refer 
ence  to  this,  in  the  first  five  chapters, 
the  apostle  proves  that  the  entire  human 
race  is  depraved  and  under  condemna 
tion — that  neither  Gentile  nor  Jew  has 
any  privilege  of  birth  or  personal  merit, 
but  that  each  receives  all  benefits  through 
the  mere  sovereign  grace  of  God,  Christ 
alone  being  our  justification.  He  then 
proceeds  to  exhibit  Christ  as  our  sanctifi- 
cation;  and  answers  the  objections  made 
to  the  doctrine  of  gratuitous  justification, 
that  it  tends  to  encourage  sin,  and  that 
God  has  no  right  to  treat  mankind  in 
this  way.  In  chaps.  10,  11,  he  applies 
all  this  to  the  Jews.  In  the  remainder 
of  the  epistle,  which  is  hortatory,  the 
apostle  lays  down  many  practical  rules 


ROO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAB 


of  conduct,  which  are  of  the  highest  mo 
ment  to  all  Christians. 

KOOF.     See  HOUSE. 

ROOM  is  sometimes  synonymous  with 
seat  or  place,  as  in  Luke  14:8-10 ;  20:46. 

ROSE,  the  queen  of  flowers,  highly 
esteemed  in  its  native  East  for  its  fra 
grance,  and  the  beauty  of  its  form  and 
colors.  Several  varieties  of  wild  rose 
are  still  found  in  Palestine.  The  "rose 
of  Sharon,"  sacredly  associated  with  the 
heavenly  Bridegroom,  Song  2:1,  Isa. 
35  :  1,  appears  from  the  derivation  of  its 
Hebrew  name  to  have  been  a  bulbous 
plant;  and  is  generally  believed,  in  ac 
cordance  with  the  ancient  versions,  to 
denote  a  plant  of  the  Narcissus  family, 
perhaps  the  meadow-saffron,  which  grows 
in  rich  profusion  on  the  plain  of  Sharon. 

RUBY.  The  oriental  ruby  is  next  in 
value,  as  a  gem,  to  the  diamond.  In 
deed,  a  ruby  of  this  kind,  above  a  cer 
tain  size,  is  more  valuable  than  a  dia 
mond  of  the  same  weight.  The  oriental 
ruby  is  a  red  variety  of  the  sapphire ;  its 
color  is  usually  between  a  vivid  cochi 
neal  and  crimson.  The  word  "rubies" 
occurs  several  times  in  the  English  Bible, 
as  Job  28  : 18 ;  Prov.  3  : 15  ;  8:11;  but 
the  corresponding  word  in  Hebrew  is 
thought,  to  denote  red  coral,  or  perhaps 
pearls  ;  while  the  true  ruby  is  more  nat 
urally  designated  by  the  ' '  agate ' '  or 
"carbuncle"  of  Isa.  54:12;  Ezek.  27:16. 

RUDE,  2  Cor.  11  :  6,  artless  and  un 
polished. 

RUE,  a  well-known  garden  herb,  hav 
ing  a  strong  odor  and  a  bitter  taste.  Our 
Saviour  reproaches  the  Pharisees  with 
their  superstitious  affectation  of  paying 
the  tithe  of  rue,  which  was  not  in  real 
ity  subject  to  the  law  of  tithe,  while 
they  neglected  the  more  essential  parts 
of  the  law*  Luke  11:42. 

RU'FUS,  son  of  Simon  the  Cyrenian 
who  was  constrained  to  carry  the  cross 
on  which  the  Saviour  was  to  be  crucified, 
Mark  15  :  21.  If  he  is  the  same  person 
whom  Paul  salutes  in  Rom.  16:13,  as  is 
probable,  we  may  see  in  this  instance  the 
divine  blessing  abiding  on  the  household 
of  one  who  befriended  Christ  and  bore 
his  cross. 

RUSH,  translated  bulrush  in  Isa.  58:5, 
flag  in  Job  40:21,  and  hook  in  Job  41 :2  ; 
a  plant  growing  in  marshy  ground  or  by 
water-courses,  and  used  for  chair-bot 
toms,  baskets,  mats,  ropes,  etc.  The 
pith  of  a  similar  plant  in  Europe  is  used 


as  the  wick  of  a  candle  or  rush-light. 
In  Isa.  9:14  ;  19:15,  a  rush  is  put  for  the 
lowest  of  the  people. 

RUTH,  a  Moabitess,  who,  having  re 
turned  with  her  mother-in-law  Naomi  to 
Judea,  probably  about  the  time  of  Gide 
on,  soon  afterwards  married  Boaz,  a 
kinsman  of  Naomi.  From  this  marriage 
descended  David,  and  through  him  our 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  Matt.  1:5. 

THE  BOOK  OF  RUTH  contains  this  his 
tory,  told  in  a  most  simple  and  affecting 
manner.  The  object  of  the  writer,  no 
doubt,  was  to  trace  the  genealogy  of  king 
David.  At  the  outset,  he  says  that  these 
events  took  place  when  the  judges  ruled 
in  Israel — an  intimation  that  in  the  time 
of  the  writer  they  had  ceased  to  rule.  At 
the  close  of  the  book  the  name  of  David 
is  introduced;  which  shows  that  it  was 
not  written  before  his  day,  B.  c.  1060. 
This  book  is  inserted  in  our  Bibles  after 
the  book  of  Judges,  as  a  sort  of  sequel  to 
it.  Many  of  the  ancient  fathers  made 
but  one  book  of  Judges  and  Ruth.  The 
story  of  Ruth  exhibits  the  frank  and 
simple  manners  of  the  times,  and  the 
courtesy  and  charity  of  the  Hebrew  laws  ; 
gives  an  intimation  of  the  future  exten 
sion  of  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles;  and 
illustrates  God's  providential  care  of 
families,  and  the  blessings  which  flow 
from  filial  piety  and  faith  in  God. 


S. 


SABACTHA'NI,  hast  thou  forsaken  me,  a 
Syro-Chaldaic  word,  a  part  of  our  Sav 
iour's  exclamation  on  the  cross,  Matt. 
27  :  46 ;  the  whole  is  taken  from  Psa. 
22:1,  where  it  is  used  prophetically. 

SAB'AOTH,  or  rather  Tsabaoth,  hosts 
or  armies.  JEHO\TAH  SABAOTII  is  the  Lord 
of  Hosts  ;  and  we  are  to  understand  the 
word  hosts  in  the  most  comprehensive 
sense,  as  including  the  host  of  heaven, 
the  angels  and  ministers  of  the  Lord  ; 
the  stars  and  planets,  which,  as  an  army 
ranged  in  battle  array,  perform  the  will 
of  God  ;  the  armies  of  earth,  whose  con 
flicts  his  providence  overrules  to  the  ac 
complishment  of  his  own  wise  designs; 
the  hordes  of  inferior  creatures,  as  the 
locusts  that  plagued  Egypt,  the  quails 
that  fed  Israel,  and  "the  canker-worm 
and  the  palmer-worm,  his  great  army," 
Joel  2:15  ;  and  lastly,  the  people  of  the 
Lord,  both  of  the  old  and  new  cover 
377 


SAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAB 


nants,  a  truly  great  army,  of  which  God 
is  the  general  and  commander,  2  Sam. 
6:2;  Psa.  24:10;  Rom.  9:29;  Jas.  5:4. 

SAB'BATH,  rest.  God,  having  created 
the  world  in  six  days,  ' '  rested ' '  on  the 
seventh,  Gen.  2  :  2,  3  ;  that  is,  he  ceased 
from  producing  new  beings  in  this  crea 
tion  ;  and  because  he  had  rested  on  it, 
he  "blessed"  or  sanctified  it,  and  ap 
pointed  it  hi  a  peculiar  manner  for  his 
worship. 

We  here  have  an  account  of  the  ORIGI 
NAL  INSTITUTION  of  the  day  of  rest.  Like 
the  institution  of  marriage,  it  was  given 
to  man  for  the  whole  race.  Those  who 
worshipped  God  seem  to  have  kept  the 
Sabbath  from  the  first,  and  there  are 
tokens  of  this  in  the  brief  sketch  the  Bi 
ble  contains  of  the  ages  before  the  giving 
of  the  law  at  mount  Sinai.  Noah  sent 
forth  the  raven  from  the  ark,  and  the 
dove  thrice,  at  intervals  of  seven  days, 
Gen.  8.  The  account  of  the  sending  of 
manna  in  the  desert  proves  that  the  Sab 
bath  was  already  known  and  observed, 
Ex.  16  :  22-30.  The  week  was  an  estab 
lished  division  of  time  in  Mesopotamia 
and  Arabia,  Gen.  29  :  27  ;  and  traces  of 
it  have  been  found  in  many  nations  of 
antiquity,  so  remote  from  each  other  and 
of  such  diverse  origin  as  to  forbid  the 
idea  of  their  having  received  it  from 
Sinai  and  the  Hebrews. 

The  REENACTMENT  of  the  Sabbath  on 
mount  Sinai,  among  the  Commandments 
of  the  Moral  Law,  was  also  designed  not 
for  the  Jews  alone,  but  for  all  who  should 
receive  the  word  of  God,  and  ultimately 
for  all  mankind.  Christ  and  his  apostles 
never  speak  of  the  decalogue  but  as  of 
permanent  and  universal  obligation. 
' '  The  Sabbath  was  made  for  man. ' '  The 
fourth  commandment  is  as  binding  as 
the  third  and  the  fifth.  Certain  addi 
tions  to  it,  with  specifications  and  penal 
ties,  were  a  part  of  the  Mosaic  civil  law, 
and  are  not  now  in  force,  Ex.  31  :  14 ; 
Num.  15  :  32-36.  On  the  Sabbath-day, 
the  priests  and  Levites,  ministers  of  the 
temple,  entered  on  their  week ;  arid 
those  who  had  attended  the  foregoing 
week,  went  out.  They  placed  on  the 
golden  table  new  loaves  of  show-bread, 
and  took  away  the  old  ones,  Lev.  24  :  8. 
Also  on  this  day  were  offered  particular 
sacrifices  of  two  lambs  for  a  burnt-offer 
ing,  with  wine  and  meal.  The  Sabbath 
was  celebrated  like  the  other  festivals, 
from  evening  to  evening,  Num.  28:9,  10. 
378 


The  chief  obligation  of  the  Sabbath  ex- 
pressed  in  the  law,  is  to  sanctify  it,  Ex. 
20:8;  Deut.  5:12  :  "Remember  the  Sab 
bath-day  to  sanctify  it. "  It  is  sanctified 
by  necessary  works  of  charity,  by  pray 
ers,  praises,  and  thanksgivings,  by  the 
public  and  private  worship  of  God,  by 
the  study  of  his  word,  by  tranquillity  of 
mind,  and  by  meditation  on  moral  and 
religious  truth  in  its  bearing  on  the  duties 
of  life  and  the  hope  of  immortality.  The 
other  requirement  of  the  law  is  rest; 
"Thou  shalt  not  do  any  work."  The 
ordinary  business  of  life  is  to  be  wholly 
laid  aside,  both  for  the  sake  of  bodily 
and  mental  health,  and  chiefly  to  secure 
the  quiet  and  uninterrupted  employment 
of  the  sacred  hours  for  religious  purposes. 
The  spirit  of  the  law  clearly  forbids  all 
uses  of  the  day  which  are  worldly,  such 
as  amusements,  journeys,  etc.,  whereby 
one  fails  to  keep  the  day  holy  himself, 
or  hinders  others  in  doing  so. 

The  CHRISTIAN  SABBATH  is  the  original 
day  of  rest  established  in  the  garden  of 
Eden  and  reenacted  on  Sinai,  without 
those  requirements  which  were  peculiar 
to  Judaism,  but  with  all  its  original 
moral  force  and  with  the  new  sanctions 
of  Christianity.  It  commemorates  not 
only  the  creation  of  the  world*  but  a 
still  greater  event — the  completion  of 
the  work  of  atonement  by  the  resurrec 
tion  of  Christ;  and  as  he  rose  from  the 
dead  on  the  day  after  the  Jewish  Sab 
bath,  that  day  of  his  resurrection  has 
been  observed  by  Christians  ever  since. 
The  change  appears  to  have  been  made 
at  once,  and  as  is  generally  believed 
under  the  direction  of  the  ' '  Lord  of  the 
Sabbath."  On  the  same  day,  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  he  appeared  among  his 
assembled  disciples ;  and  on  the  next 
recurrence  of  the  day  he  was  again  with 
them,  and  revealed  himself  to  Thomas. 
From  1  Cor.  11:20  ;  14:23,  40,  it  appears 
that  the  disciples  in  all  places  were  ac 
customed  to  meet  statedly  to  worship 
and  to  celebrate  the  Lord's  supper  ;  and 
from  1  Cor.  16:1,  2,  we  learn  that  these 
meetings  were  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week.  Thus  in  Acts  20  :  6-11,  we  find 
the  Christians  at  Troas  assembled  on  the 
first  day,  to  partake  of  the  supper  and  to 
receive  religious  instruction.  John  ob 
served  the  day  with  peculiar  solemnity, 
Rev.  1:10;  and  it  had  then  received  the 
name  of  "The  Lord's  day,"  which  it 
has  ever  since  retained.  For  a  time, 


SAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAB 


such  of  the  disciples  as  were  Jews  observ 
ed  the  Jewish  Sabbath  also;  but  they 
did  not  require  this  nor  the  observance 
of  any  festival  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation, 
of  Gentile  converts,  nor  even  of  Jews, 
Col.  2 :  16.  The  early  Christian  fathers 
refer  to  the  first  day  of  the  week  as  the 
time  set  apart  for  worship,  and  to  the 
transfer  of  the  day  on  account  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  Saviour.  Pliny  the 
younger,  proconsul  of  Pontus  near  the 
close  of  the  first  century,  in  a  letter  to 
the  emperor  Trajan,  remarks  that  the 
Christians  were  "  accustomed  on  a  stated 
day  to  meet  together  before  daylight, 
and  to  repeat  a  hymn  to  Christ  as  God, 
and  to  bind  themselves  by  a  solemn 
bond  not  to  commit  any  wickedness," 
etc.  So  well  known  was  their  custom, 
that  the  ordinary  test  question  put  by 
persecutors  to  those  suspected  of  Chris 
tianity  was,  "Hast  thou  kept  the  Lord's 
day?"  To  which  the  reply  was,  "I  am 
a  Christian ;  I  cannot  omit  it. ' '  Justin 
Martyr  observes  that  "on  the  Lord's 
day  all  Christians  in  the  city  or  country 
meet  together,  because  that  is  the  day  of 
our  Lord's  resurrection,  and  then  we 
read  the  writings  of  the  apostles  and 
prophets;  this  being  done,  the  person 
presiding  makes  an  oration  to  the  assem 
bly.,  to  exhort  them  to  imitate  and  to 
practise  the  things  they  have  heard  ; 
then  we  all  join  in  prayer,  and  after  that 
we  celebrate  the  sacrament.  Then  they 
who  are  able  and  willing  give  what  they 
think  proper,  and  what  is  collected  is 
laid  up  in  the  hands  of  the  chief  officer, 
who  distributes  it  to  orphans  and  wid 
ows,  and  other  necessitous  Christians,  as 
their  wants  require."  See  1  Cor.  16  :  2. 
A  very  honorable  conduct  and  worship. 
Would  that  it  were  more  prevalent 
among  us,  with  the  spirit  and  piety  of 
primitive  Christianity ! 

The  commandment  to  observe  the 
Sabbath  is  worthy  of  its  place  in  the 
decalogue  ;  and  its  observance  is  of  fun 
damental  importance  to  society,  which 
without  it  would  fast  relapse  into  igno 
rance,  vice,  and  ungodliness.  Its  very 
existence  on  earth,  by  the  ordinance  of 
God,  proves  that  there  remains  an  eter 
nal  Sabbath  in  heaven,  of  which  the 
"blest  repose"  of  the  day  of  God  is  an 
earnest  to  those  who  rightly  observe  it, 
Heb.  4:9. 

"The  second  Sabbath  after  the  first," 
Luke  6:1,  should  rather  read,  "The  first 


Sabbath  after  the  second  day  of  the  pass- 
over."  Of  the  seven  days  of  the  pass- 
over,  the  first  was  a  Sabbath,  and  on  the 
second  was  a  festival  in  which  the  fruits 
of  the  harvest  were  offered  to  God,  Lev. 
23  :  5,  9,  etc.  From  this  second  day  the 
Jews  reckoned  seven  weeks  or  Sabbaths 
to  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  Lev.  23:15,  etc. 
Hence  the  first  week  or  the  first  Sabbath 
which  occurred  after  this  second  day> 
was  called  the  first  week  or  Sabbath 
after  the  second  day. 

The  ' '  preparation  of  the  Sabbath ' '  was 
the  Friday  before ;  for  as  it  was  forbid 
den  to  make  a  fire,  to  bake  bread,  or  to 
dress  victuals,  on  the  Sabbath-day,  they 
provided  on  the  Friday  every  thing  need 
ful  for  their  sustenance  on  the  Sabbath, 
Mark  15:42;  Matt.  27:62;  John  19:14, 
31,  42. 

For  "a  Sabbath-day's  journey,"  see 
JOURNEY. 

SABBAT'ICAL  YEAE  was  to  be  cele 
brated  among  the  Jews  once  every  seven 
years ;  the  land  was  to  rest,  and  be  left 
without  culture,  Exod.  23  :  10,  11 ;  Lev. 
25  : 1-7.  God  appointed  the  observance 
of  the  Sabbatical  year,  to  preserve  the 
remembrance  of  the  creation  of  the 
world ;  to  enforce  the  acknowledgment 
of  his  sovereign  authority  over  all 
things,  particularly  ovgr  the  land  of  Ca 
naan,  which  he  had  given  to  the  He 
brews  ;  and  to  inculcate  humanity  on 
his  people,  by  commanding  that  they 
should  resign  to  servants,  to  the  poor, 
to  strangers  and  to  brutes,  the  produce 
of  their  fields,  of  their  vineyards,  and 
of  their  gardens.  Josephus  and  Tacitus 
both  mention  the  Sabbatical  year  as  ex 
isting  in  their  day.  See  JUBILEE. 

SABEANS.  This  word  represents  two 
distinct  people,  who,  in  accordance  with 
the  original  Hebrew,  might  have  been 
more  properly  called  Seboeans  and  She- 
Damans. 

I.  The  first  denotes  the  inhabitants  of 
the  country  called  SEBA.  This  appears 
to  have  been  the  great  island,  or  rather 
peninsula  of  Meroe,  in  northern  Ethio 
pia,  or  Nubia,  formed  between  the  Nile 
and  the  Astaboras,  now  Atbara.  Upon 
this  peninsula  lay  a  city  of  the  like  name, 
the  ruins  of  which  are  still  visible  a  few 
miles  north  of  the  modern  Shendy.  Me 
roe  was  a  city  of  priests,  whose  origin  is 
lost  in  the  highest  antiquity.  The  mon 
arch  was  chosen  by  the  priests  from 
among  themselves ;  and  the  government 
379 


SAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAC 


was  entirely  theocratic,  being  managed 
by  the  priests  according  to  the  oracle 
of  Jupiter  Ammon.  This  was  the  Seba 
of  the  Hebrews,  according  to  Josephus, 
who  mentions  at  the  same  time  that  it 
was  conquered  by  Cambyses,  and  receiv 
ed  from  him  the  name  Meroe,  after  his 
sister.  With  this  representation  accord 
the  notices  of  Seba  and  its  inhabitants 
in  Scripture.  In  Gen.  10:7,  their  ances 
tor  is  said  to  be  a  son  of  Cush,  the  pro 
genitor  of  the  Ethiopians.  In  Isa.  43:3, 
and  Psa.  72  :  10,  Seba  is  mentioned  as  a 
distant  and  wealthy  country  ;  in  the  for 
mer  passage,  it  is  connected  with  Egypt 
and  Ethiopia ;  and  Meroe  was  one  of  the 
most  important  commercial  cities  of  in 
terior  Africa.  These  Sabeans  are  describ 
ed  by  Herodotus  as  men  of  uncommon 
size.  Compare  Isa.  45:14.  A  branch  of 
this  family,  it  is  thought,  located  them 
selves  near  the  head  of  the  Persian  gulf ; 
and  the  Sabeans  mentioned  in  Job  1  :  15 
were  probably  Cushites.  See  CUSH  and 
RAAMAH. 

II.  The  inhabitants  of  the  country 
called  SIIEBA.  The  Sheba  of  Scripture 
appears  to  be  the  Saba  of  Strabo,  situ 
ated  towards  the  southern  part  of  Ara 
bia,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  coast 
of  the  Ked  sea,  the  capital  of  which  was 
Mariaba,  or  Marejb.  This  region,  called 
also  Yemen,  was  probably  settled  by 
Sheba  the  son  of  Joktan,  of  the  race  of 
Shem,  Gen.  10:28;  1  Chr.  1:22. 

The  queen  of  Sheba,  who  visited  Solo 
mon,  1  Kin.  10;  2  Chr.  9;  Matt.  12:42, 
and  made  him  presents  of  gojd,  ivory, 
and  costly  spices,  was  probably  the  mis 
tress  of  this  region  ;  indeed,  the  Sabeans 
were  celebrated/ on  account  of  their  im 
portant  commerce  in  these  very  prod 
ucts,  among  the  Greeks  also,  Job  6  :  19  ; 
Isa.  60  :  6  ;  Jer.  6  :  20 :  Ezek.  27  :  22  ; 
38  :  13  ;  Psa.  72  : 10,  15  ;  Joel  3:8.  The 
tradition  of  this  visit  of  the  queen  of 
Sheba  to  Solomon  has  maintained  itself 
among  the  Arabs,  who  call  her  Balkis, 
and  affirm  that  she  became  the  wife  of 
Solomon. 

Besides  the  Joktanite  Sabasans,  two 
others  of  the  same  name  are  mentioned 
in  the  Bible.  1.  A  son  of  Jokshan,  and 
grandson  of  Abraham  and  Keturah,  Gen. 
10  :  28.  2.  A  grandson  of  Cush.  It  is 
possible  that  these  descendants  of  the 
Ethiopian  Sheba  may  have  had  their 
residence  in  Africa ;  but  the  question  of 
these  two  Shebas  is  obscure  and  difficult 
380 


to  determine.  The  Sebagans  and  She 
bagans  are  both  mentioned  in  the  same 
prophecy,  Psa.  72  :  10,  as  coming  to  lay 
their  offerings  at  the  feet  of  Christ. 

SAB'TAH  and  SAB'TECHA,  sons  ol 
Cush,  Gen.  10  :  7.  It  cannot  be  decided 
whether  they  settled  in  Africa,  Arabia, 
or  south-eastern  Asia. 


SACK,  SACK'CLOTH.  SACK  is  a  pure 
Hebrew  word,  and  has  spread  into  many 
modern  languages.  Sackcloth  is  a  xery 
coarse  stuff,  often  of  hair,  Rev.  6:12.  In 
great  calamities,  in  penitence,  in  trouble, 
the  Jews,  etc.,  wore  sackcloth  about  their 
bodies,  Gen.  37:34  ;  2  Sam.  3:31 ;  1  Kin. 
20 : 32  ;  Matt.  11 : 21.  The  prophets  were 
often  clothed  in  sackcloth,  and  generally 
in  coarse  clothing,  Matt.  3 : 4.  The  Lord 
bids  Isaiah  put  off  the  sackcloth  from 
about  his  body,  and  go  naked,.  Isa.  20:2. 
Zechariah  says,  13:4,  that  false  prophets 
should  no  longer  prophesy  in  sackcloth, 
(English  translation,  a  rough  garment,) 
to  deceive  the  simple. 

In  times  of  joy,  or  on  hearing  good 
news,  those  who  were  clad  in  sackcloth 
cast  it  from  them,  and  resumed  their 
usual  clothing,  Psa.  30:11. 

SACK'BUT.     See  Music. 

SACRIFICE,  an  offering  made  to  God 
on  his  altar,  by  the  hand  of  a  lawful 
minister.  A  sacrifice  differed  from  an 
oblation  :  it  was  properly  the  offering 
up  of  a  life  ;  whereas  an  oblation  was 
but  a  simple  offering  or  gift.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  sacrifices 
were  from  the  first  of  divine  appoint 
ment  ;  otherwise  they  would  have  bee) 


SAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAC 


a  superstitious  will-worship,  which  God 
could  not  have  accepted  as  he  did.  See 
ABEL.  Adam  and  his  sons,  Noah  and 
his  descendants,  Abraham  and  his  pos 
terity,  Job  and  Melchizedek,  before  the 
Mosaic  law,  offered  to  God  real  sacrifices. 
That  law  did  but  settle  the  quality,  the 
number,  and  other  circumstances  of  sac 
rifices.  Every  one  was  priest  and  min 
ister  of  his  own  sacrifice ;  at  least,  he 
was  at  liberty  to  choose  what  priest  he 
pleased  in  offering  his  victim.  Gener 
ally,  this  honor  belonged  to  the  head  of 
a  family ;  hence  it  was  the  prerogative 
of  the  first-born.  But  after  Moses  this 
was,  among  the  Jews,  confined  to  the 
family  of  Aaron. 

There  was  but  one  place  appointed  in 
the  law  for  the  offering  of  sacrifices  by 
the  Jews.  It  was  around  the  one  altar 
of  the  only  true  God  in  the  tabernacle, 
and  afterwards  in  the  temple,  that  all 
his  people  were  to  unite  in  his  worship, 
Lev.  17:4,  9;  Deut.  12:5-18.  On  some 
special  occasions,  however,  kings,  proph 
ets,  and  judges  sacrificed  elsewhere,  Judg. 
2:5;  6:26;  13:19;  1  Sam.  7:17;  1  Kin. 
3  :  2,  3  ;  18  :  33.  The  Jews  were  taught 
to  cherish  the  greatest  horror  of  human 
sacrifices,  as  heathenish  and  revolting, 
Lev.  20 : 2  ;  Deut.  12  :  31 ;  Psa.  106  :  37  ; 
Isa.  66:3;  Ezek.  20:31. 

The  Hebrews  had  three  kinds  of  sac 
rifices  : 

1.    The  burnt-offering  or  holocaust,  in 


which  the  whole  victim  was  consumed, 
without  any  reserve  to  the  person  who 
gave  the  victim,  or  to  the  priest  who 
killed  and  sacrificed  it,  except  that  the 
priest  had  the  skin ;  for  before  the  vic 
tims  were  offered  to  the  Lord,  their  skins 
were  flayed  off,  and  their  feet  and  en 
trails  were  washed,  Lev.  1  :  1-17  ;  7  :  8. 
Every  burnt-offering  contained  an  ac 
knowledgment  of  general  guilt,  and  a 
typical  expiation  of  it.  The  burning  of 
the  whole  victim  on  the  altar  signified, 
on  the  part  of  the  offerer,  the  entireness 
of  his  devotion  of  himself  and  all  his 
substance  to  God ;  and,  on  the  part  of 
the  victim,  the  completeness  of  the  ex 
piation. 

2.  The  sin-offering,  of  which  the  tres 
pass-offering  may  be  regarded  as  a  varie 
ty.     This  differed  from  the  burnt-offer 
ing  in  that  it  always  had  respect  to  par 
ticular  offences  against  law  either  moral 
or  ceremonial,  which  were  committed 
through  ignorance,  or  at  least  not  in  a 
presumptuous  spirit.     No  part  of  it  re 
turned  to  him  who  had  given  it,  but  the 
sacrificing  priest  had  a  share  of  it,  Lev. 
4-6;  7:1-10. 

3.  Peace-offerings:  these  were  offered  in 
the  fulfilment  of  vows,  to  return  thanks 
to  God  for  benefits,  (thank-offerings,)  or 
to  satisfy  private  devotion,  (freewill-offer 
ings.)    The  Israelites  accordingly  offered 
these  when  they  chose,  no  law  obliging 
them  to  it,  and  they  were  free  to  choose 

381 


3AC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY,, 


SAO 


among  such  animals  as  were  allowed  in 
sacrifice,  Lev.  3 ;  7 : 11-34.  The  law  only 
required  that  the  victim  should  be  with 
out  blemish.  He  who  presented  it  came 
to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  put  his 
hand  on  the  head  of  the  victim,  and 
killed  it.  The  priest  poured  out  the 
blood  about  the  altar  of  burnt-sacrifices : 
he  burnt  on  the  lire  of  the  altar  the  fat 
of  the  lower  belly,  that  which  covers  the 
kidneys,  the  liver,  and  the  bowels.  And 
if  it  were  a  lamb,  or  a  ram,  he  added  to 
it  the  rump  of  the  animal,  which  in  that 
country  is  very  fat.  Before  these  things 
were  committed  to  the  fire  of  the  altar, 
the  priest  put  them  into  the  hands  of 
the  offerer,  then  made  him  lift  them  up 
on  high,  and  wave  them  toward  the  four 
quarters  of  the  world,  the  priest  support 
ing  and  directing  his  hands.  The  breast 
and  the  right  shoulder  of  the  sacrifice 
belonged  to  the  priest  that  performed 
the  service  ;  and  it  appears  that  both  of 
them  were  put  into  the  hands  of  him 
who  offered  them,  though  Moses  men 
tions  only  the  breast  of  the  animal. 
After  this,  all  the  rest  of  the  sacrifice 
belonged  to  him  who  presented  it,  and 
he  might  eat  it  with  his  family  and 
friends  at  his  pleasure,  Lev.  8  :  31.  The 
peace-offering  signified  expiation  of  sin, 
wad  thus  reconciliation  with  God,  and 
382 


holy  communion  with  him  and  with  his 
people. 

The  sacrifices  or  offerings  of  meal  or 
liquors,  which  were  offered  for  sin,  were 
in  favor  oi  the  poorer  sort,  who  could 
not  afford  to  sacrifice  an  ox  or  goat  or 
sheep,  Lev.  5  : 10-13.  They  contented 
themselves  with  offering  meal  or  flour, 
sprinkled  with  oil,  with  spice  (or  frank 
incense)  over  it.  And  the  priest,  taking 
a  handful  of  this  flour,  with  all  the  frank 
incense,  sprinkled  them  on  the  fire  of  the 
altar ;  and  all  the  rest  of  the  flour  was 
his  own  :  he  was  to  eat  it  without  leaven 
in  the  tabernacle,  and  none  but  priests 
were  to  partake  of  it.  As  to  other  offer 
ings,  fruits,  wine,  meal,  wafers  or  cakes, 
or  any  thing  else,  the  priest  always  cast 
a  part  on  the  altar  ;  the  rest  belonged  to 
him  and  the  other  priests.  These  offer 
ings  were  always  accompanied  with  salt 
and  wine,  but  were  without  leaven, 
Lev.  2. 

Offerings  in  which  they  set  at  liberty 
a  bird  or  a  goat,  were  not  strictly  sac 
rifices,  because  there  was  no  shedding  of 
blood,  and  the  victim  remained  alive. 

Sacrifices  of  birds  were  offered  on  tkree 
occasions :  1.  For  sin,  when  the  person 
offering  was  not  rich  enough  to  provide 
an  animal  for  a  victim,  Lev.  5:7,  8. 
2.  For  purification  of  a  woman  after 


SAC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAD 


childbirth,  Lev.  12:6,  7.  When  she 
could  offer  a  lamb  and  a  young  pigeon, 
she  gave  both ;  the  lamb  for  a  burnt- 
offering,  the  pigeon  for  a  sin-offering. 
But  if  she  were  not  able  to  offer  a  lamb, 
she  gave  a  pair  of  turtles,  or  a  pair  of 
young  pigeons ;  one  for  a  burnt-offering, 
the  other  for  a  sin-offering.  3.  They 
offered  two  sparrows  for  those  who  were 
purified  from  the  leprosy ;  one.  was  a 
burnt-offering,  the  other  was  a  scape- 
sparrow,  as  above,  Lev.  14:4,  etc.,  49-51. 

For  the  sacrifice  of  the  paschal  lamb, 
see  PASSOVER. 

The  perpetual  sacrifice  of  the  taberna 
cle  and  temple,  Ex.  29 :  38-40,  Num. 
28  :  3,  was  a  daily  offering  of  two  lambs 
on  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings ;  one  in 
the  morning,  the  other  in  the  evening. 
They  were  burnt  as  holocausts,  but  by  a 
small  fire,  that  they  might  continue 
burning  the  longer.  The  lamb  of  the 
morning  was  offered  about  sunrise,  after 
the  incense  was  burnt  on  the  golden 
altar,  and  before  any  other  sacrifice. 
That  in  the  evening  was  offered  between 
the  two  evenings,  that  is,  at  the  decline 
of  day,  and  before  night.  With  each  of 
these  victims  was  offered  half  a  pint  of 
wine,  half  a  pint  of  the  purest  oil,  and 
an  assaron,  or  about  five  pints,  of  the 
finest  flour. 

Such  were  the  sacrifices  of  the  He 
brews — sacrifices  of  divine  appointment, 
and  yet  altogether  incapable  in  them 
selves  of  purifying  the  soul  or  atoning  for 
its  sins.  Paul  has  described  these  and 
other  ceremonies  of  the  law  "as  weak 
and  beggarly  elements, ' '  Gal.  4:9.  They 
represented  grace  and  purity,  but  they 
did  not  communicate  it.  They  convinced 
the  sinner  of  his  necessity  of  purification 
and  sanctification  to  God ;  but  they  did 
not  impart  holiness  or  justification  to 
him.  Sacrifices  were  only  prophecies 
and  figures  of  the  true  sacrifice,  the  Lamb 
of  God,  which  eminently  includes  all 
their  virtues  and  qualities  ;  being  at  the 
same  time  a  holocaust,  a  sacrifice  for  sin, 
and  a  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  ;  contain 
ing  the  whole  substance  and  efficacy,  of 
which  the  ancient  sacrifices  were  only 
representations.  The  paschal  lamb,  the 
daily  burnt-offerings,  the  offerings  of 
flour  and  wine,  and  all  other  oblations, 
of  whatever  nature,  promised  and  repre 
sented  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ,  Heb. 
9 : 9-15  ;  10:1.  Accordingly,  by  his  death 
he  abolished  them  all,  1  Cor.  5:7  ;  Heb. 


10 : 8-10.  By  his  offering  of  himself  once 
for  all,  Heb.  10:3,  he  has  superseded  all 
other  sacrifices,  and  saves  for  ever  all 
who  believe,  Eph.  5:2;  Heb.  9  :  11-26 ; 
while  without  this  expiatory  sacrifice, 
divine  justice  could  never  have  relaxed 
its  hold  on  a  single  human  soul. 

The  idea  of  a  substitution  of  the  vic 
tim  in  the  place  of  the  sinner  is  a  famil 
iar  one  in  the  Old  Testament,  Lev.  16:21 ; 
Deut.  21  :  1-8  ;  Isa.  53  : 4  •  Dan.  9  :  26  ; 
and  is  found  attending  all  the  sacrifices 
of  animals,  Lev.  4:20,  26;  6:10;  14:18; 
16:21.  This  is  the  reason  assigned  why 
the  blood  especially,  as  being  the  very 
life  and  soul  of  the  victim,  was  sprinkled 
on  the  altar  and  poured  out  before  the 
Lord  to  signify  its  utter  destruction  in 
the  sinner's  stead,  Lev.  17:11.  Yet  the 
Jews  were  carefully  directed  not  to  rely 
on  these  sacrifices  as  works  of  merit. 
They  were  taught  that  without  repent 
ance,  faith,  and  reformation,  all  sacrifi 
ces  were  an  abomination  to  God,  Prov. 
21:27  ;  Jer.  6:20;  Amos  5: 22;  Mic.  6:6- 
8 ;  that  He  desires  mercy  and  not  sacri 
fice,  Hos.  6:6  ;  Matt.  9:13,  and  supreme 
love  to  him,  Mark  12:33.  "To  obey 
is  better  than  sacrifice,  and  to  hearken 
than  the  fat  of  rams,"  1  Sam.  15:  22; 
Prov.  21  :  3  ;  Matt.  5  :  23.  See  also  the 
fiftieth  Psalm.  Then,  as  truly  as  under 
the  Christian  dispensation,  it  could  be 
said,  "The  sacrifices  of  God  are  a  bro 
ken  spirit ;  a  broken  and  a  contrite  heart, 
0  God,  thou  wilt  not  despise,"  Psa. 
51  : 17.  The  Jews,  without  these  dispo 
sitions,  could  not  present  any  offering 
agreeable  to  God ;  and  he  often  explains 
himself  on  this  matter  in  the  prophets, 
Psa.  40:6;  Isa.  1:11-14;  Hos.  6:6;  Joel 
2:12-18;  Amos  5:21,  22,  etc. 

The  term  sacrifices  is  sometimes  used 
metaphorically  with  respect  to  the  servi 
ces  of  Christians  ;  implying  a  giving  up 
of  something  that  was  their  own,  and  a 
dedication  of  it  to  the  Lord,  Rom.  12:1 ; 
Phil.  4:18;  Heb.  13:15,  16;  1  Pet.  2:5. 

SAC'RILEGE,  any  profanation  or  abuse 
of  things  peculiarly  sacred  to  God ;  such 
as  robbing  the  house  of  God,  or  making 
it  a  den  of  thieves,  Matt.  21 : 12,  13 ; 
Rom.  2:2. 

SAD'DUCEES.  This  name  was  ap 
plied  in  the  time  of  Jesus  to  a  portion 
or  sect  of  the- Jews,  who  were  usually  at 
variance  with  the  other  leading  sect, 
namely,  the  Pharisees,  but  united  with 
them  in  opposing  Jesus  and  accomplish- 
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ing  his  death,  Matt.  16  :  1-12 ;  Luke 
20  :  27.  The  name  would  seem  to  be 
derived  from  a  Hebrew  word  signifying 
the  just;  but  the  Talmudists  affirm  that 
it  comes  from  a  certain  Sadoc,  or  Sad- 
ducus,  who  was  the  founder  of  the  sect, 
and  lived  about  three  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era.  The  Sadducees  disre 
garded  all  the  traditions  and  unwritten 
laws  which  the  Pharisees  prized  so  high 
ly,  and  professed  to  consider  the  Scrip 
tures  as  the  only  source  and  rule  of  the 
Jewish  religion.  They  rejected  the  de- 
monology  of  the  Pharisees ;  denied  the 
existence  of  angels  •and  spirits ;  consid 
ered  the  soul  as  dying  with  the  body, 
and  of  course  admitted  no  future  state 
of  rewards  and  punishments,  Matt.  22 :23. 
While,  moreover,  the  Pharisees  believed 
that  all  events  and  actions  were  directed 
by  an  overruling  providence  or  fate,  the 
Sadducees  considered  them  all  as  depend 
ing  on  the  will  and  agency  of  man.  The 
tenets  of  these  free-thinking  philoso 
phers  were  not,  in  general,  so  acceptable 
to  the  people  as  those  of  the  Pharisees ; 
yet  many  of  the  highest  rank  adopted 
them,  and  practised  great  severity,  of 
manners  and  of  life.  Many  members  of 
the  Sanhedrim  were  Sadducees,  Acts 
23  :  6-9 ;  and  so  was  the  high-priest  in 
the  time  of  the  apostles.  The  resurrec 
tion  of  Christ  seems  to  have  added  bit 
terness  to  their  hatred  of  Christianity, 
Acts  4:1;  5:17. 

SAF'FRON,  the  common  Crocus  Sati- 
vus,  a  small  bluish  flower,  whose  yellow, 
thread-like  stigmata  yield  an  agreeable 
aromatic  odor  ;  and  also  the  Indian  saf 
fron,  Song  4:14.  In  the  East  these  were 
used  in  making  a  highly  valued  perfume, 
and  also  as  a  condiment  and  a  stimulat 
ing  medicine. 

SAINT,  a  holy  person,  a  friend  of  God, 
either  on  earth  or  in  heaven,  Deut.  33:2. 
It  is  sometimes  used  of  the  pious  Israel 
ites,  as  Psa.  16  :  3  ;  34  :  9.  Nothing  is 
more  frequent  in  Paul  than  the  name  of 
saints  given  to  all  Christians,  Rom.  1:7  ; 
8:27;  12:13;  15:25,  31;  16:2.  In  this 
acceptation  it  continued  during  the  early 
ages  of  Christianity  ;  nor  was  it  applied 
to  individuals  declared  to  be  saints  by 
any  other  act  of  the  church  than  admis 
sion  to  its  membership,  till  various  cor 
ruptions  had  depraved  the  primitive 
principles.  The  church  of  Rome  assumes 
the  power  of  making  saints ;  that  is,  of 
announcing  certain  departed  spirits  as 
384 


objects  of  worship,  from  whom  the  faitb 
ful  may  solicit  favors — a  notion  worthy 
of  the  dark  ages  in  which  it  originated. 

SAL' AMIS,  the  chief  city  of  the  isle  of 
Cyprus,  visited  by  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
A.  D.  48.  This  was  the  native  isle  of  Bar 
nabas,  and  many  Jews  resided  there  to 
whom  the  gospel  had  already  been  car 
ried,  Acts  4:36  ;  11:19,  20;  21:16.  Paul's 
visit  was  signalized  by  the  miracle 
wrought  on  Elymas,  and  by  the  conver 
sion  of  the  governor,  Sergius  Paulus, 
Acts  13:5-12.  Salamis  was  a  large  city, 
situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  island, 
and  was  afterwards  called  Constantia. 

SALA'THIEL,  1  Chr.  3:17,  or  SHEAL'- 
TIEL,  father  of  Zerubbabel,  Ezra  3:2; 
Neh.  12:1;  Hag.  1:1;  one  of  the  ances 
tors  of  Christ,  named  in  both  the  gospel 
genealogies,  Matt.  1:14  :  Luke  3:27.  See 
GENEALOGY. 

SAL'CHAH,  a  city  of  Bashan,  con 
quered  by  the  Jews  and  assigned  to  Ma- 
nasseh,  Deut.  3:10;  Josh.  12:5;  13:11. 
It  was  near  the  border  of  Gad,  1  Chr. 
5  : 11,  and  where  the  boundary  line  be 
tween  the  two  tribes  ran  out  farthest 
into  the  desert.  A  town  called  Salchat 
still  exists  there,  on  the  south-east  bor 
der  of  the  modern  Hauran. 

SA'LEM,  peace,  I. ,  an  ancient  name  of 
Jerusalem,  Gen.  14  :  18,  Heb.  7:1,  3, 
afterwards  applied  to  it  poetically,  Psa. 
76:2. 

II.  A  city  of  the  Shechemites,  east  of 
Sychar,  Gen.  33:18. 

SA'LIM,  a  town  near  ^Enon  and  the 
Jordan,  south  of  Bethshean,  John  3:23. 

SAL'MON,  or  SAL'MAH,  1  Chr.  2:11,  a 
chief  man  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  husband 
of  Rahab,  and  father  of  Boaz,  Ruth  4:20 ; 
Matt.  1:4,  5  ;  Luke  3 : 32.  See  ZALMON. 

SALMO'NE,  a  promontory  at  the  north 
east  extremity  of  the  island  of  Crete,  now 
cape  Sidero,  Acts  27:7. 

SALO'ME,  wife  of  Zebcdee,  mother  of 
James  the  elder  and  John  the  evange 
list,  one  of  those  holy  women  of  Galilee 
who  attended  our  Saviour  in  his  jour 
neys  and  ministered  to  him,  Matt.  27: 56. 
She  requested  of  Jesus  that  her  two  sons 
James  and  John  might  sit  one  on  his 
right  hand  and  the  other  on  his  left 
hand  in  his  kingdom,  Matt.  20 : 20-23. 
Her  conceptions  as  to  the  true  nature  of 
Christ's  kingdom  were  no  doubt  changed 
by  his  crucifixion,  which  she  witnessed 
"afar  off,"  and  by  his  resurrection,  of 
which  she  was  early  apprized  by  the  an- 


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SAL 


gels  at  the  tomb,  Mark  15:40;  16:1. 
Some  infer,  from  comparing  Matt.  27:56 
and  John  19:25,  that  she  was  a  sister  of 
Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus. 

Salome  was  also  the  name  of  the 
daughter  of  Herodias. 

SALT  was  procured  by  the  Jews  from 
the  Dead  sea,  either  from  the  immense 
hill  or  ridge  of  pure  rock  salt  at  its 
south-west  extremity,  or  from  that  de 
posited  on  the  shore  by  the  natural 
evaporation.  The  Arabs  obtain  it  in 
large  cakes,  two  or  three  inches  thick, 
and  sell  it  in  considerable  quantities 
throughout  Syria.  Its  well-known  pre 
servative  qualities,  and  its  importance 
as  a  seasoning  for  food,  Job  6:6,  are  im 
plied  in  most  of  the  passages  where  it  is 
mentioned  in  Scripture :  as  in  the  mirac 
ulous  healing  of  a  fountain,  2  Kin.  2*21 ; 
in  the  sprinkling  of  salt  over  the  sacri 
fices  consumed  on  God's  altar,  Lev. 
2:13;  Ezek.  43:24;  Mark  9: 49;  and  its 
use  in  the  sacred  incense,  Ex.  30  :  35. 
So  also  good  men  are  ' '  the  salt  of  the 
earth,"  Matt.  5  : 13  ;  and  grace,  or  true 
wisdom,  is  the  salt  of  language,  Mark 
9  :  50  ;  Col.  4:6.  See  also  Ezek.  16  :  4. 
To  sow  a  land  with  salt,  signifies  its 
utter  barrenness  and  desolation  ;  a  con 
dition  often  illustrated  in  the  Bible  by 
allusions  to  the  region  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  with  its  soil  impregnated 
with  salt,  or  covered  with  acrid  and 
slimy  pools,  Deut.  29  :  33  ;  Job  39  :  9  ; 
Szek.  47:11;  Zeph.  2:9. 

Salt  is  also  the  symbol  of  perpetuity 
and  incorruption.  Thus  they  said  of  a 
covenant,  "It  is  a  covenant  of  salt  for 
ever  before  the  Lord,"  Num.  18:19; 
2  Chr.  13  : 5.  It  is  also  the  symbol  of 
hospitality ;  and  of  the  fidelity  due 
from  servants,  friends,  guests,  and  offi 
cers,  to  those  who  maintain  them  or 
who  receive  them  at  their  tables.  The 
governors  of  the  provinces  beyond  the 
Euphrates,  writing  to  king  Artaxerxes, 
tell  him,  ' '  Because  we  have  maintenance 
from  the  king's  palace,"  etc.,  which  in 
the  Chaldee  is,  "Because  we  are  salted 
with  the  salt  of  the  palace,"  Ezra  4:14. 

VALLEY  OF  SALT.  This  place  is  memo 
rable  for  the  victories  of  David,  2  Sam. 
8  :  13  ;  1  Chr.  18  :  12  ;  Psa.  §0,.  and  of 
Amaziah,  2  Km.  14  :  7,  over  the  Edom- 
ites.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
name  designates  the  broad  deep  valley 
El-Ghor,  prolonged  some  eight  miles 
south  of  the  Dead  sea  to  the  chalky  cliffs 
17 


called  Akrabbim.  Like  all  this  region, 
it  bears  the  marks  of  volcanic  action, 
and  has  an  air  of  extreme  desolation. 
It  is  occasionally  overflowed  by  the  bit 
ter  waters  of  that  sea,  which  rise  to  the 
height  of  fifteen  feet.  The  drift-wood  on 
the  margin  of  the  valley,  which  indicates 
this  rise  of  the  water,  is  so  impregnated 
with  salt  that  it  will  not  burn  ;  and  on 
the  north-west  side  of  the  valley  lies  a 
mountain  of  salt.  Parts  of  this  plain  are 
white  with  salt ;  others  are  swampy,  or 
marked  by  sluggish  streams  or  standing 
pools  of  brackish  water.  The  southern 
part  is  covered  in  part  with  tamarisks 
and  coarse  shrubbery.  Some  travellers 
have  found  here  quicksand  pits  in  which 
camels  and  horses  have  been  swallowed 
up  and  lost,  Gen.  14:10;  Zeph.  2:9. 
See  JORDAN  and  SEA  III. 


SALUTATION.  The  usual  formula  of 
salutation  among  the  Hebrews  was  Sha 
lom  lekha,  that  is,  Peace  be  with  thee. 
The  same  expression  is  the  common  one 
among  the  Arabs  to  the  present  day : 
they  say.  Salam  lekha,  to  which  the 
person  saluted,  replies,  "With  thee  be 
peace,"  Gen.  29  :  6  ;  Judg.  18  :  15,  mar 
gin,.  Hence  we  hear  of  the  Arab  and 
Turkish  Salams,  that  is,  salutations 
Other  phrases  of  salutation  are  found  in 
Scripture,  most  of  them  invoking  a  bless 
ing:  as,  "The  Lord  be  with  thee;" 
"All  hail,"  or,  Joy  to  thee  ;  "  Blessed  be 
thou  of  the  Lord."  These  and  similar 
phrases  the  orientals  still  use  on  all  oc 
casions  with  the  most  profuse  and  punc 
tilious  politeness.  The  letter  of  an  Arab 
will  be  nearly  filled  with  salutations; 
and  should  he  coaie  in  to  tell  you  your 
385 


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SAM 


house  was  on  fire,  he  would  first  give 
and  receive  the  compliments  of  the  day, 
and  then  say  perhaps,  "If  God  will,  all 
is  well;  hut  your  house  is  on  fire." 
Their  more  formal  salutations  they  ac 
company  with  various  ceremonies  or  ges 
tures  ;  sometimes  they  embrace  and  kiss 
each  other  ;  sometimes  an  inferior  kisses 
the  hand  or  the  beard  of  a  superior,  or 
bows  low,  with  the  hand  upon  the 
breast,  and  afterwards  raises  it  to  his 
lips  or  forehead.  See  Jacob's  salutation 
of  Esau,  Gen.  43 ;  and  compare  Gen. 
19:1 ;  23:7  ;  42:6  ;  1  Sam.  25:53  ;  2 Sam. 
1:2;  John  20  :  26.  The  due  and  digni 
fied  performance  of  some  of  these  cere 
monious  courtesies,  especially  when  fre 
quently  recurring,  requires-  much  time ; 
and  hence,  when  the  prophet  sent  his 
servant  in  great  haste  to  lay  his  staff 
upon  the  dead  child,  he  forbade  him  to 
salute  any  one,  or  answer  any  salutation 
by  the  way,  2  Kin.  4:29.  For  a  similar 
reason,  our  Saviour  forbade  the  seventy 
disciples  to  salute  any  one  by  the  way, 
Luke  10  :  4,  that  is,  in  this  formal  and 
tedious  manner,  wasting  precious  time. 
Much  of  the  oriental  courtesy  was  super 
ficial  and  heartless  ;  but  the  benediction 
of  Christ  was  from  the  heart,  and  car 
ried  with  it  what  was  "  better  than  life." 
"  My  peace  I  give  unto  you  ;  not  as  the 
world  giveth,  give  I  unto  you  "  John 
14:27. 

SALVATION  means,  strictly,  deliver 
ance  ;  and  so  it  is  used  of  temporal  deliv 
erance,  victory,  in  Gen.  14  :  13  ;  1  Sam. 
14:45.  But  as  the  spiritual  deliverance 
from  sin  and  death,  through  the  Ke- 
deemer,  Matt.  1 :  21,  is  a  far  greater  sal 
vation,  so  this  word  has  come  to  be  used 
mostly  only  in  this  moral  and  spiritual 
sense  ;  and  implies  not  only  this  deliv 
erance,  but  also  the  consequences  of  it, 
namely,  eternal  life  and  happiness  in  the 
kingdom  of  our  Lord,  2  Cor.  7:10;  Eph. 
1 : 13.  It  is  most  justly  described  as  a 
"great  salvation,"  Heb.  2:3. 

The  Hebrews  rarely  use  concrete  terms, 
as  they  are  called,  but  often  abstract 
terms.  Thus,  instead  of  saying,  God 
saves  them  and  protects  them,  they  say, 
God  is  their  salvation.  So,  a  voice  of 
salvation,  tidings  of  salvation,  the  rock 
of  salvation,  the  shield  of  salvation,  a 
horn  of  salvation,  a  word  of  salvation, 
etc.,  are  equivalent  to  a  voice  declaring 
deliverance  ;  the  joy  that  attends  escape 
from  a  great  danger ;  a  rock  where  any 
386 


one  takes  refuge,  and  is  in  safety ;  a 
buckler  that  secures  from  the  attack  of 
an  enemy  ;  a  horn  or  ray  of  glory,  of 
happiness  and  salvation,  etc.  Thus,  to 
work  great  salvation  in  Israel,  signifies 
to  deliver  Israel  from  some  imminent 
danger,  to  obtain  a  great  victory  over 
enemies. 

The  "garments  of  salvation,"  Isa. 
61  :  10,  refer  to  the  splendid  robes  worn 
on  festival  days.  The  expression  is  used 
figuratively  to  denote  the  reception  of  a 
signal  favor  from  God,  guch  as  deliver 
ance  from  great  danger. 

SAMA'PJA,  I.,  one  of  the  three  divis 
ions  of  the  Holy  Land  in  the  time  of  our 
Saviour,  having  Galilee  on  the  'north 
and  Judea  on  the  south,  the  Jordan  on 
the  east  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
we«t,  and  occupying  parts  of  the  terri 
tory  assigned  at  first  to  Ephraim,  Ma- 
nasseh,  and  Issachar,  Luke  17:11 ;  John 
4:4.  It  is  described  as  having  its  hills 
less  bare  than  those  of  Judea,  and  its 
valleys  and  plains  more  cultivated  and 
fruitful.  See  CANAAN.  Many  gospel 
churches  were  early  planted  here,  Acts 
8:1,  25;  9:31;  15:3. 

II.  A  city  situated  near  the  middle  of 
Palestine,  some  six  miles  north-west  of 
Shechem.  It  was  built  by  Omri  king  of 
Israel,  about  920  B.  c.,  and  named  after 
Shemer  the  previous  owner  of  the  moun 
tain  or  hill  on  which  the  city  stood, 
1  Kin.  16  :  23,  24.  It  became  the  favor 
ite  residence  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  in 
stead  of  Shechem  and  Thirzah  the  former 
capitals.  It  was  highly  adorned  with 
public  buildings.  Ahab  built  there  a 
palace  of  ivory,  1  Kings  22 : 39,  and 
also  a  temple  of  Baal,  1  Kin.  16  :  32,  33, 
which  Jehu  destroyed,  2  Kin.  10:18-28. 
The  prophets  often  denounced  it  for  its 
idolatry,  Isa.  9:9;  Ezek.  16  :  46-65.  It 
was  twice  besieged  by  the  Syrians,  1  Kin. 
20  ;  2  Kin.  6  :  24  ;  7  :  1-20."  At  length 
Shalmanezcr  king  of  Assyria  captured 
and  destroyed  the  city,  and  removed  the 
people  of  the  land,  B.  c.  720,  2  Kings 
17:3-6;  Hos.  10:5-7;  Mic.  1:1-6.  See 
OMRI.  The  city  was  in  part  rebuilt  by 
Cuthites  imported  from  beyond  the  Ti 
gris,  but  was  again  nearly  destroyed  by 
John  Hyrcanus.  The  Ptoman  proconsul 
Gabinius  once  more  restored  it,  and  call- 
.ecl  it  Gabinia  ;  and  it  was  afterwards 
given  by  Augustus  to  Herod  the  Great, 
who  enlarged  and  adorned  it,  and  gave 
it  the  name  of  Sebaste,  the  Greek  trans- 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAM 


lation  of  the  Latin  word  Augusta,  in 
honor  of  the  emperor.  He  placed  in  it 
a  colony  of  six  thousand  persons,  siu*- 
rounded  it  with  a  strong  wall,  and  built 
a  magnificent  temple  in  honor  of  Augus 
tus.  Early  in  the  apostolic  age  it  was 
favored  hy  the  successful  labors  of  Philip 
and  others,  Acts  8:5-25  ;  and  the  church 
then  formed  continued  in  existence  sev 
eral  centuries,  till  the  city  of  Herod  was 
destroyed.  Sebaste  was  afterwards  re 
vived,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  histories 
of  the  Crusades.  It  is  now  an  inconsid 
erable  village,  called  Sebustieh,  with  a 
few  cottages  built  of  stones  from  the 
ancient  ruins. 

The  following  is  the  account  of  the 
modern  city,  as  given  by  Richardson  : 
"Its  situation  is  extremely  beautiful, 
and  strong  by  nature  ;  more  so,  I  think, 
than  Jerusalem.  It  stands  on  a  line, 
large  insulated  hill,  compassed  all  round 
by  a  broad,  deep  valley;  and  when  for 
tified,  as  it  is  stated  to  have  been  by 
Herod,  one  would  imagine  that  in  the 
ancient  system  of  warfare  nothing  but 
famine  would  have  reduced  such  a  place. 
The  valley  is  surrounded  by  four  hills, 
'one  on  each  side,  which  are  cultivated 
in  terraces  to  the  top,  sown  with  grain 
and  planted  with  fig  and  olive  trees,  as 
is  alsj  the  valley.  The  hill  of  Samaria 
rises  in  terraces  to  a  height  equal  to  any 
of  the  adjoining  mountains. 

"The  present  village  is  small  and 
poor,  and  after  passing  the  valley,  the 
ascent  to  it  is  very  steep;  but  viewed 
from  the  station  of  our  tents,  it  is  ex 
tremely  interesting,  both  from  its  natu 
ral  situation  and  from  the  picturesque 
remains  of  a  ruined  convent  of  good 
Gothic  architecture. 

"Hiving  passed  the  village,  towards 
the  middle  of  the  lirst  terrace  there'is  a 
number  of  columns  still  standing.  I 
counted  twelve  in  one  row,  besides  sev 
eral  that  stood  apart,  the  brotherless 
remains  of  other  rows.  The  situation  is 
extremely  delightful,  and  my  guide  in 
formed  me  that  they  belonged  to  the 
serai  or  palace.  On  the  next  terrace  there 
are  no  remains  of  solid  building,  but 
heaps  of  stone  and  lime,  and  rubbish 
mixed  with  the  soil  in  great  profusion. 
Ascending  to  the  third  or.  highest  ter 
race,  the  traces  of  former  buildings  were 
not  so  numerous,  but  we  enjoyed  a  de 
lightful  view  of  the  surrounding  coun 
try.  The  eye  passed  over  the  deep  val 


ley  that  compasses  the  hill  of  Sebaste, 
and  rested  on  the  mountains  beyond, 
that  retreated  as  they  rose  with  a  gentle 
slope,  and  met  the  view  in  every  direc 
tion,  like  a  book  laid  out  for  perusal  on 
a  writing-desk." 

SAMARITANS,  the  inhabitants  of  Sa 
maria.  But  in  the  New  Testament  this 
name  is  the  appellation  of  a  race  of  peo 
ple  who  sprung  originally  from  an  inter 
mixture  of  the  ten  tribes  with  gentile 
nations.  When  the  inhabitants  of  Sa 
maria  and  of  the  adjacent  country  were 
carried  away  by  Shalmanezer  king  of  As 
syria,  he  sent  in  their  place  colonies  from 
Babylonia,  Cuthah,  Ava,  Hamath,  and 
Sepharvaim,  with  which  the  Israelites 
who  remained  in  the  land  became  inter 
mingled,  and  were  ultimately  amalga 
mated  into  one  people,  2  Kin.  17:24-41. 
An  origin  like  this  would  of  course  ren 
der  the  nation  odious  to  the  Jews.  The 
new  and  mixed  race  indeed  sent  to  As 
syria  for  an  Israelitish  priest  to  teach 
them  the  law  of  Jehovah,  and  adopted 
in  part  the  forms  of  the  true  religion  ; 
but  most  of  them  were  but  half  convert 
ed  from  their  native  heathenism,  Matt. 
10:5;  Luke  17:16-18  It  was  therefore 
in  vain  that,  when  the  Jews  returned 
from  captivity  and  began  to  rebuild  Je 
rusalem  and  the  temple,  the  Samaritans 
requested  to  be  acknowledged  as  Jewish 
citizens,  and  to  be  permitted  to  assist  in 
their  work,  Ezra  4.  In  consequence  of 
this  refusal,  and  the  subsequent  state  of 
enmity,  the  Samaritans  not  only  took 
occasion  to  calumniate  the  Jews  before 
the  Persian  kings,  Ezra  4:4,  Neh.  4,  but 
also,  recurring  to  the  directions  of  Mo 
ses,  Deut.  27:11-13,  that,  on  entering  the 
promised  land  half  of  the  people  should 
stand  on  mount  Gerizim  to  respond  Amen 
to  the  blessings  of  the  covenant  pro 
nounced  by  the  Levites,  they  erected  a 
temple  on  that  mountain,  and  instituted 
sacrifices  according  to  the  prescriptions 
of  the  Mosaic  law,  although  the  original 
altar,  according  to  the  Hebrew  Scrip 
tures,  stood  on  mount  Ebal,  Deut.  27:4  ; 
Josh.  8:30-35.  Moreover,  they  rejected 
all  the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews  except 
the  Pentateuch.  See  SANBALLAT.  From 
all  these  and  other  circumstances,  the 
national  hatred  between  the  Samaritans 
and  Jews,  instead  of  being  at  all  dimin 
ished  by  time,  was,  on  the  contrary,  fos 
tered  and  augmented.  2  Mac.  6:2;  Luke 
9:52,  53.  Hence  the  name  of  Samaritan 
387 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAM 


became  among  the  Jews  a  term  of  re 
proach  and  contempt,  John  8  :  48,  and 
all  intercourse  with  them  was  carefully 
avoided,  John  4  :  9.  The  temple  on 
mount  Gerizim  was  destroyed  by  Hyr- 
canus  about  the  year  129  B.  c.  ;  but  the 
Samaritans  in  the  time  of  Christ  contin 
ued  to  esteem  that  mountain  sacred,  and 
as  the  proper  place  of  national  worship, 
John  4  : 20,  21,  as  is  also  the  case  with 
the  small  remnant  of  that  people  who 
exist  at  the  present  day.  The  Samari 
tans,  like  the  Jews,  expected  a  Messiah, 
John  4  :  25,  and  many  of  them  became 
the  followers  of  Jesus,  and  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  his  religion.  See  Acts  8:1, 
etc.;  9:31;  15:3. 

It  is  well  known  that  a  small  remnant 
of  the  Samaritans  still  exists  at  Nabulus, 
the  ancient  Shechem.  Great  interest  has 
been  taken  in  them  by  the  learned  of 
Europe ;  and  a  correspondence  has  sev 
eral  times  been  instituted  with  them, 
which,  however,  has  never  led  to  results 
of  any  great  importance.  They  have  a 
copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  professedly  made 
by  Abishua  the  son  of  Phinehas,  1400 
years  before  Christ.  Several  copies  of 
this  have  been  taken,  the  first  in  1616, 
and  compared  with  the  received  Hebrew 
text,  with  which  it  nearly  coincides. 
There  are  various  classes  of  different 
readings,  but  few  or  none  in  which  the 
Samaritan  does  not  appear  to  be  a  cor 
ruption  of  the  original.  Of  late  years 
the  remnant  of  Samaritans  at  Nabulus 
have  often  been  visited  by  travellers. 
They  number  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  souls,  and  are  devout  observers  of 
the  law.  They  keep  the  Jewish  Sabbath 
with  great  strictness,  and  meet  thrice 
during  the  day  in  their  synagogue  for 
public  prayers.  Four  times  in  each  year, 
at  the  Passover,  the  Pentecost,  the  feast 
of  Tabernacles,  and  the  day  of  Expiation, 
they  all  resort  to  the  site  of  their  ancient 
temple  on  mount  Gerizim  to  worship. 
See  GKRIZIM. 

SA'MOS,  an  island  of  the  Archipela 
go,  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  opposite 
Lydia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a 
narrow  strait.  The  island  was  devoted 
to  the  worship  of  Juno,  who  had  there  a 
magnificent  temple,  fragments  of  which 
still  exist.  It  was  also  celebrated  for  its 
valuable  potteries,  and  as  the  birthplace 
of  Pythagoras.  The  Romans  wrote  to  the 
governor  in  favor  of  the  Jews  in  the  time 
of  Simon  Maccabaeus,  1  Mac.  15 : 23.  Paul 
388 


landed  here  when  going  to  Jerusalem,. 
A.  D.  58,  Acts  20  :  15.  It  now  contains 
about  fifty  thousand  inhabitants ;  and 
though  ill-cultivated,  is  fruitful  in  or 
anges,  grapes,  and  olives,  and  exports 
corn  and  wine. 

SAMOTHRA'CIA,  an  island  in  the 
North-^Egean  sea,  on  the  coast  of  Thrace, 
nearly  midway  between  Troas  and  Phi- 
lippi.  On  his  first  visit  to  Europe,  Paul 
anchored  for  the  night  on  the  north  of 
the  island,  Acts  16:11.  It  was  anciently 
called  Samos;  and  in  order  to  distin 
guish  it  from  the  other  Samos,  the  epi 
thet  Thracian  was  added.  Samothracia 
contained  a  lofty  mountain  and  a  city  of 
the  same  name,  and  was  celebrated"  for 
its  devotion  to  the  heathen  mysteries, 
particularly  to  those  of  Ceres  and  Pros 
erpine.  Hence  the  island  received  the 
epithet  of  "sacred,"  and  was  regarded 
as  an  inviolable  asylum  for  all  fugitives 
and  criminals.  It  is  now  called  by  the 
Turks  Semendrek. 

SAM'SON,  the  son  of  Manoah,  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  a  deliverer  and  judge  of 
the  southern  tribes  of  the  Hebrews  for 
twenty  years,  Judg.  13-16.  His  birth 
was  miraculously  foretold ;  he  was  a  Naz- 
arite  from  infancy,  and  the  strongest  of 
men  ;  and  was  equally  celebrated  for  his 
fearless  and  wonderful  exploits,  for  his 
moral  infirmities,  and  for  his  tragical 
end.  His  exploits  were  not  wrought 
without  special  divine  aid  ;  ' '  the  Spirit 
of  God  came  mightily  upon  him,"  Judg. 
13:25;  14:6,19;  15:14;  16:20,28.  The 
providence  of  God  was  signally  displayed 
in  overruling  for  good  the  hasty  passions 
of  Samson,  the  cowardice  of  his  friends, 
and  the  malice  of  his  enemies.  The  sins 
of  Samson  brought  him  into  great,  dis 
grace  and  misery ;  but  grace  and  faith 
triumphed  in  the  end,  Heb.  11 : 32.  His 
story  forcibly  illustrates  how  treacherous 
and  merciless  are  sin  and  sinners,  and 
the  watchful  care  of  Christ  over  his  peo 
ple  in  every  age.  Compare  Judg.  13:22 
and  Matt.  23:37. 

SAM'UEL,  God  hath  heard,  1  Sam.  1:20, 
a  child  of  prayer,  the  celebrated  Hebrew 
prophet  and  judge,  Acts  3  :  24  ;  13  :  20. 
He  was  a  Levite  by  birth,  1  Chr.  6  :  22- 
28,  and  the  son  of  Elkanah  and  Hannah, 
at  Ramah  in  mount  Ephraim,  north-west 
of  Jerusalem.  At  a  very  tender  age  he 
Was  carried  to  Shiloh,  and  brought  up 
beside  the  tabernacle  under  the  care  of 
Eli  the  high-priest.  Having  been  conse- 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


RAN 


erated  to  God  from  his  birth,  and  devot 
ed  to  Nazariteship,  he  began  to  receive 
divine  communications  even  in  his  child 
hood,  1  Sam.  3  ;  and  after  the  death  of 
Eli,  he  became  established  as  the  judge 
of  Israel.  He  was  the  last  and  best  of 
the  Hebrew  judges.  We  contemplate 
his  character  and  administration  with 
peculiar  pleasure  and  reverence.  The 
twelve  tribes,  when  he  assumed  their 
charge,  were  in  a  low  condition  both 
morally  and  politically.  He  freed  them 
from  all  foreign  yokes,  administered  jus 
tice  with  vigor  and  impartiality,  pro 
moted  education  and  true  religion,  unit 
ed  the  tribes,  and  raised  them  higher  in 
the  scale  of  civilization.  Their  demand 
of  a  king,  in  view  of  the  advanced  age 
of  Samuel  and  the  vile  character  of  his 
sons,  showed  a  great  want  of  faith  in 
God  and  of  submission  to  his  will.  Yet 
He  granted  them  a  king  "in  his  wrath," 
Hos.  13  :  11.  Samuel  anointed  Saul  as 
their  first  king  ;  and  afterwards  David, 
who  in  due  time  was  to  take  the  place 
of  Saul  already  rejected  by  God.  As  long 
as  he  lived,  Samuel  exerted  a  paramount 
and  most  beneficial  influence  in  Israel, 
even  over  Saul  himself.  He  instituted 
the  "schools  of  the  prophets,"  which 
were  long  continued  and  very  useful. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight,  B.  c. 
1053,  honored  and  lamented  by  all. 
Even  after  his  death  the  unhappy  Saul, 
forsaken  by  the  God  whom  he  had  aban 
doned,  sought  the  prophet's  counsel 
through  the  agency  of  a  pretended  deal 
er  with.spirits.  God  was  pleased  to  cause 
Samuel  to  appear,  with  a  prophetic  mes 
sage  to  the  king.  In  Psa.  99  : 6  he  is 
ranked  with  Moses  and  Aaron.  See  also 
Jer.  15:1;  Heb.  11:32. 

The  two  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL  could  not 
all  have  been  written  by  him,  because 
his  death  is  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  25, 
B.  c.  1055.  Thus  far  it  is  not  improb 
able  that  he  was  the  author,  while  the 
remaining  chapters  are  commonly  attrib 
uted  to  Nathan  and  Gad,  B.  c.  1018. 
Why  Samuel's  name  is  given  to  both 
books  cannot  be  known.  In  the  Septu- 
agint  they  are  called  the  First  and  Sec 
ond  Books  of  Kings.  See  KINGS.  The 
two  books  comprise  the  history  of  Sam-  j 
uel.  Saul,  and  David.  They  are  quoted  I 
in  the  New  Testament,  Acts  13 : 22  ;  Heb. 
1:5,  and  alluded  to  in  the  Psalms,  etc. 

SANBAL'LAT,  probably  a  native  of 
Horonaim  in  the  land  of  Moab,  and  a 


great  enemy  of  the  Jews.  He  may  have 
received  from  the  Persian  government 
some  authority  over  the  Samaritans  or 
imported  Cuthites,  as  one  of  the  govern 
ors  west  of  the  Euphrates.  When  Nehe- 
miah  came  from  Shushan  to  Jerusalem, 
Neh.  2  :  10,  19,  B.  c.  454,  and  began  to 
rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  Sanbal- 
lat,  Tobiah,  and  Geshem  taunted  him, 
and  sent  to  inquire  on  what  authority  he 
undertook  this  enterprise,  and  whether 
it  were  not  a  revolt  against  the  king. 
Nehemiah  nevertheless  proceeded  with 
vigor  in  his  undertaking,  and  completed 
the  walls  of  the  city,  Keh.  2:10 ;  4  ;  6. 

Nehemiah  being  obliged  to  return  to 
king  Artaxerxes  at  Shushan,  Neh.  13:6, 
B.  c.  441,  in  his  absence  the  high-priest 
Eliashib  married  his  grandson  Manasseh 
son  of  Joiada  to  a  daughter  of  Sanballat, 
and  allowed  Tobiah,  a  kinsman  of  San 
ballat,  an  apartment  in  the  temple.  Ne 
hemiah,  en  his  return  to  Jerusalem,  (the 
exact  year  of  which  is  not  known,)  drove 
Tobiah  out  of  the  temple,  and  would  not 
suffer  Manasseh  the  high-priest's  grand 
son  to  continue  in  the  city,  nor  to  per 
form  the  functions  of  the  priesthood. 
Manasseh  being  thus  expelled,  retired 
to  his  father-in-law  Sanballat,  who  pro 
vided  him  the  means  of  exercising  his 
priestly  office  on  mount  Gerizim.  See 
GERIZIM  and  SAMABITAKS. 

SANC'TIFY,  to  make  holy,  or  to  set 
apart  for  God,  Gen.  2:3 ;  Ex.  19:23.  In 
the  Old  Testament,  sanctification  fre 
quently  denotes  the  ceremonial  or  ritual 
consecration  of  any  person  or  thing  to 
God:  thus  the  Hebrews  as  a  people  were 
holy  unto  the  Lord,  through  the  cove 
nant  with  its  rites  and  atoning  sacrifices, 
Ex.  31  :  13 ;  and  the  Jewish  tabernacle, 
altar,  priests,  etc.,  were  solemnly  set 
apart  for  the  divine*  service,  Lev.  8  : 10- 
12.  In  a  similar  sense,  men  "sanctified 
themselves"  who  made  special  prepara 
tion  for  the  presence  and  worship  of  God, 
Ex.  19:10,  11  ;  Num.  11:18;  a  day  was 
sanctified  when  set  apart  for  fasting  and 
prayer,  Joel  1:14;  and  the  Sabbath  was 
sanctified  when  regarded  and  treated  as 
holy  unto  the  Lord,  Deut.  5  :  12.  All 
such  sanctifications  were  testimonials  to 
the  holiness  of  God,  and  signified  men's 
need  of  moral  sanctification,  or  the  de 
votion  of  purified  and  obedient  souls  to 
his  love  and  service. 

In  a  doctrinal  sense,  sanctification  is 
the  making  truly  and  perfectly  holy  what 
339 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAN 


was  before  defiled  and  sinful.  It  is  a 
progressive  work  of  divine  grace  upon 
the  soul  justified  by  the  love  of  Christ. 
The  believer  is  gradually  cleansed  from 
the  corruption  of  his  nature,  and  is  at 
length  presented  ' '  unspotted  before  the 
throne  of  God  with  exceeding  joy. ' '  The 
Holy  Spirit  performs  this  work  in  con 
nection  with  the  providence  and  word 
of  God,  John  14  :  26  ;  17  : 17  ;  2  Thess. 
2:13;  1  Pet.  1:2;  and  the  highest  mo 
tives  urge  every  Christian  not  to  resist 
the  Spirit  of  God,  but  to  cooperate  with 
him,  and  seek  to  be  holy  even  as  God  is 
holy.  The  ultimate  sanctification  of  ev 
ery  believer  in  Christ  is  a  covenant  mercy 
purchased  on  the  cross.  He  who  saves 
us  from  the  penalty  of  sin,  also  saves  us 
from  its  power ;  and  in  promising  to  bring 
a  believer  into  heaven,  engages  also  to 
prepare  him  for  heaven. 

SANC'TUARY,  a  holy  place,  devoted 
to  God.  It  appears  to  be  the  name  some 
times  of  the  entire  temple,  Psa.  73  :  17  ; 
Heb.  9:1;  sometimes  of  the  "Holy 
place,"  where  the  altar  of  incense,  the 
golden  candlestick,  and  the  show-bread 
stood,  2  Chr.  26 :  18 ;  Heb.  9:2;  and 
sometimes  of  the  "  Holy  of  Holies,"  the 
most  secret  and  retired  part  of  the  tem 
ple,  in  which  was  the  ark  of  the  cove 
nant,  and  where  none  but  the  high- 
priest  might  enter,  and  he  only  once  a 
year  on  the  day  of  solemn  expiation. 
The  same  name  was  also  given  to  the 
most  sacred  part  of  the  tabernacle  set  up 
in  the  wilderness,  Lev.  4  :  6.  See  TAB 
ERNACLE,  and  TEMPLE.  The  temple  x>r 
earthly  sanctuary  is  an  emblem  of  heav 
en,  Psa.  102:19  :  Heb.  9:1,  24  ;  and  God 
himself  is  called  a  sanctuary,  Isa.  8  :  14, 
Ezek.  11  : 16,  in  reference  to  the  use  of 
temples  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  fugitives, 
because  he  is  the  only  safe  and  sacred 
asylum  for  sinners  pursued  by  the  sword 
of  divine  justice. 

SAN'DALS,  Mark  6: 9.  The  ordinary 
oriental  sandal  itf  a  mere  sole,  of  leather 
or  wood,  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the 
foot  by  thongs,  one  passing  around  the 
great  toe  and  over  the  fore  part  of  the 
foot,  and  the  other  around  the  ankle. 
The  soie  was  sometimes  plaited  of  some 
vegetable  fibre,  or  cut  from  a  fresh  un 
dressed  skin  ;  and  the  ' '  shoe-latchet ' '  or 
thong,  and  indeed  the  whole  sandal,  was 
often  of  very  little  value,  Gen.  14  :  23  ; 
Amos  2:6  ;  8:6.  Sandals  are  usually  in 
tended  where  "shoes"  are  spoken  of  in 
390 


our  version.  Yet  shoes  are  now  worn  in 
the  East,  and  probably  were  used  to  some 
extent  in  Bible  times.  The  Turks,  Syr 
ians,  and  Egyptians  wear  a  light  shoe, 


resembling  our  slipper,  and  sometimes  a 
wooden  shoe  with  a  high  heel.  The 
Bedaween  wears  only  a  sandal. 

The  sandals  of  females  were  frequently 
much  ornamented,  Song  7  :  1,  and  prob 
ably  resembled  the  slippers  or  light  shoes 
of  modern  orientals,  which  cover  the  up 
per  part  of  the  foot,  and  are  often  made 
of  morocco,  or  of  embroidered  work 
wrought  with  silk,  silver,  and  gold, 
Ezek.  16:10.  See  BADGER'S  SKINS. 

It  is  not  customary  in  the  East  to  wear 
shoes  or  sandals  in  the  houses  ;  they  are 
always  taken  on0  on  entering  a  house, 


SAN  BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


and  especially  temples  and  all  consecrat 
ed  places.  Hence  the  phrase,  "to  loose 
one's  shoes  from  off  one's  feet,"  Ex.  3:5 ; 
Deut.  25 : 9  ;  Josh.  5:15.  Visitors  of  the 
highest  rank  leave  their  slippers  at  the 
door;  and  on  entering  a  Mohammedan 
mosque  each  worshipper  adds  his  slip 
pers  to  the  pile  in  charge  of  the  door 
keeper,  unless  attended  by  a  servant. 
On  the  summit  of  mount  Gerizim,  the 
Samaritans  who  accompanied  Dr.  Rob 
inson  took  off  their  shoes  as  they  ap 
proached  the  site  of  their  ruined  temple. 
To  bind  on  the  sandals  denoted  prepara 
tion  for  a  journey,  Ex.  12:11 ;  Acts  12:8. 
To  bind  on  the  sandals,  to  stoop  down 
and  unloose  them,  or  to  carry  them  un 
til  again  needed,  was  the  business  of  the 
lowest  servants  ;  a  slave,  newly  bought, 
commenced  his  service  by  loosing  the 
sandals  of  his  new  master,  and  carrying 
them  a  certain  distance.  Disciples  some 
times  performed  this  office  for  their  mas 
ter,  and  accounted  it  an  honor;  hence 
the  expression  of  John  the  Baptist,  that 
he  was  not  worthy  to  loose  or  to  carry 
the  sandals  of  Jesus,  Matt.  3  :  11  ;  Mark 


1  :  7.  See  also  FOOT,  with  reference  to 
washing  the  feet.  The  poor  of  course 
often  went  barefoot ;  but  this  was  not 
customary  among  the  rich,  except  as  a 
sign  of  mourning,  2  Sam.  15  :  30 ;  Isa. 
20  :  2-4  ;  Ezek.  24:17,  23.  In  the  prim 
itive  days  of  the  Israelitish  common 
wealth  the  custom,  in  transferring  real 
estate,  was,  that  the  seller  drew  off  his 
shoe  and  gave  it  to  the  buyer  before  wit 
nesses,  in  confirmation  of  the  bargain, 
Ruth  4:7-11.  The  loosing  of  a  shoe  of 
one  who  refused  to  marry  the  widow  of 
his  deceased  brother,  and  spitting  upon 
the  owner's  face,  was  a  ceremony  pre 
scribed  in  the  Jewish  law,  Deut.  25:7-10. 
SANHE'DRIM,  or  BETHDIN,  house  of 
judgment,  was  a  council  of  seventy  sena 
tors  among  the  Jews,  usually  with  the 
addition  of  the  high-priest  as  president, 
who  determined  the  most  important  af 
fairs  of  the  nation.  It  is  first  mentioned 
by  Josephus  in  connection  with  the  reign 
of  John  Hyrcanus  II.,  B.  c.  69,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  originated  after  the 
second  temple  was  built,  during  the 
cessation  of  the  prophetic  office,  and  in 
391 


SAP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAR 


imitation  of  Moses'  council  of  seventy 
elders,  Num.  11 :  16-24.  The  room  in 
which  they  met,  according  to  the  rab 
bins,  was  a  rotunda,  half  of  which  was 
built  without  the  temple,  that  is,  with 
out  the  inner  court  of  Israel,  and  half 
within,  the  latter  part  being  that  in 
which  the  judges  sat.  The  Nasi,  or  pres 
ident,  who  was  generally  the  high-priest, 
sat  on  a  throne  at  the  end  of  the  hall ; 
the  vice-president,  or  chief  counsellor, 
called  Ab-bethdin,  at  his  right  hand ; 
and  the  sub-deputy,  or»Hakam,  at  his 
left ;  the  other  senators  being  ranged  in 
order  on  each  side.  Most  of  the  mem 
bers  of  this  council  were  priests  or  Le- 
vites,  though  men  in  private  stations  of 
life  were  not  excluded.  See  SADDUCEES. 

The  authority  of  the  Sanhedrim  was 
very  extensive.  It  decided  causes 
brought  before  it  by  appeal  from  infe 
rior  courts ;  and  even  the  king,  the  high- 
priest,  and  the  prophets,  were  under  its 
jurisdiction.  The  general  affairs  of  the 
nation  were  also  brought  before  this  as 
sembly,  particularly  whatever  was  in  any 
way  connected  with  religion  or  worship, 
Mark  14  :  55  ;  15  :  1 ;  Acts  4:7;  5  :  41 ; 
6  :  12.  Jews  in  foreign  cities  appear  to 
have  been  amenable  to  this  court  in 
matters  of  religion,  Acts  9:2.  The 
right  of  judging  in  capital  cases  belong 
ed  to  it,  until  this  was  taken  away  by 
the  Romans  a  few  years  before,  the  time 
of  Christ,  John  18  :  31.  The  Sanhedrim 
was  probably  the  ' '  council ' '  referred 
to  by  our  Lord,  Matt.  5  :  22.  ^  There 
appears  also  to  have  been  an  inferior  tri 
bunal  of  seven  members,  in  every  town, 
for  the  adjudication  of  less  important 
matters.  Probably  it  is  this  tribunal 
that  is  called  "  the  judgment "  in  Matt. 
5:22. 

SAPPHI'RA.     See  ANANIAS  I. 

SAPPHIRE,  a  gem  next  in  hardness 
and  value  to  the  diamond,  and  compris 
ing,  as  varieties,  all  those  precious  stones 
known  by  the  name  of  oriental  gems, 
namely,  the  oriental  ruby,  oriental  to 
paz,  and  oriental  emerald,  Job  28:6.  In 
general  the  name  of  sapphire  is  given 
to  the  blue  variety,  which  is  either  of  a 
deep  indigo,  blue,  or  of  various  lighter 
tints,  Ex.  24  : 10,  and  sometimes  gradu 
ally  passes  into  perfectly  white  or  color 
less,  which,  when  cut,  may  almost  pass 
for  a  diamond,  Ex.  28  :  18  ;  39:11 ;  Rev. 
21:19. 

SA'RAH,  or  SARA,  the  wife  of  Abra- 
392 


ham,  the  daughter  of  his  father  by  an 
other  mother,  Gen.  20  :  12.  Most  Jew 
ish  writers,  however,  and  many  inter 
preters,  identify  her  with  Iscah,  the  sis 
ter  of  Lot,  and  Abraham's  niece,  Gen. 
11:29  ;  the  word  "  daughter,"  according 
to  Hebrew  usage,  comprising  any  female 
descendant,  and  "sister,"  any  female 
relation  by  blood.  When  God  made  a 
covenant  with  Abraham,  he  changed 
the  name  of  Sarai,  or  my  princess,  into 
that  of  Sarah,  or  princess  ;  and  promised 
Abraham  a  son  by  her,  which  was  ful 
filled  in  due  time.  The  most  prominent 
points  of  her  history  as  recorded  in  the 
Bible  are,  her  consenting  to  Abraham's 
unbelieving  dissimulation  while  near 
Pharaoh  and  Abimelech  ;  her  long-con 
tinued  barrenness  ;  her  giving  to  Abra 
ham  her  maid  Hagar  as  a  secondary  wife ; 
their  mutual  jealousy  ;  and  her  bearing 
Isaac  in  her  old  age,  "the  child  of  prom 
ise,"  Gen.  12-23.  She  appears  to  have 
been  a  woman  of  uncommon  beauty,  and 
a  most  exemplary  and  devoted  wife.  Her 
docility  is  eulogized  in  1  Pet.  3  :  6,  and 
her  faith  in  Heb.  11  :  11.  See  also  Isa. 
51:2  ;  Gal.  4:22-31.  Sarah  lived  to  the 
age  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
years.  She  died  in  the  valley  of  He 
bron,  and  Abraham  came  to  Beer-sheba 
to  mourn  for  her,  after  which  he  bought 
a  field  of  Ephron  the  Hittite,  wherein 
was  a  cave  hewn  in  the  rock,  called 
Machpelah,  where  Sarah  was  buried, 
Gen.  23:9. 


I  -, 


SAR'DIS,  now  called  Sart,  a  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  formerly  the  capital  of  Croe 
sus  king  of  Lydia,  proverbial  for  the  im- 


SAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SAU 


mensity  of  his  wealth.  It  was  situated 
at  the  foot  of  mount  Tmolus  on  the 
north,  having  a  spacious  and  delight 
ful  plain  before  it,  watered  by  several 
streams  that  flow  from  the  neighboring 
hill  and  by  the  Pactolus.  It  lay  upon 
the  route  of  Xerxes  to  Greece ;  and  its 
inhabitants  were  noted  for  their  profli 
gacy,  Rev.  3:4.  It  is  now  a  pitiful  vil 
lage,  but  contains  a  large  khan  for  the 
accommodation  of  travellers,  it  being  the 
road  for  the  caravans  that  come  out  of 
Persia  to  Smyrna  with  silk.  The  inhab 
itants  are  for  the  most  part  shepherds, 
who  have  charge  of  the  numerous  flocks 
and  herds  which  feed  in  the  plains. 

To  the  southward  of  the  town  are  very 
considerable  ruins  still  remaining,  chief 
ly  those  of  a  theatre,  a  stadium,  and  two 
churches.  The  height  on  which  the  cit 
adel  was  built  is  shattered  by  an  earth 
quake.  There  are  two  remarkable  pil 
lars,  remnants,  it  is  thought,  of  an  an 
cient  temple  of  Cybele,  built  only  three 
hundred  years  after  Solomon's  temple. 
These  ruins,  and  the  countless  sepulchral 
mounds  in  the  vicinity,  remind  us  of 
what  S.irdis  was,  before  earthquake  and 
the  sword  had  laid  it  desolate. 

The  Turks  have  a  mosque  here,  for 
merly  a  Christian  church,  at  the  en 
trance  of  which  are  several  curious  pil 
lars  of  polished  marble.  Some  few  nom 
inal  Christians  still  reside  here,  working 
in  gardens,  or  otherwise  employed  in 
such  like  drudgery.  The  church  in  Sar- 
dis  was  reproached  by  our  Saviour  for  its 
declension  in  vital  religion.  It  had  a 
name  to  live,  but  was  really  dead,  Rev. 
3:1-6. 

SARDIUS,  or  SAR'DINE,  a  species  of 
precious  stone  of  a  blood-red,  or  some 
times  of  a  flesh-color.  It  is  more  com 
monly  known  by  the  name  of  carnelian, 
Ex.  28:17;  Rev.  4:3. 

SARDONYX ;  as  if  a  sardius  united 
to  an  onyx  ;  a  species  of  gem  exhibiting 
the  reddish  color  of  the  carnelian  and 
the  white  of  the  chalcedony,  intermin 
gled  either  in  shades  or  in  alternate  cir 
cles.  Rev.  21:20. 

SAREP'TA.     See  ZAREPHATH. 

S ARGON,  Isa.  20 : 1-4,  one  of  the  later 
Assyrian  kings,  who  sent  his  general, 
Tartan,  with  an  army  against  Ashdod, 
and  took  it.  The  north-west  palace  at 
Nimroud  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  was 
built  by  him.  There  is  some  doubt 
whether  he  is  or  is  not  to  be  identified 
17* 


with  one  of  the  kings  elsewhere  men 
tioned  in  Scripture ;  and  some  regard 
him  as  having  reigned  for  about  three 
years  between  Shalmaneser  and  Sen 
nacherib.  Others  think  he  was  the  same 
as  Shalmaneser,  which  see. 

SA'RON.     See  SHARON. 

SATAN  signilies,  properly,  adversary, 
enemy,  1  Kin.  11  :  14,  Psa.  109:6,  and  is 
so  applied  by  Jesus  to  Peter,  Matt.  16:23 ; 
Mark  8 : 33.  Hence  it  is  used  particularly 
of  the  grand  adversary  of  souls,  the  devil, 
the  prince  of  the  fallen  angels,  the  ac 
cuser  and  calumniator' of  men  before  God, 
Job  1 :  7,  12  ;  Zech.  3  : 1,  2  ;  Rev.  12:10. 
He  seduces  them  to  sin,  1  Chr.  21  :  1 ; 
Luke  22  :  31 ;  and  is  thus  the  author  of 
that  evil,  both  physical  and  moral,  by 
which  the  human  race  is  afflicted,  espe 
cially  of  those  vicious  propensities  and 
wicked  actions  which  are  productive  of 
so  much  misery,  and  also  of  death  itself, 
Luke  13  :  16  ;  Heb.  2  : 14.  Hence  Satan 
is  represented  both  as  soliciting  men  to 
commit  sin,  and  as  the  source,  the  effi 
cient  cause  of  impediments  which  are 
thrown  in  the  way  of  the  Christian  re 
ligion,  or  which  are  designed  to  diminish 
its  efficacy  in  reforming  the  hearts  and 
lives  of  men,  and  inspiring  them  with 
the  hope  of  future  bliss,  Matt.  4 :  10 ; 
John  13  :  27  ;  Rom.  16  :  20  ;  Eph.  2  :  2. 
See  DEVIL. 

The  "synagogue  of  Satan,"  Rev.  2:9, 
13,  probably  denotes  the  unbelieving 
Jews,  the  false  zealots  for  the  law  of 
Moses,  who  at  the  beginning  were  the 
most  eager  persecutors  of  the  Christians. 
They  were  very  numerous  at  Smyrna,  to 
which  church  John  writes. 

SAT'YRS,  in  Greek  mythology,  were 
imaginary  demons,  half  men  and  half 
goats,  believed  by  the  superstitious  to 
haunt  forests  and  groves.  The  Hebrew 
word  translated  satyrs  in  Isa.  13  :  21 ; 
34  :  14,  means  hairy,  shaggy  creatures, 
such  as  wild  goats,  or  perhaps  monsters 
of  the  ape  family.  It  is  translated 
"goats"  in  Ley.  4:24,  and  "devils"  in 
Lev.  17  :  7.  The  gambols  of  these  wild 
animals  on  the  ruins  of  Babylon  mark 
it  as  an  uninhabited  and  lonely  waste. 
See  APE. 

SAUL,  the  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  the  first  king  of  the  Israel 
ites,  anointed  by  Samuel,  B.  c.  1091,  and 
after  a  reign  of  forty  years  filled  with 
various  events,  slain  with  his  sons  on 
mount  Crilboa.  He  was  succeeded  by 
393 


SAV 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SCA 


David,  who  was  his  son-in-law,  and 
whom  he  had  endeavored  to  put  to 
death.  His  history  is  contained  in 
1  Sain.  10 --:•)!.  It  is  a  sad  and  admoni 
tory  narrative.  The  morning  of  his 
reign  was  bright  with  special  divine  fa 
vors,  both  providential  and  spiritual, 
1  Sam.  9  : 20  ;  10 : 1-11,  24,  25.  But  he 
soon  began  to  disobey  God,  and  was  re 
jected  as  unworthy  to  found  a  line  of 
kings ;  his  sins  and  misfortunes  multi 
plied,  and  his  sun  went  down  in  gloom. 
In  his  first  war  with  the  Ammonites,  God 
was  with  him  ;  but  then  follow  his  pre 
sumptuous  sacrifice,  in  the  absence  of 
Samuel ;  his  equally  rash  vow  ;  his  vic 
tories  over  the  Philistines  and  the  Ama- 
le kites  ;  his  sparing  Agag  and  the  spoil ; 
his  spirit  of  distracted  and  foreboding 
melancholy ;  his  jealousy  and  persecu 
tion  of  David ;  his  barbarous  massacre 
of  the  priests  anol  people  at  Nob,  and  of 
the  Gibeonites;  his  consulting  the  witch 
of  Endor ;  the  battle  with  the  Philistines 
in  which  his  army  was  defeated  and  his 
sons  were  slain  ;  and  lastly,  his  despair 
ing  self-slaughter,  his  insignia  of  royalty 
being  conveyed  to  David  by  an  Amalek- 
ite,  1  Sam.  31 ;  2  Sam.  1  ;  1  Chr.  10:13, 


14.  The  guilty  course  and  the  awful 
end  of  this  first  king  of  the  Hebrews 
were  a  significant  reproof  of  their  sin  in 
desiring  any  king  but  Jehovah  ;  and  also 
show  to  what  extremes  of  guilt  and  ruin 
one  may  go  who  rebels  against  God,  and 
is  ruled  by  his  own  ambitious  and  envi 
ous  passions. 

SAUL  was  also  the  Hebrew  name  of  the 
apostle  Paul. 

SAVIOUR  is  a  term  applied  preemi 
nently  to  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  because, 
as  the  angel  expressed  it,  he  came  to 
•'save  his  people  from  their  sins,"  Matt. 

1  :  21.     He  was  therefore  called  JESUS, 
which  signifies  Saciour,  John  4:42;  Acts 
4:15;  5:31. 

SA'VOR,  an  agreeable  taste  or  odor, 
or  that  quality  of  objects  which  appeals 
to  the  sense  of  smell  or  of  taste,  Matt. 
5:13.  The  sacrifice  of  Noah  and  that  of 
Christ  were  acceptable  to  God,  like  the 
odor  of  a  sweet  incense  to  a  man,  Gen. 
8:21 ;  Eph.  5:2.  The  chief  savor  of  the 
apostles'  teaching  was  Christ  crucified  ; 
and  this  teaching  was  welcomed  by  some 
to  their  eternal  life,  and  rejected  by  oth 
ers  to  their  aggravated  condemnation, 

2  Cor.  2:15,  16. 


SCAPE-GOAT.  Hebrew  AZAZEL,  a  word  1  Lev.  16  :  8.  10,  26,  as  to  the  derivation 
used  only  in  connection  with  the  cere-    and  meaning  of  which  there  has  been 
monies,  of  the  great  Day  of  Atonement,  |  great  diversity  of  opinion.     The  safest 
394 


SCA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SCO 


and  best  interpretation  is,  that  the  goat 
itself  symbolically  bore  away  the  sins  of 
God's  people  from  His  presence  and  re 
membrance,  Psa.  103  : 12.  See  EXPIA 
TION. 

SCAR'LET,  a  color  much  prized  by  the 
ancients,  Ex.  25  :  4  ;  26  :  1,  31,  36.  It 
is  assigned  as  a  merit  of  Saul,  that  he 
clothed  the  daughters  of  Israel  in  scar 
let,  2  Sam.  1  :  24.  So  the  diligent  and 
virtuous  woman  is  said  to  clothe  her 
household  in  scarlet,  Prov.  31:21.  The 
depth  and  strength  of  the  color  are  al 
luded  to  in  Isa.  1  :  18 ;  and  it  is  used  as 
a  symbol  of  profligacy  in  Rev.  17  :  3,  4. 
This  color  was  obtained  from  the  Coccus 
llicis  of  Linmeus,  a  small  insect  found 
on  the  leaves  of  a  species  of  oak,  the 
Quercus  Cocciferus,  in  Spain  and  the 
countries  on  the  eastern  part  of  the  Med 
iterranean,  which  was  used  by  the  an 
cients  for  dyeing  a  beautiful  crimson  or 
deep  scarlet  color,  and  was  supposed  by 
them  to  be  the  berry  of  a  plant  or  tree. 
It  is  the  Kermez  of  the  Materia  Medica. 
As  a  dye  it  has  been  superseded  in  mod 
ern  times  by  the  cochineal  insect,  Coc 
cus  Cactus,  which  gives  a  more  brilliant 
but  less  durable  color.  See  PURPLE. 

SCEP'TRE,  a  "  rod  "  or  decorated  staff, 
sometimes  six  feet  long,  borne  by  kings 
and  magistrates  as  a  symbol  of  authori 
ty,  Gen.  49  :  10  ;  Num.  24  :  17  ;  Esth. 
4:11;  5:2;  Isa.  14:5;  Zech.  10:11.  See 

ROD. 

SCE'VA,  a  Jew  at  Ephesus,  a  leader 
among  the  priests,  perhaps  the  head  of 
one  of  the  twenty-four  courses.  His 
seven  sons  pretended  to  practise  exor 
cism,  and  presumed  to  call  on  evil  spir 
its  to  come  out  from  persons  possessed, 
in  the  name  of  Jesus.  Their  ignomini 
ous  discomfiture  by  a  man  possessed  by 
an  evil  spirit,  promoted  the  cause  of  the 
gospel  at  Ephesus,  Acts  19:14-16. 

SCHISM,  a  rent  or  fissure  ;  generally 
used  in  the  New  Testament  to  denote  a 
division  within  the  Christian  church,  by 
contentions  and  alienated  affections, 
without  an  outward  separation  into  dis 
tinct  bodies,  1  Cor.  1:10-12;  12:25,  26. 
The  sin  may  lie  on  the  side  of  the  ma 
jority,  or  of  the  minority,  or  both.  It  is 
a  sin  against  Christian  love,  and  strikes 
at  the  heart  of  Christianity,  John  17:21 ; 
Rom.  12:4-21. 

SCHOOL-MASTER,  1  Cor.  4:15,  Gal. 
3:24,  25,  in  Greek  Paidagogos ;  a  sort  of 
attendant  who  took  the  charge  of  young 


children,  taught  them  the  rudiments  of 
knowledge,  and  at  a  suitable  age  con 
ducted  them  to  and  from  school.  Thus 
the  law  was  the  pedagogue  of  the  Jews, 
watching  over  the  childhood  of  the  na 
tion,  and  at  length  conducting  them 
through  its  types  and  prophecies  to 
Christ.  When  a  Jew  came  to  a  believ 
ing  knowledge  of  Christ,  this  office  of 
the  law  ceased. 

Little  is  known  respecting  the  schools 
of  the  Jews,  nor  when  and  how  far  they 
took  the  place  of  domestic  instruction, 
Dent.  6  :  7-9  ;  11 : 18-20.  It  is  probable 
that  elementary  edttcation  was  under  the 
charge  of  the  ministers  of  religion,  as 
well  as  the  instruction  of  those  of  riper 
years.  At  the  time  of  Christ,  it  would 
appear  that  the  Jews  in  general  were 
able  at  least  to  read  and  write. 


SCOR'PION,  Luke  10  : 19,  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  malignant  of  all  the 
insect  tribes.  It  somewhat  resembles 
the  lobster  in  its  general  appearance, 
but  is  much  more  hideous.  Those  found 
in  Southern  Europe  seldom  exceed  two 
inches  in  length  ;  but  in  tropical  cli 
mates  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  meet 
with  them  five  or  six  times  as  long. 
They  live  upon  other  insects,  but  kill 
and  devour  their  own  species  also.  Mau- 
pertuis  put  about  a  hundred  of  them  to 
gether  in  the  same  glass,  and  in  a  few 
days  there  remained  but  fourteen,  which 
had  killed  and  devoured  all  the  rest. 
He  inclosed  a  female  scorpion  in  a  glass 
vessel,  and  she  was  seen  to  devour  her 
young  as  fast  as  they  were  born.  There 
was  only  one  of  the  number  that  escaped 
the  general  destruction  by  taking  refuge 
on  the  back  of  its  parent ;  and  this  soon 
after  revenged  the  cause  of  its  brethren, 
by  killing  the  old  one  in  its  turn.  Such 
is  the  terrible  nature  of  this  insect ;  and 
it  is  even  found  that  when  placed  in  cir 
cumstances  of  danger,  from  which  it  per- 
395 


SCO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SCR 


ceives  no  way  of  escape,  it  will  sting  it 
self  to  death.  The  passage  most  descrip 
tive  of  the  scorpion  is  Rev.  9  :  3-10,  in 
which  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  sting 
of  these  creatures  was  not  to  produce 
death,  but  pain  so  intense  that  the 
wretched  sufferers  should  seek  death, 
ver.  G,  rather  than  submit  to  its  endur 
ance.  Dr.  Shaw  states  that  the  sting  of 
scorpions  is  not  always  fatal,  the  malig 
nity  of  their  venom  being  in  proportion 
to  their  size  and  complexion.  The  poi 
son  is  injected  by  means  of  a  sharp  curv 
ed  sting  at  the  end  of  the  six-jointed  tail. 
It  occasions  great  pain,  inflammation, 
and  hardness,  with  alternate  chills  and 
burning.  These  animals  frequent  dry 
and  hot  places,  and  lie  under  stones  and 
in  the  crevices  of  old  ruins.  The  Jews 
encountered  them  in  the  wilderness, 
Deut.  8  :  15,  and  a  range  of  cliffs  across 
the  hot  valley  south  of  the  Dead  sea, 
called  Acrabbim,  or  scorpions,  appears 
to  have  been  much  infested  by  them. 
The  scorpion  of  Judea,  when  curled  up, 
greatly  resembled  an  egg  in  size  and 
shape  ;  hence  the  comparison  and  the 
contrast  in  Luke  11:11,  12.  The  scorpi 
ons  which  the  haughty  Rehoboam  threat 
ened  to  use  instead  of  whips,  1  Kin. 
12  :  11,  were  probably  scourges  armed 
with  knobs  like  the  joints  of  a  scorpion's 
tail ;  and  like  the  sting  of  that  animal, 
occasioned  extreme  pain. 


SCOURGE,  or  WHIP.  The  punish- 
ment  of  scourging  was  very  common 
among  the  Jews.  Our  Saviour  was  sub 
jected  to  this  barbarous  and  ignominious 
torture,  which  was  at  times  so  severe  as 
to  end  in  death,  John  19:1.  Moses  lim 
its  the  number  of  stripes  to  forty,  which 
might  never  be  exceeded,  Deut.  25:1-3. 
The  Jews  afterwards,  in  order  to  avoid  in 
any  case  exceeding  forty,  and  thus  break 
ing  the  law,  were  accustomed  to  give 
only  thirty-nine  stripes,  or  thirteen  blows 
with  a  scourge  of  three  thongs.  There 
were  two  ways  of  giving  the  lash:  one 
with  thongs  or  whips,  made  of  rope-ends, 
or  straps  of  leather  sometimes  armed  with 
iron  points  ;  the  other  with  rods  or  twigs. 
The  offender  was  stripped  from  his  shoul 
ders  to  his  middle,  and  tied  by  his  arms 
to  a  low  pillar,  that  he  might  lean  for 
ward,  and  the  executioner  the  more  eas 
ily  strike  his  back ;  or,  according  to  the 
modern  custom  in  inflicting  the  bastina 
do,  was  made  to  lie  down  with  his  face 
to  the  ground,  Deut.  25  :  2.  Paul  in 
forms  us,  2  Cor.  11  :  24,  that  at  five  dif 
ferent  times  he  received  thirty -nine 
stripes  from  the  Jews ;  and  in  the  next 
verse,  shows  that  correction  with  rods 
was  different  from  that  with  a  whip  ;  for 
he  says,  ' '  Thrice  was  I  beaten  with 
rods."  The  bastinado  with  rods  was 
sometimes  given  on  the  back,  at  others 
on  the  soles  of  the  feet. 


SCRIBE,  in  the  earlier  Hebrew  writ 
ings,  was  one  skilled  in  writing  and  ac 
counts,  Ex.  5:6  ;  Judg.  5:14  ;  Jer.  52:25  ; 
the  person  who  communicated  to  the 
396 


people  the  commands  of  the  king,  like 
the  modern  Secretary  of  State,  2  Sam. 
8:17  ;  20:25.  In  the  later  times  of  the 
Old  Testament,  especially  after  the  cap- 


SCR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


tivity,  and  in  the  New  Testament,  a 
scribe  is  a  person  skilled  in  the  Jewish 
law,  a  teacher  or  interpreter  of  the  law. 
So  Ezra  was  ' '  a  ready  scribe  in  the  law 
of  Moses,"  Ezra  7:6;  1  Chr.  27:32.  The 
scribes  of  the  New  Testament  were  a 
class  of  men  educated  for  the  purpose  of 
preserving  and  expounding  the  sacred 
books.  They  had  the  charge  of  tran 
scribing  them,  of  interpreting  the  more 
difficult  passages,  and  of  deciding  in 
cases  which  grew  out  of  the  ceremonial 
law,  Matt.  2:4,  and  were  especially  skill 
ed  in  those  glosses  and  traditions  by 
which  the  Jews  made  void  the  law, 
Matt.  15  :  1-6.  Jewish  writers  speak  of 
them  as  the  schoolmasters  of  the  nation ; 
and  one  mode  in  which  they  exercised 
their  office  was,  by  meeting  the  people 
from  time  to  time,  in  every  town,  for 
the  purpose  of  holding  familiar  discus 
sions,  and  raising  questions  of  the  law 
for  debate.  Their  inlluence  was  of  course 
great ;  many  of  them  were  members  of 
the  Sanhedrim,  and  we  often  find  them 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  elders 
and  chief  priests,  Matt.  5  :  20  ;  7  :  29  ; 
12  :  38 ;  20: 18  ;  21 : 15.  Like  the  Phari 
sees,  they  were  bitterly  opposed  to  Christ, 
and  joined  with  the  priests  and  counsel 
lors  in  persecuting  him  and  his  follow 
ers,  having  little  knowledge  of  Him  con 
cerning  whom  Moses  and  the  prophets 
did  write.  The  same  persons  who  are 
termed  scribes,  are  in  parallel  passages 
sometimes  called  lawyers  and  doctors  of 
the  law,  Matt.  22:35;  Mark  12:28. 
Hence  ' '  scribe ' '  is  also  used  for  a  per 
son  distinguished  for  learning  and  wis 
dom,  1  Cor.  1:20. 

SCRIP,  a  bag  or  wallet,  in  which  trav 
ellers  carried  a  portion  of  food,  or  some 
small  articles  of  convenience,  1  Sam. 
17:40;  Matt.  10:10. 

SCRIPTURE,  or  SCRIPTURES,  the  writ 
ings,  that  is,  by  eminence ;  the  inspired 
writings,  comprising  the  Old  aod  New 
Testaments.  See  BIBLE. 

SC YTH'IANS,  wandering  tribes  in  the 
immense  regions  north  and  north-east  of 
the  Black  and  Caspian  seas.  They  are 
said  by  Herodotus  to  have  made  an  in 
cursion  into  South-western  Asia  and 
Egypt,  some  seven  hundred  years  before 
Christ ;  and  it  was  perhaps  a  fragment  of 
this  host,  located  at  Bethshean,  which 
gave  that  city  its  classical  name  Scythop- 
olis.  In  Col.  3:11,  "Scythian"  appears 
to  signify  the  rudest  of  barbarians. 


SEA.  The  Hebrews  give  the  name  of 
sea  to  any  large  collection  of  water,  Job 
14:11;  as  to  the  lakes  of  Tiberias  and 
Asphaltites,  and  also  to  the  rivers  Nile 
and  Euphrates,  Isa.  11:15;  18:2;  21:1; 
Jer.  51:36,  42.  The  principal  seas  men 
tioned  in  Scripture  are  the  following  : 

I.  The  GREAT  SEA,  the  Mediterranean, 
called  also  the  hinder  or  Western  sea. 
Indeed,  the  Hebrew  word  for  sea,  mean 
ing  the  Mediterranean,  is  often  put  for 
the  west.     The  Great  sea  is  2,200  miles 
long,  and  in  the  widest  part  1,200  miles 
in  width.     In  many  places  it  is  so  deep 
as  to  give  no  soundings.     It  is  little  af 
fected  by  tides,  but  is  often  agitated  by 
violent  winds.     The  prevailing  direction 
of  the  wind  in  spring  is  from  the  south 
east  and  south-west,  and  from  the  north 
east  and  north-west  the  rest  of  the  year. 

II.  The  RED  SKA,  Ex.  10  :  19 ;  13  :  18  ; 
Psa.  106  :  7,  9,  22,  derived  its  name  from 
Edom,  which  lay  between  it  and  Pales 
tine  ;  or  from  the  hue  of  the  mountains 
on  its  western  coast,  or  of  the  animalcu- 
ke  which  float  in  masses  on  its  surface. 
It  lies  between  Arabia  on  the  east  and 
north-east,  and  Abyssinia  and  Egypt  on 
the  west  and  south-west,   and  extends 
from  the  straits  of  Babelmandel  to  Suez, 
a  distance  of  about  1,400  miles,  with  an 
average  width  of  150  miles,  and  a  depth 
of  1 ,800  feet.     At  the  northern  end  it  is 
divided  into  the  two  gulfs  of  Suez  and 
Akaba,  anciently  called  the  gulf  of  He- 
rob'polis  and  the  Elanitic  gulf.    The  first 
of  these  is  190  miles  in  length,  and  the 
second  100  miles.     Between  these  gulfs 
lies  the  celebrated  peninsula  of  mount 
Sinai.     That  of  Akaba  is  connected  with 
the  Dead  sea  by  the  great  sand  valley 
El  Arabah,  described  under  the  article 
JORDAN.     It  is  only  these  gulfs  of  the 
Red  sea  that  are  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
The  Israelites,  in  their   exodus   out  of 
Egypt,   miraculously  crossed   the  west 
ern  gulf  south  of  Suez,  and  then,  after 
many  years  of  sojourning  and  wander 
ing  in  the  deserts  of  the  peninsula  and 
north  of  it,  they  came  to  Ezion-gebe*,  at 
the  extremity  of  the  eastern  gulf.     See 
EXODUS    and    WANDERINGS.      In    Zech. 
10  : 11,  both  the  Red  sea  and  the  Nile 
appear  to  be  mentioned. 

III.  The  DEAD  SEA,  also  called  The 
Salt  sea,   Gen.  14  :  3 ;   The  sea  of  the 
Plain,  Deut.    4:40;    The   Eastern   sea, 
Zech.  14:8  ;  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
lake  Asphaltites;    and  by  the  modern 

397 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


THE  DEAD  SEA  ;  AND  THE  CONVENT  OF  SANTA  SABA,  ON  THE  BROOK  KIDRON. 


Arabs,  The  sea  of  Lot.  It  lay  at  the 
south-east  corner  of  the  Holy  Land,  and 
receives  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  from 
the  north,  and  of  the  Arnon  and  several 
smaller  streams  from  the  east.  It  is  over 
forty  miles  long,  and  eight  or  nine  miles 
wide,  and  lies  as  in  a  chaldron  between 
bare  limestone  cliffs,  which  rise  on  the 
west  side  1,200  or  1,500  feet  above  its 
surface,  and  on  the  east  side  2,000  feet 
or  more.  At  the  south  end  is  a  broad 
and  low  valley,  overflowed  after  the  an 
nual  rains.  The  general  aspect  of  the 
region  is  dreary,  sterile,  arid  desolate ; 
but  at  a  few  points  there  are  brooks  or 
fountains  of  fresh  water,  which  in  their 
way  to  the  sea  pass  through  spots  of 
luxuriant  verdure,  the  abode  of  birds  in 
great  numbers. 

The  waters  of  the  Dead  sea  are  clear 
and  limpid,  but  exceedingly  salt  and  bit 
ter.  Their  specific  gravity  exceeds  that 
of  all  other  waters  known,  being  one- 
lifth  or  one-fourth  greater  than  that  of 
pure  water.  They  are  found  by  repeat 
ed  analyses  to  contain  one-fourth  their 
weight  of  various  salts,  chiefly  the  chlo 
rides  of  magnesium  and  sodium.  Salt 
also  is  deposited  by  evaporation  on  the 
shore,  or  on  garments  wet  in  the  sea.  In 
the  bed  of  the  sea  it  is  found  in  crystals, 
and  near  the  shore  in  incrustations  de- 
398 


posited  on  the  bottom.  No  fish  can  live 
in  these  acrid  waters,  and  those  which 
are  brought  down  by  the  Jordan  quick 
ly  die.  Compare  Ezek.  47  :  8-10,  where 
the  healing  of  this  deadly  sea,  and  its 
abounding  in  fish,  as  well  as  the  new 
fertility  and  beauty  of  the  dreary  wilder 
ness  between  it  and  Jerusalem — by  means 
of  the  healing  power  of  the  Kidron. flow 
ing  from  beside  the  altar  of  God — forci 
bly  illustrate  the  healing  and  renovat 
ing  power  of  gospel  grace.  A  person 
unacquainted  with  the  art  of  swimming 
floats  at  ease  upon  the  surface  of  lake 
Asphaltites,  and  it  requires  an  effort  to 
submerge  the  body.  The  boats  of  Lieut. 
Lynch  met  with  a  gale  on  entering  it 
from  the  Jordan ;  and  ' '  it  seemed  as  if 
the  bows,  so  dense  was  the  water,  were 
encountering  the  sledge-hammers  of  the 
Titans,  instead  of  the  opposing  waves  of 
an  angry  sea. ' ' 

At  times,  and  especially  after  earth 
quakes,  quantities  of  asphaltum  are  dis 
lodged  from  the  bottom,  rise  and  float 
on  the  surface,  and  are  driven  to  the 
shores,  where  the  Arabs  collect  them  for 
various  uses.  Sulphur  is  likewise  found 
on  the  shores,  and  a  kind  of  stone  or 
coal,  called  Musca  by  the  Arabs,  which 
on  being  rubbed  exhales  an  intolerable 
odor.  This  stone,  which  also  comes  from 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


the  neighboring  mountains,  is  black,  and 
takes  a  line  polish.  Maundrell  saw  pieces 
of  it  two  feet  square,  in.  the  convent  of 
St.  John  in  the  Wilderness,  carved  in 
bas-relief,  and  polished  to  as  great  a  lus 
tre  as  blick  marble  is  capable  of.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  country  employ  it  in 
paving  churches,  mosques,  courts,  and 
other  places  of  public  resort.  In  the 
polishing  its  disagreeable  odor  is  lost. 
When  placed  by  Mr.  King  upon  hot 
coals,  a  strong  stench  of  sulphur  issued 
from  it,  and  it  soon  began  to  blaze.  The 
blaze  rose  four  or  five  inches  high,  arid 
continued  about  two  minutes. 

An  uncommon  love  of  exaggeration  is 
observable  in  all  the  older  narratives, 
and  in  some  of  modern  date,  respecting 
the  nature  and  properties  of  the  Dead 
sea.  Chateaubriand  speaks  of  a  "dis 
mal  sound  proceeding  from  this  lake  of 
death,  like  the  stilled  clamors  of  the  peo 
ple  ingulfed  in  its  waters,"  and  says  that 
its  shores  produced  a  fruit  beautiful  to 
the  sight,  but  containing  nothing  but 
ashes ;  and  that  the  heavy  metals  float 
on  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Others  allege 
that  black  and  sulphureous  exhalations 
are  constantly  issuing  from  the  water, 
and  that  birds  attempting  to  fly  across  it 
are  struck  dead  by  its  pestiferous  fumes. 
These  legends  are  corrected  by  more  reli 
able  accounts,  which  show  that  the  birds 
fly  over  or  float  upon  the  sea  uninjured  ; 
that  no  vapor  is  exhaled  from  its  surface, 
except  that  caused  by  the  rapid  evapora 
tion  of  its  waters  under  the  hot  sun  ;  and 
that  the  low  level  and  excessive  heat  of 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan  and  the'  Dead 
sea  account  for  the  diseases  prevailing 
there,  without  imagining  any  more  fear 
ful  cause.  The  ' '  apples  of  Sodom ' '  above 
referred  to  by  Chateaubriand,  and  de 
scribed  by  Josephus  and  others,  answer, 
with  some  exaggerations,  to  fruits  now 
growing  around  the  Dead  sea. 

In  1848,  Lieut.  Lynch  of  the  United 
States'  navy  passed  down  the  Jordan 
from  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  with  two  me 
tallic  boats,  and  spent  three  weeks  in  a 
survey  of  the  sea  of  Sodom.  He  found 
it  nearly  1,300  feet  deep,  and  its  surface 
more  than  1,800  feet  below  the  level  of 
the  Mediterranean.  From  the  eastern 
side,  some  eight  miles  from  the  south 
end,  a  low  promontory  projects  three- 
f  jiirths  of  the  way  towards  the  western 
ciLTs,  and  sends  up  a  point  five  miles 
towards  the  north.  Below  this  point 


the  lake  becomes  suddenly  shallow,  the 
southern  bay  not  averaging  more  than 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  depth,  Josh. 
15 :  2.  This  lower  part  is  believed  to 
cover  the  sites  of  the  cities  destroyed  by 
lire  from  heaven,  Sodoin,  Gomorrah, 
Admah,  and  Zeboim.  The  vale  of  Sid- 
dim  was  once  a  smiling  plain,  well  wa 
tered,  and  like  a  garden  of  the  Lord, 
Gen.  13:10 ;  it  is  now,  and  for  all  future 
ages,  a  monument  of  his  just  indigna 
tion,  Deut.  29:23,  and  an  awful  warning 
to  reckless  sinners  that  the  day  of  the 
Lord  will  come  upon  them  also  suddenly 
and  without  remedy,  Matt.  10:15;  11:22- 
24;  2  Pet.  2:4-l>;  Jude  7.  The  bottom 
of  the  shallow  bay  is  a  deep  slimy  mud, 
Gen.  14  :  10.  On  its  south-west  border 
lies  a  mountain  or  ridge  composed  chief 
ly  of  rock-salt,  arid  called  Usdum  or  Sod 
om,  between  which  and  the  sea  stands  a 
round  pillar  of  salt  forty  feet  high,  re 
minding  one  of  Lot's  wife.  At  present 
the  Dead  sea  has  no  perceptible  outlet, 
and  the  waters  poured  into  it  by  the 
Jordan  are  probably  evaporated  by  the 
intense  heat  of  the  unclouded  sun,  or  in 
part  absorbed  in  the  earth.  It  is  thought 
by  some  that  the  northern  and  principal 
part  of  the  sea  was  the  product  of  some 
convulsion  of  nature,  long  before  that 
which  destroyed  Sodom  and  formed  the 
south  bay  ;  that  the  Jordan  at  first  flow 
ed  into  the  Ked  sea  through  the  remark 
able  crevasse  Avhich  extends  from  its 
sources  to  the  gulf  of  Akabah  ;  and  that 
at  some  period  beyond  the  reach  of  his 
tory,  its  bed  and  valley  sunk  down  to 
their  present  level  and  formed  the  Dead 
sea.  Lieutenant  Lynch  in  sounding  dis 
covered  a  ravine  in  the  bed  of  the  sea, 
corresponding  to  the  channel  of  the  Jor 
dan  in  its  valley  north  of  the  sea.  See 
JORDAN. 

IV.  The  SEA  OF  TIBERIAS  or  of  Galilee ; 
the  lake  of  Gennesareth,  or  of  Cinne- 
reth,  Num.  34  :  11,  is  so  called  from  the 
adjacent  country,  or  from  some  of  the 
principal  cities  on  its  shores.  It  resem 
bles,  in  its  general  appearance,  the  lake 
of  Geneva  in  Switzerland,  though  not  so 
large.  The  Jordan  passes  through  it 
from  north  to  south.  It  is  twelve  or 
fourteen  miles  long,  six  or  seven  miles 
in  breadth,  and  165  feet  deep.  Its  wa 
ters  lie  in  a  deep  basin,  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  rounded  and  beautiful  hills, 
from  500  to  1,000  feet  high,  except  the 
narrow  entrance  and  outlet  cf  the  Jor- 
399 


SEA  BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


SEA  OF  GALILEE,   FROM  THE  NORTH-WEST  COAST  |  WITH  MAGDALA  AND  TIBERIAS. 


dan  at  either  end.  Its  sheltered  loca 
tion  protects  it  in  some  degree  from  the 
wind,  but  it  is  liable  to  sudden  squalls 
and  whirlwinds,  and  many  travellers  on 
its  shores  have  met  with  violent  tem 
pests—reminding  them  of  those  encoun 
tered  by  Christ  and  his  disciples.  A 
strong  current  marks  the  passage  of  the 
Jordan  through  the  middle  of  the  lake, 
on  its  way  to  the  Dead  sea.  The  vol 
canic  origin  of  the  basin  of  this  lake  is 
strongly  inferred  from  numerous  indica 
tions,  such  as  the  black  basaltic  rocks 
which  abound,  frequent  and  violent 
earthquakes,  and  several  hot  springs. 
According  to  Lieut.  Symonds,  it  is  328 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterra 
nean.  Lieut.  Lynch  makes  it  G53  feet 
below.  Its  waters  are  clear  and  sweet, 
and  contain  various  kinds  of  excellent 
fish  in  great  abundance.  The  appear 
ance  of  the  sea  from  the  hills  on  the 
western  shore  is  far  less  grand  and  more 
beautiful  than  that  of  the  Dead  sea.  It 
should  be  seen  in  spring,  when  the  hills 
around  it  are  clothed  with  grain  and  fes 
tooned  with  flowers.  The  towns  that 
once  crowded  its  shores  with  a  teeming 
population,  the  groves  and  shrubbery 
that  covered  its  hills,  and  the  boats  and 
gallies  that  studded  its  surface  are  gone. 
400 


But  the  sea  remains,  hallowed  by  many 
scenes  described  in  the  gospels.  The  Sav 
iour  of  mankind  often  looked  upon  its 
quiet  beauty  and  crossed  it  in  his  jour 
neys  ;  he  stilled  its  waves  by  a  word, 
and  hallowed  its  shores  by  his  miracles 
and  teachings.  Here  several  of  the  apos 
tles  were  called  to  become  "fishers  of 
men,"  and  in  its  waters  Peter  sank 
trembling  and  crying,  .  "Lord,  save 
me,"  Matt.  4  :  18  ;  14:22;  Luke  8  :  22  ; 
John  21:1. 

"  How  pleasant  to  me  thy  deep  blue  wave, 

O  sea  of  Galilee, 

For  the  glorious  One  who  came  to  save 
Hath  often  stood  by  thee. 

O  Saviour,  gone  to  God's  right  hand, 

Yet  the  same  Saviour  still, 
Graved  on  thy  heart  is  this  lovely  strand 

And  every  fragrant  hill." 

M'CHEYXE. 

Y.  SEA  or  WATERS  OF  MEROM.  See  ME- 
ROM. 

The  BRAZEN  or  MOLTEN  SEA,  made  by 
Solomon  for  the  temple,  was  a  circular 
vessel  at  least  fifteen  feet  in  diameter, 
which  stood  in  the  court  of  the  temple, 
and  contained  three  thousand  baths,  ac 
cording  to  2  Chr.  4  : 5,  or  two  thousand 
baths  according  to  1  Kin.  7:26.  Calmet 
supposes  this  may  be  reconciled  by  saying 


SEA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEC 


that  the  cup  or  bowl  contained  two  thou 
sand  baths,  and  the  foot  or  basin  a  thou 
sand  more.  It  was  supported  by  twelve 
oxen  of  brass,  and  was  probably  the  lar 
gest  brazen  vessel  ever  made — an  evi 
dence  of  the  skill  of  the  workers  in  metal 
at  that  period.  It  contained  from  16,000 
to  24,000  gallons,  and  was  supplied  with 
water  either  by  the  labor  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites,  or  as  Jewish  writers  affirm,  by  a 
pipe  from  the  well  of  Etam,  so  that  a 
constant  flow  was  maintained.  This 
water  was  used  for  the  various  ablutions 
of  the  priests,  2  Chr.  4:6;  a  perpetual 
and  impressive  testimony  from  God  of 
the  necessity  of  moral  purification  in  the 
inexhaustible  fountain  of  Christ's  grace. 
The  preceding  engraving  must  be  chiefly 
imaginary. 


SEAL,  SEALING.  The  allusions  and 
references  to  seals  and  sealing  are  fre 
quent  in  the  sacred  writings.  Seals  or 
signets  were  in  use  at  a  very  early  pe 
riod,  and  they  were  evidently  of  vari 
ous  kinds.  Some  were  used  as  a  substi 
tute  for  signing  one's  name,  the  owner's 
name  or  chosen  device  being  stamped  by 
it  with  a  suitable  ink  on  the  document 
to  be  authenticated.  Seals  to  be  used 


for  this  purpose,  with  or  without  the 
sign  manual,  appear  to  have  been 
worn  by  the  parties  to  whom  they  re 
spectively  belonged.  The  seal  of  a 
private  person  was  usually  worn  on 
his  finger,  or  his  wrist,  or  in  a  brace 
let,  being  small  in  size,  Jer.  32:10; 
Luke  15:  22;  Jas.  2:2.  See  RINGS. 
The  seal  of  a  governor  was  worn  by 
him,  or  carried  about  his  person  in  the 
most  secure  manner  possible.  The 
royal  seal  was  either  personal,  to  the 
king,  or  public,  to  the  state ;  in  other 
words,  the  seal  of  the  king  and  the  seal 
of  the  crown,  2  Sam.  1:10:  the  first  the 
king  retained  ;  the  latter  he  delivered  to 
the  proper  officer  of  state.  So  far  mod 
ern  usages  enable  us  to  comprehend 
clearly  the  nature  of  this  important  in 
strument.  The  impress  of  the  royal  seal 
on  any  document  gave  it  the  sanction  of 
government,  1  Kin.  21:8  ;  and  a  tempo 
rary  transfer  of  the  seal  to  another  hand 
conveyed  a  plenary  authority  for  the  oc 
casion,  Esth.  3:10,  12;  8:2.  Instead  of 
wax,  clay  was  sometimes  used  to  take 
the  impression  of  a  seal,  probably  on 
account  of  the  heat  of  the  climate,  Job 
38  :  14.  The  seal  was  a  token  of  posses 
sion  and  of  careful  preservation,  Deut. 
32  :  34  ;  Job  9  :  7  ;  14  : 17.  A  portion  of 
clay  covering  the  lock  or  opening  of  a 
door,  etc.,  guarded  it  from  being  opened 
clandestinely,  Song  4:12;  Dan.  6  :  \7  ; 
Matt.  27  :  66.  Travellers  in  the  East 
have  met  the  same  custom  in  modern 
times.  The  cord  around  a  book,  box,  or 
roll  of  parchment  was  often  secured  with 
a  seal,  Isa.  8  : 16  ;  Rev.  5  :  1.  The  Holy 
Spirit  seals  Christians,  impressing  his  im 
age  upon  them  as  a  token  that  they  are 
his,  Eph.  1:13,  14;  4:80.  See  So. 
SEA'SONS.  See  CANAAK. 
SE'BA.  See  SABEANS. 
SE'BAT,  the  first  month  of  the  Jewish 
civil  year,  and  the  eleventh  of  the  eccle 
siastical  year— from  the  new  moon  of 
February  to  that  of  March.  See  MONTH. 
They  began  in  this  month  to  number  the 
years  of  the  trees  they  planted,  the  fruits 
of  which  were  esteemed  impure  till  the 
fourth  year,  Zech.  1:7. 
SE'CRET.  See  MYSTERY, 
SECT,  from  a  Latin  word  answering 
to  the  Greek  word  hceresis,  which  latter 
our  translators  have  in  some  places  ren 
dered  "sect,"  in  others,  "heresy."  As 
used  in  the  New  Testament,  it  implies 
neither  approbation  nor  censure  of  the 
401 


SEC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEL 


persons  to  whom  it  is  applied,  or  of 
their  opinions,  Acts  5:17  ;  15:5.  Among 
the  Jews,  there  were  four  sects,  distin 
guished  by  their  practices  and  opinions, 
yet  united  in  communion  with  each 
other  and  with  the  body  of  their  nation: 
namely,  the  Pharisees,  the  Sadducees, 
the  Essenes,  and  the  Herodians.  Chris 
tianity  was  originally  considered  as  a 
new  sect  of  Judaism ;  hence  Tertullus, 
accusing  Paul  before  Felix,  says  that  he 
was  chief  of  the  seditious  sect  of  the 
Nazarenes,  Acts  24  :  5  ;  and  the  Jews  of 
Home  said  to  the  apostle,  when  he  ar 
rived  in  this  city,  "As  concerning  this 
sect,  we  know  that  everywhere  it  is 
spoken  against,"  Acts  28:22.  See  HER 
ESY. 

SECUN'DUS,  a  disciple  at  Thessaloni- 
ca,  who  accompanied  Paul  in  some  of  his 
journeys,  Acts  20:4. 

SEDl'TION,  a  popular  tumult,  Acts 
24  :  5,  or  a  religious  faction,  Gal.  5  :  20. 
The  same  Greek  word  is  translated  ' '  in 
surrection,"  in  speaking  of  Barabbas, 
Mark  15:7,  and  "dissension"  in  Acts 
15:2. 


SEED,  Gen.  1  :  11 ;  often  used  figura 
tively  in  Scripture,  Dan.  9:1;  1  Pet. 
1 :  23  ;  1  John  3  :  9.  There  was  an  in 
junction  in  the  Mosaic  law  against  sow 
ing  a  field  with  mingled  seed  of  diverse 
kinds,  Lev.  19:19.  The  "precious  seed" 
is  often  committed  to  the  ground  with 
many  fears ;  but  the  harvest,  at  least  in 
spiritual  things,  shall  be  a  season  of  joy, 
Psa.  126:5,  6. 

SEER,  one  supernatural ly  enlighten 
ed  to  see  things  which  God  only  can  re 
veal  ;  applied  to  certain  Hebrew  proph 
ets,  1  Sam.  9:9;  2  Chr.  29  :  30 ;  33  : 18, 
19  ;  Isa.  29:10  ;  30:10.  Compare  Num. 
24:3,  4. 

SEIR,  I.,  a  mountain  of  Judah,  near 
Kirjath-jearim,  Josh.  15:10. 

II.  A  Horite,  one  of  the  primitive  rul 
ers  of  the  country  south  and  south-  east 
of  the  Dead  sea,  Gen.  36:20  ;  Deut.  2:12. 

III.  A  mountainous  tract  lying  be 
tween   the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Dead  sea  and  the  eastern  gulf  of  the  Red 
sea.      Mount  Hor  formed  part  of  Seir, 
and  is  the  only  part  that  retains  its  orig 
inal  name.     See  IDUJLEA. 


VIEW  OF   PART   OF   THE    MAIN  VALLEY    OF   PETRA. 


SE'LA,  the  name  of  a  place  mentioned 
in  2  Kin.  14:7,  where  it  is  said  that  Am- 
aziah  king  of  Judah  slew  ten  thousand 
402 


men  of  Edom,  in  the  valley  of  Salt,  and 
took  Sela  by  war,  and  called  the  name 
of  it  JOKTHEEL,  subdued  by  God.  Sela. 


SEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEL 


in  Hebrew,  signifies  a  rock,  and  answers 
to  the  Greek  word  Petra  ;  whence  it  has 
been  reasonably  inferred  that  the  city 
bearing  the  name  of  Petra,  and  which 
was  the  celebrated  capital  of  Arabia  Pe- 
tnea,  is  the  place  mentioned  by  the  sa 
cred  historian.  It  is  also  mentioned  in 
Isa.  16  :  1,  and  may  be  intended  by  the 
wordSela,  translated  rock,  in  Judg.  1:36  ; 
Isa.  42:11.  The  ruins  of  this  place  were 
in  modern  times  first  visited  by  Burck- 
hardt,  1812,  and  attest  the  splendor  of 
the  ancient  city.  He  says,  "At  the  dis 
tance  of  a  two  long  days'  journey  north 
east  from  Akabah,  is  a  rivulet  and  valley 
in  the  Djebel  Shera.  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Arabah,  called  Wady  Mousa.  This 
place  is  very  interesting  for  its  antiqui 
ties  and  the  remains  of  an  ancient  city, 
which  I  conjecture  to  be  Petra,  the  cap 
ital  of  Arabia  Petrasa,  a  place  which,  as 
far  as  I  know,  no  European  traveller  has 
ever  visited.  In  the  red  sand-stone  of 
which  the  valley  is  composed  are  up 
wards  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  sepul 
chres,  entirely  cut  out  of  the  rock,  the 
greater  part  of  them  with  Grecian  orna 
ments.  There  is  a  mausoleum  in  the 
shape  of  a  temple,  of  colossal  dimen 
sions,  likewise  cut  out  of  the  rock,  with 
all  its  apartments,  its  vestibule,  peri 
style,  etc.  It  is  a  most  beautiful  speci 
men  of  Grecian  architecture,  and  in  per 
fect  preservation.  There  are  other  mau- 
solea  with  obelisks,  apparently  in  the 
Egyptian  style,  a  whole  amphitheatre 
cut  out  of  the  rock,  with  the  remains  of 
a  p ilace  and  of  several  temples.  Upon 
the  summit  of  the  mountain  which  closes 
the  narrow  valley  on  its  western  side, 
(mount  Hor,)  is  the  tomb  of  Haroun,  or 
A.aron.  It  is  held  in  great  veneration  by 
the  Arabs."  That  this  was  indeed  the 
ancient  Sela  or  Petra  is  established  by 
various  concurring  proofs  ;  Josephus, 
Eusebiu.5,  and  Jerome  affirm  that  the 
tomb  of  Aaron  was  near  Petra  ;  and  the 
location  and  ruins  correspond  with  the 
notices  given  in  the  Bible,  and  by  Pliny 
and  Strabo. 

Subsequent  travellers,  especially  La- 
borde,  have  given  minute  and  graphic 
descriptions  of  this  wonderful  city,  with 
drawings  of  the  principal  ruins.  The 
valley  of  Petra,  2,200  feet  above  the  great 
valley  El-Arabah,  is  about  a  mile  long 
from  north  to  south,  and  half  a  mile  wide, 
with  numerous  short  ravines  in  its  sides, 
making  its  whole  circuit  perhaps  four 


miles.  It  is  accessible  through  ravines 
at  the  north  and  the  south ;  but  the 
cliffs  which  define  it  on  the  east  and 
west  are  precipitous,  and  vary  from  two 
hundred  to  one  thousand  feet  in  height. 
The  main  passage  into  the  city  is  on  the 
east,  and  begins  between  cliil's  forty  feet 
high  and  fifty  yards  apart,  which  soon 


GORGE  IX  PETRA,  WITH  A  PART  OF  EL-KHUSNEH. 

become  higher,  nearer,  and  full  of  exca 
vated  tombs.     This  winding  ravine  is  a 
403 


SEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEN 


mile  long,  and  gives  entrance  to  a  small 
brook  ;  its  sides  at  one  place  are  but 
twelve  feet  apart  and  two  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  high.  At  the  termination  of 
this  narrow  gorge  you  confront  the  most 
splendid  of  all  the  structures  of  Petra, 
el-Khusneh,  the  temple  mentioned  by 
Burckhardt,  hewn  out  of  the  face  of  the 
opposite  cliff.  Here  you  enter  a  wider 
ravine,  which  leads  north-west,  passes 
the  amphitheatre  in  a  recess  on  the  left, 
and  at  length  opens  on  the  great  val 
ley  of  the  main  city  towards  the  west. 
The  tombs  excavated  in  these,  and  in  all 
the  side  gorges,  are  without  number, 
rising  range  above  range  ;  many  of  them 
are  approached  by  steps  cut  in  the  rock, 
while  others  are  inaccessible,  at  the 
height  of  nearly  four  hundred  feet.  The 
theatre  was  so  large  as  to  accommodate 
more  than  three  thousand  persons.  The 
palace,  called  Pharaoh's  house  by  the 
Arabs,  is  the  chief  structure  not  exca 
vated  in  the  mountain  that  survives  in 
any  good  degree  the  ravages  of  time  ; 
it  was  evidently  a  gorgeous  building. 
Most  of  the  valley  is  strown  with  the 
ruins  of  public  edifices  and  with  frag 
ments  of  pottery.  The  brook  flows 
through  the  valley  towards  the  west, 
and  passes  off  through  a  narrow  gorge 
like  that  by  which  it  entered.  One  of 
the  finest  temples,  the  Deir,  stands  high 
up  in  a  ravine  on  the  west  side.  It  is 
hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock ;  its  front  is 
one  hundred  and  fifty-two  feet  in  length 
and  height ;  and  its  lower  columns, 
half  projecting  from  the  rock,  are  eight 
feet  in  diameter.  A  singular  charm  is 
thrown  over  the  whole  by  the  beauty  of 
the  stone  from  which  these  various  struc 
tures  are  wrought.  It  is  a  fine  and  soft 
sandstone,  variegated  with  almost  every 
variety  of  hues,  red,  purple,  black,  white, 
azure,  and  yellow,  the  deepest  crimson 
and  the  softest  pink  blending  with  each 
other,  while  high  above  the  sculptured 
monuments  the  rocks  rise  in  their  na 
tive  rudeness  and  majesty.  The  whole 
strange  and  beautiful  scene  leaves  on  the 
spectator's  mind  impressions  which  noth 
ing  can  efface. 

Petra  was  an  ancient  city,  a  strong  for 
tress,  and  for  many  ages  an  important 
commercial  centre.  It  was  the  chief  city 
among  scores  which  once  filled  that  re 
gion.  Yet  the  prophets  of  God  foretold 
its  downfall,  and  its  abandonment  to 
solitude  and  desolation,  in  terms  which 
404 


strikingly  agree  with  th«  facts.  "Thy 
terribleness  hath  deceived  thee,  and  the 
pride  of  thy  hear,t,  0  thou  that  dwellest 
in  the  clefts  of  the  rock,  that  boldest  the 
height  of  the  hill :  though  thou  shouldest 
make  thy  nest  as  high  as  the  eagle,  I  will 
bring  thee  down  from  thence,  saith  the 
Lord,"  Jer.  49:7-22.  See  also  Isa.  34:5- 
15  ;  Ezek.  35  ;  Joel  3  : 19  ;  Amos  1  :  11, 
12;  Obad.  3-16.  When  its  ruin  took 
place  we  are  not  informed.  There  were 
Christian  churches  there  in  the  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries,  but  after  A.  D.  536  no 
mention  is  made  of  it  in  history. 

SE'LAH,  a  musical  term  which  occurs 
seventy-three  times  in  the  Psalms,  and 
is  found  also  in  Hab.  3:3,  9,  13.  It  usu 
ally  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  period  or 
strophe,  but  sometimes  at  the  end  only 
of  a  clause.  This  difficult  word,  it  is  now 
generally  believed,  was  a  direction  for  a 
meditative  pause  in  the  singing  of  a 
psalm,  during  which  perhaps  there  was 
an  instrumental  interlude. 
_  SELEU'CIA,  a  fortified  city  of  Syria, 
situated  on  the  seacoast,  a  little  north  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Orontes.  It  stood  near 
mount  Pierius,  and  was  therefore  some 
times  called  Seleucia  Pieria,  and  some 
times  Seleucia  by  the  sea,  in  order  to  dis 
tinguish  it  from  other  cities  of  the  same 
name,  of  which  there  were  not  less  than 
seven  or  eight  in  Syria  and  the  vicinity. 
They  were  all  thus  named  from  Seleucus 
Nicator.  Paul  and  Barnabas  embarked 
here  for  Cyprus,  on  their  first  missionary 
tour,  Acts  13:4. 

SEN' ATE,  Acts  6:21.    See  SANHEDRIM. 
SE'NIR.  a  name  given  to  mount  Her- 
mon  by  the  Amorites,  Deut.  3:9  ;  1  Chr. 
5 : 23 ;  Ezek.  27 : 5.     See  HERMON. 

SENNACH'ERIB,  king  of  Assyria,  son 
and  successor  of  Shalmaneser,  began  to 
reign's,  c.  710,  and  reigned  but  a  few 
years.  Hezekiah  king  of  Judah  having 
shaken  off  the  yoke  of  the  Assyrians,  by 
which  Ahaz  his  father  had  suffered  un 
der  Tiglath-pileser,  Sennacherib  march 
ed  an  army  against  him,  and  took  all 
the  strong  cities  of  Judah.  Hezekiah, 
seeing  he  had  nothing  left  but  Jerusa 
lem,  which  he  perhaps  found  it  difficult 
to  preserve,  sent  ambassadors  to  Sen 
nacherib,  then  besieging  and  destroying 
Lachish,  to  make  submission,  Sennach 
erib  accepted  his  tribute,  but  refused,  to 
depart,  and  sent  Rabshakeh  with  an  in 
solent  message  to  Jerusalem.  Hezekiah 
entreated  the  Lord,  who  sent  a  destroy- 


SEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEN 


ing  angel  against  the  Assyrian  army, 
and  slew  in  one  night  185,000  men.  Sen 
nacherib  returned  with  all  speed  to  Nin 
eveh,  and  turned  his  arms  against  the 
nations  south  of  Assyria,  and  afterwards 
towards  the  north.  But  his  career  was 
not  long  ;  within  two  or  three  years  from 
his  return  from  Jerusalem,  while  he  was 
paying  adorations  to  his  god  Nisroch,  in 
the  temple,  his  two  sons  Adrammelech 
and  Sharezer  slew  him  and  fled  into  Ar 
menia.  Esar-haddon  his  son  reigned  in 
his  stead,  2  Kin.  18  ;  19 ;  2  Chr.  32. 

A  most  remarkable  confirmation  of 
the  above  Bible  history  has  been  found 
in  the  long  buried  ruins  of  ancient  Nin 
eveh.  The  mound  called  Kouyimjik, 
opposite  Mosul,  has  been  to.  a  good  de 
gree  explored,  and  its  ruins  prove  to  be 
those  of  a  palace  erected  by  this  power 
ful  monarch.  The  huge  stone  tablets 
which  formed  the  walls  of  its  various 
apartments  are  covered  with  bas-reliefs 
and  inscriptions ;  and  though  large  por 
tions  of  these  have  perished  by  violence 
and  L.ue,  the  fragments  that  remain  are 
full  of  interest.  One  series  of  tablets 
recounts  the  warlike  exploits  of  Sen 
nacherib,  who  calls  himself  ' '  the  sub- 
duer  of  kings  from  the  upper  sea  of  the 
setting  sun  to  the  lower  sea  of  the  rising 
sun,"  that  is,  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  Persian  gulf. 

The  most  important  of  these  mural 
pages  to  Bible  readers,  are  those  recoiyit- 
ing  the  history  of  his  war  against  Syria 
and  the  Jews,  in  the  third  year  of  his 
reign.  Crossing  the  upper  part  of  mount 
Lebanon,  he  appears  to  have  conquered 
Tyre  and  all  the  cities  south  of  it  on  the 
seacoast  to  Askelon.  In  this  region  he 
came  in  conflict  with  an  Egyptian  army, 
sent  in  aid  of  king  Hezekiah  ;  this  host 
he  defeated  and  drove  back.  See  2  Kin. 
19:9  ;  Isa.  87.  The  inscription  then  pro 
ceeds  to  say,  "Hezekiah  king  of  Judah, 
who  had  not  submitted  to  my  authority, 
forty-six  of  his  principal  cities,  and  for 
tresses  and  villages  dependent  upon 
them,  of  which  I  took  no  account,  I 
captured,  and  carried  away  their  spoil. 
The  fortified  towns,  and  the  rest  of  his 
towns  which  I  spoiled,  I  severed  from 
his  country,  and  gave  to  the  kings  of 
Askelon,  Ekron,  and  Gaza,  so  as  to  make 
his  country  small.  In  addition  to  the 
former  tribute  imposed  upon  their  coun 
tries,  I  added  a  tribute  the  nature  of 
which  I  fixed."  Compare  2  Kin.  18:13  ; 


Isa.  36  :  1.     He  does  not  profess  to  have 
taken  Jerusalem  itself,  but  to  have  car 
ried  away  Hezekiah' s  family,  servants, 
405 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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and  treasures,  with  a  tribute  of  thirty 
talents  of  gold  and  eight  hundred  tal 
ents  of  silver.  The  amount  of  gold  is 
the  same  mentioned  in  the  Bible  narra 
tive.  The  three  hundred  .talents  of  sil 
ver  mentioned  in  Scripture  may  have 
been  all  that  was  given  in  money,  and 
the  live  hundred  additional  claimed  in 
the  Ninevite  record  may  include  the 
temple  and  palace  treasures,  given  by 
He/ekiah  as  the  price  of  peace. 

In  another  apartment  of  the  same  pal 
ace  was  found  a  series  of  well  preserved 
bas-reliefs,  representing  the  siege  and 
capture  by  the  Assyrians  of  a  large  and 
strong  city.  It  was  doubly  fortilied,  and 
the  assault  and  the  defence  were  both 
fierce.  Part  of  the  city  is  represented  as 
already  taken,  while  elsewhere  the  bat 
tle  rages  still  in  all  its  fury.  Meanwhile 
captives  are  seen  flayed,  impaled,  and 
put  to  the  sword ;  and  from  one  of  the 
gates  of  the  city  a  long  procession  of 
prisoners  is  brought  before  the  king, 
who  is  gorgeously  arrayed  and  seated  on 
his  throne  upon  a  mound  or  low  hill. 
They  are  presented  by  the  general  in 
command,  very  possibly  Rabshakeh,  with 
other  chief  officers.  Two  eunuchs  stand 
behind  the  king,  holding  fans  and  nap 
kins.  Above  his  head  is  an  inscription 
which  is  thus  translated  :  "Sennacherib 
the  mighty  king,  king  of  the  country  of 
Assyria,  sitting  on  the  throne  of  judg 
ment  at  the  gate  of  the  city  Lachisa ;  I 
give  permission  for  its  slaughter."  The 
captives  are  stripped  of  their  armor,  or 
naments,  and  much  of  their  clothing, 
and  are  evidently  Jews. 

Little  did  Sennacherib  then  antici 
pate  the  utter  ruin  of  his  own  proud  me 
tropolis,  and  still  less  that  the  ruins  of 
his  palace  should  preserve  to  this  re 
mote  age  the  tablets  containing  his  own 
history,  and  the  image  of  his  god  Nis- 
roch  so  incapable  of  defending  him,  to 
bear  witness  for  the  God  whom  he  blas 
phemed  and  defied.  See  NINEVEH,  Nis- 

110CII,   SlIALMANESER,  aild  So. 

SE'PHAR,  "a  mountain  of  the  East," 
a  boundary  of  the  Joktanite  tribes,  Gen. 
10:30.  It  is  perhaps  the  same  as  mount 
Sabbcr  in  South-western  Arabia. 

SEPH'AIIAD,  a  place  in  Asia  Minor 
near  the  Bosphorus,  to  which  Jewish 
captives  were  conveyed,  Obad.  20. 

SEPHARVAIM.  When  Shalmaneser 
king  of  Assyria  carried  away  Israel  from 
Samaria  to  beyond  the  Euphrates,  he 
406 


sent  people  in  their  stead  into  Palestine, 
among  whom  were  the  Sepharvaim, 
2  Kin.  17:24,  31.  That  Sepharvaim  was 
a  small  district  under  its  own  king,  is 
apparent  from  2  Kin.  19 : 13  ;  Isa.  37 : 13. 
It  may,  with  most  probability,  be  as 
signed  to  Mesopotamia,  because  it  is 
named  along  with  other  places  in  that 
region,  and  because  Ptolemy  mentions  a 
city  of  a  similar  name,  Sipphara,  as  the 
most  southern  of  Mesopotamia. 

SEP'TUAGINT,  the  seventy,  is  the  name 
of  the  most  ancient  Greek  version  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  is  so  called  be 
cause  there  were  said  to  have  been  sev 
enty  translators.  .  The  accounts  of  its 
origin  disagree,  but  it  should  probably 
be  assigned  to  the  third  century  before 
Christ.  This  ancient  version  contains 
many  errors,  and  yet  as  a  whole  is  a 
faithful  one,  particularly  in  the  books  of 
Moses ;  it  is  of  great  value  in  the  inter 
pretation  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  is 
very  often  quoted  by  the  New  Testament 
writers,  who  wrote  in  the  same  dialect. 
It  was  the  parent  of  the  iirst  Lati  i,  the 
Coptic,  and  many  other  versions,  and 
was  so  much  quoted  and  fallowed  by  the 
Greek  and  Roman  fathers  as  practically 
to  supersede  the  original  Hebrew,  until 
the  last  few  centuries.  The  chronology 
of  the  Septuagint  differs  materially  from 
that  of  the  Hebrew  text,  adding,  for  ex 
ample,  606  years  between  the  creatior 
and  the  deluge.  See  ALEXANDRIA. 


TOMBS  HEWN   IN   THE   EOCK,    PETRA. 

SEP'ULCHRE,  a  place  of  burial.    The 
Hebrews  were  always  very  careful  about 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEP 


the  burial  of  their  dead.     Many  of  their 
sepulchres  were  hewn  in  rocks :  as  that 


OTHER  TOMBS,  ETC.,  IN  PETRA. 

of  Shebna,  Isa.  22: 16  ;  those  of  the  kings 
of  Judah  and  Israel ;  and  that  in  which 
our  Saviour  was  laid  on  Calvary.  These 
tombs  of  the  Jews  were  sometimes  be 
neath  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  but 
were  often  in  the  side  of  a  cliff,  and  mul 
titudes  of  such  are  found  near  the  ruins 


TOMB   OF  ABSALOM,       ROCK   TOMBS,  AND  GRAVES 
IN   THE   KIDRON  VALLEY. 

of  ancient   cities,   2  Kin.   23  : 16  ;    Isa. 
22:16.  Travellers  find  them  along  the 


bases  of  hills  and  mountains  in  all  parts 
of  Syria ;  as  on  the  south  side  of  Hin- 
nom,  the  west  side  of  Olivet,  at  Tiberias, 
in  Petra,  in  the  gorge  of  the  Barada, 
and  in  the  sea-cliffs  north  of  Acre.  The 
tombs,  as  well  as  the  general  grave 
yards,  were  uniformly  without  the  city 
limits,  as  is  apparent  at  this  day  with 
respect  to  both  ancient  and  modern  Je 
rusalem,  2  Kin.  23:6  ;  Jer.  26:23  ;  Luke 
7:12;  John  1 1 : 30.  See  ACELDAMA.  The 
kings  of  Judah,  almost  exclusively,  ap 
pear  to  have  been  buried  within  Jerusa 
lem,  on  mount  Zion.  1  Kin.  2:10;  2  Kin. 
14:20;  2  Chr.  16:14;  28:27;  Acts  2:29. 
Family  tombs  were  common,  and  were 
carefully  preserved,  Gen.  50:5-13  ;  Judg. 
8 : 32  ;  2  Sam.  2 : 32  ;  1  Kin.  13 : 22.  Tomb 
stones  with  inscriptions  were  in  use,  Gen. 
35:20;  2  Kin.  23:16,  17.  Absalom  was 
buried  under  a  heap  of  stones,  2  Sam. 
18  : 17.  In  many  ancient  heathen  na 
tions,  a  king  was  buried  under  a  vast 
mound,  with  his  arms,  utensils,  horses, 
and  attendants,  Ezek.  32:26,  27;  and 
the  pyramids  of  Egypt  are  believed  to  be 
the  tombs  of  kings,  each  having  but  one 
or  two  apartments,  in  one  of  which  the 
stone  coffin  of  the  builder  has  been  found. 
It  was  thought  an  act  of  piety  to  pre 
serve  and  adorn  the  tombs  of  the  proph 
ets,  but  was  often  an  act  of  hypocrisy ; 
and  our  Saviour  says  that  the  Pharisees 
Avere  like  whited  sepulchres,  which  ap 
peared  fine  without,  but  inwardly  were 
full  of  rottenness  and  corruption,  Matt. 
23  :  27-29 ;  and  Lightfoot  has  shown 
that  every  year,  after  the  winter  rains 
were  over,  the  Hebrews  whitened  them 
anew.  In  Luke  11 : 44,  Christ  compares 
the  Pharisees  to  "graves  which  appear 
not,"  so  that  men  walk  over  them  with 
out  being  aware  of  it,  and  may  thus  con 
tract  an  involuntary  impurity.  A  super 
stitious  adoration  of  the  tombs  and  bones 
of  supposed  saints  was  then  and  is  now 
a  very  prevalent  form  of  idolatry ;  and 
our  Saviour  tells  the  Jews  of  his  day 
they  were  as  guilty  as  their  fathers,  Luke 
11  :  47,  48  :  they  built  the  sepulchres  of 
the  prophets,  their  fathers  slew  them ; 
the  hypocritical  idolatry  of  the  sons  was 
as  fatal  a  sin  as  the  killing  of  the  proph 
ets  by  their  fathers.  These  worshippers 
of  the  prophets  soon  afterwards  showed 
that  they  allowed  the  deeds  of  their  fa 
thers,  by  crucifying  the  divine  Prophet 
whom  Moses  had  foretold.  In  Syria  at 
the  present  day  the  tomb  of  David  on 
407 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEP 


mount  Zion  and  that  of  Abraham  at  He 
bron  are  most  jealously  guarded,  and 
any  intruder  is  instantly  put  to  death ; 
while  almost  all  the  laws  of  God  and  man 
may  be  violated  with  impunity.  Deserted 
tombs  were  sometimes  used  as  places  of 
refuge  and  residence  by  the  poor,  Isa. 
65:4  ;  Luke  8:27  ;  the  shepherds  of  Pal 
estine  still  drive  their  flocks  into  them 
for  shelter,  and  wandering  Arabs  live  in 
them  during  the  winter.  See  BURIAL. 

Maundrell's  description  of  the  sepul 
chre  north  of  Jerusalem  —  supposed  by 
many  to  be  the  work  of  Helena  queen  of 
Adiabene,  though  now  known  as  "the 
tombs  of  the  kings," — may  be  useful  for 
illustrating  some  passages  of  Scripture: 

"The  next  place  we  came  to  was  those 
famous  grots  called  the  sepulchres  of  the 
kings ;  but  for  what  reason  they  go  by 
that  name  is  hard  to  resolve;  for  it  is 
certain  none  of  the  kings,  either  of  Israel 
or  Judah,  were  buried  here,  the  holy 
Scriptures  assigning  other  places  for  their 
sepulchres.  Whoever  was  buried  here, 
this  is  certain,  that  the  place  itself  die- 


covers  so  great  an  expense,  both  of  labor 
and  treasure,  that  we  may  well  suppose 
it  to  have  been  the  work  of  kings.  You 
approach  to  it  at  the  east  side  through 
an  entrance  cut  out  of  the  natural  rock, 
which  admits  you  into  an  open  court  of 
about  forty  paces  square,  cut  down  into 
the  rock  with  which  it  is  encompassed 
instead  of  walls.  On  the  west  side  of 
the  court  is  a  portico  nine  paces  long 
and  four  broad,  hewn  likewise  out  of  the 
natural  rock.  This  has  a  kind  of  archi 
trave,  running  along  its  front,  adorned 
with  sculpture,  of  fruits  and  flowers,  still 
discernible,  but  by  time  much  defaced. 
At  the  end  of  the  portico,  on  the  left 
hand,  you  descend  to  the  passage  into 
the  sepulchres.  The  door  is  now  so  ob 
structed  with  stones  and  rubbish,  that 
it  is  a  thing  of  some  difficulty  to  creep 
through  it.  But  within  you  arrive  in  a 
large  fair  room,  about  seven  yards  square, 
cut  out  of  the  natural  rock.  Its  sides 
and  ceiling  are  so  exactly  square,  and  its 
angles  so  just,  that  no  architect,  with 
levels  and  plummets,  could  build  a  room 


PLAN   OF   THE        TOMBS   OF   THE    KINGS. 


more  regular.  And  the  whole  is  so  firm 
and  entire,  that  it  may  be  called  a  cham 
ber  hollowed  out  of  one  piece  of  marble. 
From  this  room  you  pass  into,  I  think, 
six  more,  one  within  another,  all  of  the 
same  fabric  with  the  first.  Of  these  the 
408 


two  innermost  are  deeper  than  the  rest, 
having  a  second  descent  of  about  six  or 
seven  steps  into  them.  In  every  one  of 
these  rooms,  except  the  first,  were  cof 
fins  of  stone  placed  in  niches  in  the  sides 
of  the  chambers.  They  had  been  at  first 


SER 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SER 


covered  with  handsome  lids,  and  carved 
with  garlands ;  but  now  most  of  them 
were  broken  to  pieces  by  sacrilegious 
hands." 

SE'RAH,  a  daughter  of  Ash^r,  thrice 
named  among  those  who  migrated  to 
Egypt,  Gen.  46:17  ;  Num.  26:46  ;  1  Chr. 
7:30.  Why  she  was  thus  distinguished 
is  unknown,  but  the  rabbis  have  many 
fables  respecting  her. 

SERAI  AH,  the  name  of  six  persons, 
alluded  to  in  the  following  passages : 
2  Sam.  8:17  ;  2  Kin.  25  :  18 ;  Ezra  7:1; 
Jer.  36  :  20  ;  40  :  8  ;  51 :  59.  The  last  is 
termed  "a  quiet  prince,"  or  as  in  the 
marginal  reading,  ' '  chief  chamberlain. ' ' 
He  bore  to  the  Jews  in  Babylon  a  mes 
sage  from  the  prophet  Jeremiah. 

SERAPHIM,  burning  ones,  celestial 
beings  surrounding  the  throne  of  God. 
Compare  Deut.  4:24;  Heb.  12:29.  They 
appear  to  be  distinguished  from  the  cher 
ubim,  Ezek.  1  :  5-12.  The  prophet  Isa 
iah,  6:2,  3,  represents  theni  as  reverent 
ly  adoring  the  triune  God,  and  burning 
with  zeal  to  fly  and  execute  his  will. 
Each  one  had  six  wings,  with  two  of 
which  he  covered  his  face,  with  two  his 
feet,  and  with  the  two  others  he  flew. 
They  cried  to  one  another,  and  said, 
"  Holy,  holy,  holy  is  the  Lord  of  hosts  ; 
the  whole  earth  is  full  of  his  glory  !" 

SER'GEANTS,  Acts  1G  :  35,  properly 
Roman  lictors,  public  servants  who  bore 
a  bundle  of  rods,  sometimes  with  an  axe 
in  the  centre,  before  the  magistrates  of 
cities  and  colonies  as  insignia  of  their 
office,  and  who  executed  the  sentences 
which  their  masters  pronounced. 

SER'GIUS  PAU'LUS,  proconsul  or 
governor  of  the  isle  of  Cyprus,  was  con 
verted  under  the  ministry  of  Paul,  A.  D. 
48,  Acts  13: 7. 

SER'PENTS.  These  reptiles,  unclean 
among  the  Hebrews,  Lev.  11:10.  41,  are 
widely  diffused  through  the  world,  but 
are  most  numerous  and  venomous  in 
tropical  climates.  About  one-sixth  part 
of  all  that  are  known  are  supposed  to 
be  poisonous.  These  are  distinguished 
by  having  two  hollow  poison-fangs  in 
the  upper  jaw,  and  are  usually  of  slow 
er  motion  than  most  snakes.  Venom 
ous  serpents  were  abundant  in  Egypt 
and  Arabia,  and  seven  different  kinds 
are  mentioned  in  the  Hebrew  scriptures, 
gome  of  which  are  identified  with  exist 
ing  species.  See  ADDER,  ASP,  COCKA 
TRICE,  and  VIPER. 

18 


THE    COBRA   DI   CAPELLO. 

The  serpents  mentioned  in  Num.  21 ; 
Isa.  14  :  29  ;  30  :  6,  and  by  whom  multi 
tudes  of  the  Israelites  were  destroyed  in 
the  desert  north  of  the  gulf  of  Akabah, 
were  probably  called  "fiery"  and  "fly 
ing"  with  reference  to  the  agonizing 
heat  caused  by  their  poison,  and  the 
rapidity  of  their  darting  motion.  He 
rodotus  indeed  speaks  of  winged  ser 
pents  as  appearing  every  spring  on  the 
Arabian  border  of  Egypt ;  but  he  did  not 
see  them,  nor  are  there  any  to  be  met 
with  in  modern  times.  The  serpent  of 
brass,  made  and  erected  on  a  pole  by 
Moses,  had  no  healing  virtue  in  itself, 
but  was  a  test  of  the  penitence  and  faith 
of  the  people.  The  author  of  Ecclesias- 
ticus  says  of  the  Israelites,  "They  were 
troubled  for  a  small  season  that  they 
might  be  admonished,  having  a  sign  of 
salvation  to  put  them  in  remembrance 
of  the  commandment  of  thy  law.  For 
he  that  turned  towards  it  was  not  saved 
by  the  thing  that  he  saw,  but  by  thee, 
that  art  the  Saviour  of  all."  Our  Sav 
iour  himself  shows  that  the  brazen  ser 
pent  was  a  type  of  Him,  John  3  :  14,  15. 
The  believing  view  of  Christ  is  salvation 
to  the  soul  infected  by  the  fatal  poison 
of  sin.  Respecting  the  brazen  serpent, 
see  NEIIUSIITAN.  Hezekiah  destroyed  a 
true  and  most  sacred  relic ;  Rome,  on 
the  contrary,  fabricates  false  relics  and 
adores  them.  See  CHARMERS. 

Interpreters  have  largely  speculated 
concerning  the  nature  of  the  serpent 
that  tempted  Eve.  Some  have  thought 
that  serpents  originally  had  feet  and 
speech  ;  but  there  is  no  probability  that 
this  creature  was  ever  otherwise  than  it 
now  is.  Its  subtle,  crafty  malignity  is 
409 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SER 


often  alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures,  Gen. 
3:1;  Matt.  10 : 16  ;  23  :  33.  Besides,  it 
cannot  be  doubted  but  that  by  the  ser 
pent  we  are  to  understand  the  devil, 
who  employed  the  serpent  as  a  vehicle 
to  seduce  the  first  woman,  Gen.  8  :  13  ; 
2  Cor.  11:3;  Rev.  12:9. 

SE'RUG,  a  descendant  of  Shem,  and 
an  ancestor  of  Abraham,  Gen.  11:20-23  ; 
Luke  3  :  35.  Jewish  tradition  says  he 
was  the  first  of  his  line  that  fell  into 
idolatry,  Josh.  24:2. 

SER'VANT.  This  word  sometimes 
denotes  a  man  who  voluntarily  dedi 
cates  himself  to  the  service  of  another. 
Thus  Joshua  was  the  servant  of  Moses ; 
Elisha  of  Elijah ;  and  Peter,  Andrew, 
Philip,  and  Paul  were  servants  of  Jesus 
Christ.  The  servants  of  Pharaoh,  of 
Saul,  and  of  David,  were  their  subjects 
in  general,  and  their  court  officers  and 
counsellors  in  particular.  The  Philis 
tines,  Syrians,  and  other  nations  were 
servants  of  David,  that  is,  they  obeyed 
and  paid  him  tribute.  The  servants  of 
God  are  those  who  are  devoted  to  his 
service  and  obey  his  holy  word. 

In  its  primary  sense,  the  word  usually 
means  in  the  Bible  either  a  hired  ser 
vant,  or  one  whose  service  was  the  prop 
erty  of  his  master  for  a  limited  time  and 
under  various  restrictions.  Joseph  is  the 
first  whom  we  read  of  as  sold  into  bond 
age.  Gen.  37:27.  28.  The  households  of 
some  of  the  early  patriarchs  contained 
many  servants,  who  were  apparently 
treated  with  kindness  and  justice  ;  the 
highest  trusts  were  sometimes  confided 
to  them,  and  they  might  inherit  their 
master's  estate,  Gen.  14:11-16  ;  15:2-4; 
24 : 1-10.  They  shared  the  religious  priv 
ileges  of  the  household,  Gen.  17  :  9-13, 
27  ;  18  :  19,  and  were  not  transferred  to 
other  masters. 

At  the  establishment  of  the  Hebrew 
commonwealth,  involuntary  servitude 
was  everywhere  prevalent ;  and  so  far 
as  it  existed  among  the  Jews,  Moses 
sought  to  bring  it  under  the  restrictions 
demanded  by  religion  and  humanity. 
The  mildest  form  of  bond-service  was 
that  of  a  Hebrew  in  the  house  of  another 
Hebrew.  He  might  become  bound  to 
this  service  in  various  ways,  chiefly 
through  poverty,  Ex.  21:7;  Lev.  25:39- 
47  ;  to  acquit  himself  of  a  debt  he  could 
not  otherwise  pay,  2  Kin.  4:1 ;  to  make 
restitution  for  a  theft,  Ex.  22  :  3  ;  or  to 
earn  the  price  of  his  ransom  from  cap- 
410 


tivity  among  heathen.  This  form  of 
service  could  not  continue  more  than 
six  or  seven  years ;  unless,  when  the 
Sabbatical  year  came  round,  the  servant 
chose  tq  remain  permanently  or  until 
the  Jubilee  with  his  master,  in  token  of 
which  he  suffered  his  ear  to  be  bored 
before  witnesses,  Ex.  21  :  2,  6 ;  25  :  40. 
The  Hebrew  servant  was  not  to  be  made 
to  serve  with  rigor,  nor  transferred  to 
any  harder  bondage ;  he  had  an  appeal 
to  the  tribunals,  a  right  to  all  religious 
privileges,  the  power  of  demanding  re 
lease  on  providing  a  pecuniary  equiva 
lent,  and  a  donation  from  his  master  at 
his  release,  Lev.  25:47-55;  Deut.  15:12- 
18.  Compare  also  2  Chron.  28  : 10,  11 ; 
Neh.  5  :  1-13  ;  Jer.  34  :  8-22.  The  law 
likewise  provided  for  the  deliverance  of 
a  Hebrew,  who  was  in  bondage  to  a  res 
ident  foreigner,  Lev.  25:47-54. 

From  the  heathen  around  and  among 
them,  especially  from  their  captive  ene 
mies  and  the  remains  of  the  Canaanites, 
the  Hebrews  obtained  many  servants. 
These  were  protected  by  law,  Deut.  1 : 16, 
17;  27:19,  and  might  become  proselytes, 
attend  the  festivals,  enjoy  religious  in 
struction  and  privileges,  Ex.  12:44;  Deut. 
12  :  18  ;  29 : 10-13  ;  31 : 10-13.  The  ser 
vant  who  was  mutilated  by  his  master 
was  to  be  set  free,  Ex.  21  :  26,  27  ;  the 
refugee  from  foreign  oppression  was  to 
be  welcomed,  Deut.  23:15,  16  ;  and  kid 
napping  or  man-stealing  was  forbidden 
on  pain  of  death,  Exod.  21  : 16 ;  Deut. 
24:7;  1  Tim.  1:10. 

Roman  slavery,  as  it  existed  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  was  comparatively  un 
known  to  the  Jews.  The  Romans  held 
in  bondage  captives  taken  in  war,  and 
purchased  slaves.  Their  bondage  was 
perpetual,  and  the  master  held  unques 
tioned  control  of  the  person  and  life  of 
his  slaves.  Yet  large  numbers  were  set 
free,  and  in  many  instances  Roman  freed- 
men  rose  to  the  highest  honors. 

The  allusions  of  the  Bible  to  involun 
tary  servitude,  imply  that  it  is  an  evil 
and  undesirable  condition  of  life ;  yet 
the  bondman  who  cannot  obtain  his  free 
dom  is  divinely  exhorted  to  contentment, 
1  Cor.  7  :  20-24.  Meanwhile  the  Bible 
gives  directions  as  to  the  mutual  duties 
of  masters  and  servants,  Eph.  6  : 5-9 ; 
Col.  3:22  ;  4:1 ;  Tit.  2:9  ;  Phile.  ;  1  Pet. 
2:18  ;  and  proclaims  the  great  truths  of 
the  common  origin  of  all  men,  the  im 
mortality  of  every  human  soul,  and  its 


SET 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEA 


right  to  the  Bible  and  to  all  necessary 
means  of  knowing  and  serving  the  Sav 
iour — the  application  of  which  to  all  the 
relations  of  master  and  servant,  superior 
and  inferior,  employer  and  employed, 
would  prevent  all  oppression,  which  God 
abhors,  Deut.  24  :  14  ;  Psa.  103  :  6  ;  Isa. 
10:1-3  ;  Amos  4:1 ;  Mai.  3:5  ;  Jas.  5:4. 

SETH,  the  first  son  of  Adam  after  the 
death  of  Abel,  Gen.  4:25,  26 ;  5:3,  6,  8, 
and  ancestor  of  the  line  of  godly -patri 
archs. 

SEVEN.  As  from  the  beginning  this 
was  the  number  of  days  in  the  week,  so 
it  often  has  in  Scripture  a  sort  of  em 
phasis  attached  to  it,  and  is  very  gen 
erally  used  as  a  round  or  perfect  num 
ber.  Clean  beasts  were  taken  into  the 
ark  by  sevens,  Gen.  7.  The  years  of 
plenty  and  famine  in  Egypt  were  mark 
ed  by  sevens,  Gen.  41.  With -the  Jews, 
not  only  was  there  a  seventh  day  Sab 
bath,  but  every  seventh  year  was  a  sab 
bath,  and  after  every  seven  times  seven 
years  came  a  jubilee.  Their  great  feasts 
of  unleavened  bread  and  of  tabernacles 
were  observed  for  seven  days  ;  the  num 
ber  of  animals  in  many  of  their  sacrifices 
was  limited  to  seven.  The  golden  can-, 
dlestick  had  seven  branches.  Seven 
priests  with  seven  trumpets  went  around 
the  walls  of  Jericho  seven  days,  and 
seven  times  seven  on  the  seventh  day. 
In  the  Apocalypse  we  find  seven  church 
es  mentioned,  seven  candlesticks,  seven 
spirits,  seven  stars,  seven  seals,  seven 
trumpets,  seven  thunders,  seven  vials, 
seven  plagues,  and  seven  angels  to  pour 
them  out. 

Seven  is  often  put  for  any  round  or 
whole  number,  just  as  we  use  "ten,"  or 
"a  dozen  ;"  so  in  Matt.  12  :  45  ;  1  Sam. 
2:5;  Job  5  :  19  ;  Prov.  26  :  16,  25  ;  Isa. 
4:1 ;  Jer.  15  :  9.  In  like  manner,  seven 
times,  or  seven-fold,  means  often,  abun 
dantly,  completely,  Gen.  4:15,  24;  Lev. 
26:24;  Psa.  12:6;  79:12;  Matt.  18:21. 
And  seventy  times  seven  is  a  still  higher 
superlative,  Matt.  18:22. 

SHAAL'BIM,  a  town  of  Gad,  long  held 
by  the  Amorites,  Josh.  19  :  42,  Judg. 
1  : 35,  but  in  the  time  of  Solomon  the 
head-quarters  of  one  of  his  commissa 
ries,  1  Kin.  4:9. 

SHAD'OW  sometimes  denotes  intense 
darkness  and  gloom,  Psa.  23  : 4,  and 
sometimes  a  cool  retreat,  Isa.  33  :  2,  or 
perfect  protection,  Psa.  17:8;  Isa.  49:2; 
Dan.  4  : 12.  The  long  shadows  cast  by 


the  declining  sun  are  alluded  to  in  Job 
7:2;  Jer.  6 : 4.  The  swift,  never  ceasing 
motion  of  a  shadow  is  an  emblem  of  hu 
man  life,  1  Chr.  29:15;  Psa.  102:11. 

SHA'DRACH,  the  Chaldean  name 
given  to  Ananias  at  the  court  of  Nebu 
chadnezzar,  Dim.  1:7.  See  ABED-NEGO. 

SHAL'ISHA,  a  district  adjoining 
mount  Ephraim  on  the  west,  1  Sam. 
9  : 4.  Baal-shalisha  is  placed  by  Euse- 
bius  fifteen  miles  from  Lydda,  towards 
the  north. 

SHAL'LUM,  I.,  son  of  Jabesh,  or  a  na 
tive  of  Jabesh,  who  treacherously  killed 
Zechariah  king  of  Israel,  and  usurped  his 
kingdom,  B.  c.  772.  He  held  it  only  one 
month,  when  Menahem  son  of  Gadi  kill 
ed  him  in  Samaria.  Scripture  says  that 
Shallum  was  the  executioner  of  the 
threatenings  of  the  Lord  against  the 
house  of  Jehu,  2  Kin.  15:10-15. 

II.  See  JEIIOAHAZ  II. 

III.  The  husband  of  Huldah  the  proph 
etess  in  the  time  of  Josiah,  2  Kin.  22:14. 

Others  of  this  name  are  alluded  to  in 
Num.  26:49;  1  Chr.  2:40;  9:17,19,31; 
Ezra  2:42;  7:2;  10:24,  42;  Neh.  3:12; 
7:45. 

SHALMANE'SEK,  king  of  Assyria, 
between  Tiglath-pileser  and  Sennache 
rib.  He  ascended  the  throne  about  B.  c. 
728,  and  reigned  fourteen  years.  Scrip 
ture  reports  that  he  came  into  Palestine, 
subdued  Samaria,  and  obliged  Hoshea  to 
pay  him  tribute  ;  but  in  the  third  year, 
being  weary  of  this  exaction,  Hoshea 
combined  secretly  with  So  king  of  Egypt 
to  remove  the  subjection.  Shalmaneser 
brought  an  army  against  him,  ravaged 
Samaria,  besieged  Hoshea  in  his  capital, 
and  notwithstanding  his  long  resistance 
of  three  years,  2  Kin.  17  ;  18  :  9-12,  he 
took  the  city  and  dismantled  it,  put  Ho 
shea  into  bonds,  and  carried  away  most 
of  the  people  beyond  the  Euphrates.  He 
thus  .ruined  the  kingdom  of  Samaria, 
which  had  subsisted  two  hundred  and 
fifty-four  years,  from  B.  c.  975  to  721. 
The  bas-relief  copied  in  the  next  page  was 
found  on  a  fine  Assyrian  obelisk  of  black 
marble,  six  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  cov 
ered  on  all  sides  with  inscriptions.  It 
was  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  the  north 
west  palace  at  Nimroud,  and  is  believed 
from  various  evidences  to  represent  Shal 
maneser  receiving  tribute  from  the  Jews 
subdued  by  his  arms.  Hezekiah  king  of 
Judah  successfully  resisted  him,  2  Kin. 
18 : 7  :  but  he  appears  to  have  ravaged 
411 


SHA  BIBLE  DICTIONARY.  SHA 


Moab,  Isa.  10:9;  15,  16,  23;  and  is  said    with  the  exception  of  insular  Tyre,  which 
in  Josephus  to  have  conquered  Phoenicia,     he  besieged  in  vain  for  five  years. 
412 


SIIA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SEE 


SHAM'BLES,  1  Cor.  10:  25,  a  public 
meat-market. 

SHAM'GAR,  son  of  Anath,  the  third 
judge  of  Israel,  after  Ehud  and  shortly 
before  Barak,  in  a  time  of  great  insecu 
rity  and  distress,  Judg.  3:31 ;  5:6.  Scrip 
ture  only  says  he  defended  Israel,  and 
killed  six  hundred  Philistines  with  an 
ox-goad.  See  PLOUGH. 

SHAM'MAH,  I.,  one  of  the  three  chief 
of  David's  thirty  heroes,  who  shared  with 
David  and  Eleazar  the  honor  of  the  ex 
ploit  recorded  in  2 Sam.  23: 11, 12 ;  1  Chr. 
11 :  12-14.  Another  feat  is  described  in 
2  Sam.  23:13-17. 

II.  A  brother  of  David,  1  Sam.  16:9  ; 
17:13  ;  elsewhere  called  Shimcah,  2  Sam. 
13:3,  22;  1  Chr.  2:13. 

Others  of  this  name  are  mentioned, 
Gen.  36:13, 17  ;  2  Sam.  23:25,33  ;  IChr. 
11:27;  27:8. 

SHA'PHAN,  L,  a  scribe  or  secretary 
under  king  Josiah,  to  whom  he  read 
from  the  newly  found  autograph  roll  of 
the  book  of  the  law,  2  Kin.  22:12;  Jer. 
29:3;  36:10;  Ezek.  8:11. 

II.  The  father  of  Ahikam,  2  Kin.  22:12 ; 
25:22;  Jer.  26:24. 

SHA'PHAT,  I.,  the  father  of  Elisha, 
IKin.  19:16. 

II.  A    descendant    of  David,    1  Chr. 
3:22. 

III.  A  chief  herdsman  of  David  in 
Bashan,  1  Chr.  27:29. 

SHARE'ZER,  I.,  a  son  of  Sennache-rib, 
who  assisted  in  slaying  his  father,  Isa. 
37:38. 

II.  A  delegate  sent  to  Jerusalem  with 
Eegemmelec  and  others,  probably  soon 
after  the  return  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  to  inquire  of  the  priests  at 
Jerusalem  whether  a  certain  fast  was 
still  to  be  observed,  Zech.  7:2;  8:19. 

SHAK/ON,  I.,  a  plain  adjoining  the 
seacoast  of  Palestine  between  Carmel 
and  Joppa,  about  sixty  miles  in  length 
and  of  variable  width,  expanding  inland 
as  it  stretches  from  the  promontory  of 
Carmel  towards  the  south.  It  contains 
some  sandy  tracts,  but  the  soil  is  in  gen 
eral  highly  productive,  and  the  plain  was 
of  old  famous  for  its  beauty  and  fertility, 
1  Chr.  27:29  ;  Song2:l ;  Isa.  33:9  ;  35:2 ; 
65 : 10.  It  contained  a  town  of  the  same 
name,  called  Saron  in  Acts  9  :  35.  The 
whole  plain  was  once  thickly  populated, 
but  is  now  comparatively  uninhabited. 
The  heat  of  summer  is  excessive,  and  the 
climate  somewhat  unhealthy.  All  trav 


ellers  describe  the  view  of  the  plain  from 
the  tower  of  Ramleh  as  one  of  surpass 
ing  richness  and  beauty.  The  frowning 
hiils  of  Judah  on  the  east  confront  the 
glittering  waters  of  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  west.  Towards  the  north  and 
south  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  spreads 
the  beautiful  plain,  covered  in  many 
parts  with  fields  of  green  or  golden  grain. 
Near  by  are  the  immense  olive-groves  of 
Ramleh  and  Lydda,  and  amid  them  the 
picturesque  towers,  minarets,  and  domes 
of  these  villages ;  while  the  hill-sides  tow 
ards  the  north-east  are  thickly  studded 
with  native  hamlets.  The  uncultivated 
parts  of  the  plain  are  covered  in  spring 
and  the  early  summer  with  a  rich  profu 
sion  of  flowers. 

II.  A  town  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  in  the 
district  of  Bashan  beyond  the  Jordan, 
IChr.  5:16. 

SHA'VEH,  a  valley  north  of  Jerusa 
lem,  called  also  the  King's  Dale,  Gen. 
14:17;  2  Sam.  18:18. 

SHAVING.  The  Jews  shaved  their 
beards  and  hair  in  time  of  mourning, 
repentance,  or  distress,  Job  1  :  20,  Jer. 
48:37,  and  in  certain  ceremonial  purifi 
cations,  Lev.  14:9  ;  Num.  8:7.  At  other 
times  they  wore  them  long,  like  other 
oriental  nations — except  the  Egyptians, 
who  kept  their  beards  shaved,  as  we 
learn  from  Herodotus  and  from  antique 
monuments.  Hence  Joseph  shaved  be- 
foi-e  he  was  presented  to  Pharaoh,  Gen. 
41  :  14.  See  BEARD. 

SHEAL'TIEL.     See  SALATHIEL. 

SHE'AR-JASH'UB,  the  remnant  shall 
return,  Isa.  7:3;  10:21,  the  name  of  one 
of  Isaiah's  sons ;  supposed  to  have  had 
a  prophetic  meaning,  like  Maher-shalal- 
hash-baz. 

SHE'BA,  I.,  son  of  Raamah,  Gen. 
10  :  7.  His  posterity  are  supposed  to 
have  settled  near  the  head  of  the  Per 
sian  gulf.  See  Cusn  and  RAAMAII. 

II.  Son  of  Joktan,  of  the  race  of  Shem, 
Gen.  10:28.     See  SABEANS  II. 

III.  Son  of  Jokshan,  and  grandson  of 
Abraham  by  Keturah,  Gen.  25  :  3.     He 
is  supposed  to  have  settled  in  Arabia 
Deserta. 

IV.  A  turbulent  Benjamite,  who  after 
the  death  of  Absalom  made  a  fruitless  ef 
fort  to  excite  a  rebellion  in  Israel  against 
David.     Being  pursued,  and  besieged  in 
Abel-beth-maachah,   near  the  southern 
part  of  Lebanon,  he  was  beheaded  by  the 
people  of  the  city,  2  Sam.  20. 

413 


SHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHE 


SITEBA,  QUEEN  OP.     See  SABEANS  II. 

SHE'BAT,  the  fifth  month  of  the  Jew 
ish  civil  year,  and  the  eleventh  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year,  from  the  new  moon 
of  February  to  that  of  March,  Zech.  1:7. 
See  MONTH. 

SHEB'NA,  steward  of  king  Hezekiah's 
palace,  Isa.  22  :  15,  afterwards  his  secre 
tary,  2  Kin.  18:18,  37. 

SHE'CHEM,  I.,  a  Canaanite  prince,  at 
the  town  of  the  same  name,  who  abduct 
ed  Dinah  the  daughter  of  Jacob,  and  was 
soon  afterwards  treacherously  slain,  with 
many  of  his  people,  by  Simeon  and  Levi, 
Gen.  34. 

II.  A  city  of  central  Canaan,  between 
the  mountains  Gerizim  and  Ebal,  thirty- 
four  miles  north  of  Jerusalem ;  called 
also  Sychar  and  Sychem,  Acts  7:16.  It 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Abra 
ham,  who  here  erected  his  first  altar  in 
Canaan,  and  took  possession  of  the  coun 
try  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  Gen.  12:6; 


33  :  18,  19 ;  35 :  4.  Jacob  bought  a  field 
in  its  neighborhood,  which,  by  way  of 
overplus,  he  gave  to  his  son  Joseph,  who 
was  buried  here,  Gen.  48  :  22  ;  Josh. 
24  : 32.  After  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
it  became  a  Levitical  city  of  refuge  in 
Ephraim,  and  a  gathering-place  of  the 
tribes,  Josh.  20  :  7  ;  21  :  21 ;  24  : 1,  25 ; 
Judg.  9.  Here  Rehoboam  gave  the  ten 
tribes  occasion  to  revolt,  1  Kin.  12.  In 
its  vicinity  was  Jacob's  well  or  fountain, 
at  which  Christ  discoursed  with  the  wom 
an  of  Samaria,  John  4:5.  See  also  Acts 
8  :  25  ;  9  :  31 ;  15  :  3.  After  the  ruin  of 
Samaria  by  Shalmaneser,  Sbechem  be^ 
came  the  capital  of  the  Samaritans  ;  and 
Josephus  says  it  was  so  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  At  the  present 
day  it  is  also  the  seat  of  the  small  rem- 
naiit  of  the  Samaritans.  See  SAMARI 
TANS.  It  was  called  by  the  Romans  Nc- 
apolis,  from  which  the  Arabs  have  made 
Napolose,  or  Nabulus. 


VIEW  OF  KABTTLTTS  AND  MOTTNT  GERIZIM  FROM  THE  NORTH-WEST. 


The  valley  of  Shechem  extends  several 
miles  north-west  between  mount  Ebal 
and  mount  Gerizim,  and  is  about  five 
hundred  yards  wide  ;  so  that  in  the  pure 
and  elastic  air  of  Palestine  the  two  moun 
tains  are  within  hailing  distance  of  each 
other,  one  circumstance  among  thou 
sands  evincing  the  exact  truthfulness  ©f 
414 


Bible  narratives,  Deut.  27:11-14  ;  Judg. 
9:7.  The  winter  rains  which  fall  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  valley  find  their  way 
to  the  Jordan,  while  in  the  western  part 
are  numerous  springs,  forming  a  pretty 
brook  which  flows  towards  the  Mediter 
ranean.  "Here,"  says  Dr.  Robinson, 
' '  a  scene  of  luxuriant  and  almost  unpar- 


SHE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHE 


alleled  verdure  burst  upon  our  view. 
The  whole  valley  was  filled  with  gar 
dens  of  vegetables  and  orchards  of  all 
kinds  of  fruits,  watered  by  several  foun 
tains  which  burst  forth  in  various  parts 
and  flow  westward  in  refreshing  streams. 
It  came  upon  us  suddenly,  like  a  scene 
of  fairy  enchantment.  We  saw  nothing 
to  compare  with  it  in  Palestine."  The 
modern  town  has  several  long  and  nar 
row  streets,  partly  on  the  base  of  mount 
Gerizim.  It  does  not  appear  to  extend 
so  far  to  the  east  as  the  ancient  city  did. 
The  houses  are  high,  and  well  built  of 
stone,  and  covered  with  small  domes. 
Nabulus  is  thought  to  contain  eight 
thousand  inhabitants,  all  Mohammedans 
except  five  hundred  Greek  Christians, 
one  hundred  and  fifty  Samaritans,  and 
as  many  Jews.  The  rocky  base  of  mount 
Ebal  on  the  north  of  the  valley  is  full 
of  ancient  excavated  tombs.  On  mount 
Gerizim  is  the  holy  place  of  the  Samari 
tans,  and  the  ruins  of  a  strong  fortress 
erected  by  Justinian.  At  the  foot  of 
these  mountains  on  the  east  lies  the 
beautiful  plain  of  Mukhna,  ten  miles 
long  and  a  mile  and  a  half  wide ;  and 
where  the  valley  opens  on  this  plain, 
Joseph's  tomb  and  Jacob's  well  are  lo 
cated,  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  Jews, 
Christians,  and  Mohammedans.  The  for 
mer  spot  is  now  covered  by  a  Mohamme 
dan  Wely,  or  sacred  tomb  ;  and  the  lat 
ter  by  an  arched  stone  chamber,  entered 
by  a  narrow  hole  in  the  roof,  and,  the 
mouth  of  the  well  within  is  covered  by 
a  large  stone.  The  well  itself  is  one 
hundred  and  five  feet  deep,  and  is  now 
sometimes  dry.  It  bears  every  mark  of 
high  antiquity. 

The  following  extract  is  from  Dr. 
Clarke's  description  of  this  place  : 
"There  is  nothing  in  the  Holy  Land 
finer  than  a  view  of  Napolose  from  the 
heights  around  it.  As  the  traveller  de 
scends  towards  it  from  the  hills,  it  ap 
pears  luxuriantly  embosomed  in  the  most 
delightful  and  fragrant  bowers,  half  con 
cealed  by  rich  gardens,  and  by  stately 
trees  collected  into  groves,  all  around 
the  bold  and  beautiful  valley  in  which 
it  stands.  Trade  seems  to  flourish  among 
its  inhabitants.  Their  principal  employ 
ment  is  in  making  soap  ;  but  the  manu 
factures  of  the  town  supply  a  very  wide 
ly  extended  neighborhood,  and  are  ex 
ported  to  a  great  distance  upon  camels. 
In  the  morning  after  our  arrival,  we  met 


caravans  coming  from  Grand  Cairo,  and 
noticed  others  reposing  in  the  large  olive 
plantations  near  the  gates. 

' '  The  sacred  story  of  events  transacted 
in  the  fields  of  Sychem,  from  our  earliest 
years  is  remembered  with  delight ;  but 
with  the  territory  before  our  eyes  where 
those  events  took  place,  and  in  the  view 
of  objects  existing  as  they  were  describ 
ed  above  three  thousand  years  ago,  the 
grateful  impression  kindles  into  ecstasy. 
Along  the  valley  we  beheld  '  a  company 
of  Ishmaelites  coming  from  Gilead, '  Geri. 
37 : 25,  as  in  the  days  of  Reuben  and  Ju- 
dah,  '  with  their  camels  bearing  spicery 
and  balm  and  myrrh,'  who  would  gladly 
have  purchased  another  Joseph  of  his 
brethren,  and  conveyed  him  as  a  slave 
to  some  Potiphar  in  Egypt.  Upon  the 
hills  around,  flocks  and  herds  were  feed 
ing,  as  of  old  ;  nor  in  the  simple  garb  of 
the  shepherds  of  Samaria  was  there  any 
thing  repugnant  to  the  notions  we  may 
entertain  of  the  appearance  presented  by 
the  sons  of  Jacob.  It  was  indeed  a  scene 
to  abstract  and  to  elevate  the  mind ;  and 
under  emotions  so  called  forth  by  every 
circumstance  of  powerful  coincidence,  a 
single  moment  seemed  to  concentrate 
whole  ages  of  existence. 

"  The  principal  object  of  veneration  is 
Jacob's  well,  over  which  a  church  was 
formerly  erected.  This  is  situated  at  a 
small  distance  from  the  town,  in  the 
road  to  Jerusalem,  and  has  been  visited 
by  pilgrims  of  all  ages,  but  particularly 
since  the  Christian  era.  as  the  place  where 
our  Saviour  revealed  himself  to  the  wom 
an  of  Samaria.  The  spot  is  so  distinctly 
marked  by  the  evangelist,  and  so  little 
liable  to  uncertainty,  from  the  circum 
stance  of  the  well  itself  and  the  features 
of  the  country,  that,  if  no  tradition  ex 
isted  for  its  identity,  the  site  of  it  could 
hardly  be  mistaken.  Perhaps  no  Chris 
tian  scholar  ever  attentively  read  the 
fourth  chapter  of  John,  without  being 
struck  with  the  numerous  internal  evi 
dences  of  truth  which  crowd  upon  the 
mind  in  its  perusal.  Within  so  small  a 
compass  it  is  impossible  to  find  in  other 
writings  so  many  sources  of  reflection 
and  of  interest.  Independently  of  its 
importance  as  a  theological  document,  it 
concentrates  so  much  information,  that 
a  volume  might  be  filled  with  the  illus 
tration  it  reflects  on  the  history  of  the 
Jews  and  on  the  geography  of  their  coun 
try.  All  that  can  be  gathered  on  these 
415 


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subjects  from  Josephus  seems  "but  as  a 
comment  to  illustrate  this  chapter.  The 
journey  of  our  Lord  from  Judea  into  Gal 
ilee  ;  the  cause  of  it ;  his  passage  through 
the  territory  of  Samaria  ;  his  approach  to 
the  metropolis  of  this  country ;  its  name ; 
his  arrival  at  the  Amorite  field  which  ter 
minates  the  narrow  valley  of  Sychem ; 
the  ancient  custom  of  halting  at  a  well ; 
the  female  employment  of  drawing  wa 
ter  ;  the  disciples  sent  into  the  city  for 
food,  by  which  its  situation  out  of  the 
town  is  obviously  implied  ;  the  question 
of  the  woman  referring  to  existing  preju 
dices  which  separated  the  Jews  from  the 
Samaritans  ;  the  depth  of  the  well ;  the 
oriental  allusion  contained  in  the  expres 
sion,  '  living  water ;'  the  history  of  the 
well,  and  the  customs  thereby  illustrat 
ed  ;  the  worship  upon  mount  Gerizim ; 
all  these  occur  within  the  space  of  twen 
ty  verses." 


THE  FAT-TAILED  SYRIAN  SHEEP. 

SHEEP.  Of  the  Syrian  sheep,  accord 
ing  to  Dr.  Russell,  there  are  two  varie 
ties  :  the  one  called  Bedaween  sheep, 
which  differ  in  no  respect  from  the  larger 
kinds  of  sheep  among  us,  except  that 
their  tails  are  somewhat  longer  and 
thicker  ;  the  others  are  those  often  men 
tioned  by  travellers  on  account  of  their 
extraordinary  tails ;  and  this  species  is 
by  far  the  most  numerous.  The  tail  of 
one  of  these  animals  is  very  broad  and 
large,  terminating  in  a  small  appendage 
that  turns  back  upon  it.  It  is  of  a  sub 
stance  between  fat  and  marrow,  and  is 
not  eaten  separately,  but  mixed  with  the 
lean  meat  in  many  of  their  dishes,  and 
also  often  used  instead  of  butter.  A 
common  sheep  of  this  sort,  without  the 
416 


head,  feet,  skin,  and  entrails,  weighs  from 
sixty  to  eighty  pounds,  of  which  the  tail 
itself  is  usually  ten  or  fifteen  pounds,  and 
when  the  animal  is  fattened,  twice  or 
thrice  that  weight,  and  very  inconven 
ient  to  its  owner. 

The  sheep  or  lamb  was  the  Common 
sacrifice  under  the  Mosaic  law  ;  and  it  is 
to  be  remarked,  that  when  the  divine 
legislator  speaks  of  this  victim,  he  never 
omits  to  appoint  that  the  rump  or  tail 
be  laid  whole  on  the  lire  of  the  altar, 
Ex.  29  :  22  ;  Lev.  3  :  9.  The  reason  for 
this  is  seen  in  the  account  just  given 
from  Dr.  Russell ;  from  which  it  appears 
that  this  was  the  most  delicate  part  of 
the  animal,  and  therefore  the  most  prop 
er  to  be  presented  in  sacrilice  to  Jeho 
vah. 

The  innocence,  mildness,  submission, 
and  patience  of  the  sheep  or  lamb,  ren 
dered  it  peculiarly  suitable  for  a  sacri 
fice,  and  an  appropriate  type  of  the  Lamb 
of  God,  John  1  :  29.  A  recent  traveller 
in  Palestine  witnessed  the  shearing  of  a 
sheep  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Geth- 
semane  ;  and  the  silent,  unresisting  sub 
mission  of  the  poor  animal,  thrown  with 
its  feet  bound  upon  the  earth,  its  sides 
rudely  pressed  by  the  shearer's  knees, 
while  every  movement  threatened  to 
lacerate  the  flesh,  was  a  touching  com 
mentary  on  the  prophet's  description  of 
Christ,  Isa.  53:7  ;  Acts  8:32-35. 

There  are  frequent  allusions  in  Scrip 
ture  to  these  characteristics  of  the  sheep, 
and  to  its  proneness  to  go  astray,  Psa. 
119  : 176  ;  Isa.  53  :  6.  It  is  a  gregarious 
animal  also ;  and  as  loving  the  compan 
ionship  of  the  flock  and  dependent  on 
the  protection  and  guidance  of  its  mas 
ter,  its  name  is  often  given  to  the  people 
of  God,  2  Kin.  22: 17;  Psa.  79:13;  80:1; 
Matt.  25  :  32.  Sheep  and  goats  are  still 
found  in  Syria  feeding  indiscriminately 
together,  as  in  ancient  times,  Gen.  30:35; 
Matt.  25  :  32,  33.  The  season  of  sheep- 
shearing  was  one  of  great  joy  and  festiv 
ity,  1  Sam.  25:2,  8,  36 ;  2  Sam.  13:23. 

Sheep-cotes  or  folds,  among  the  Israel 
ites,  appear  to  have  been  generally  open 
houses,  or  enclosures  walled  round,  often 
in  front  of  rocky  caverns,  to  guard  the 
sheep  from  beasts  of  prey  by  night,  and 
the  scorching  heat  of  noon,  Num.  32: 16 ; 
2. Sam.  7:8;  Jer.  23:3,  6;  John  10:1-5. 
See  SHEPHERD. 

SHEEP-MARKET,  John  5:2.  The 
original  might  with  at  least  equal  pro* 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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priety  be  rendered  sheep-gate  ;  and  a 
gate  so  called  is  mentioned  in  Neh.  3:1- 
32  ;  12:39.  It  was  adjacent  to  the  tem 
ple,  and  was  so  named  from  the  number 
of  sheep  introduced  through  it  for  the 
temple  service.  Dr.  Barclay  thinks  the 
"  sheep- market "  was  an  enclosure  for 
sheep  and  other  animals  designed  for 
sacrifice,  outside  the  temple  area  on  the 
east. 

SHEK'EL.  The  shekel  was  properly 
and  only  a  weight.  It  was  used  espec 
ially  in  weighing  uncoined  gold  and  sil 
ver:  "The  land  is  worth  400  shekels  of 
silver ;  .  .  .  Abraham  weighed  to  Ephron 
the  silver — in  the  audience  of  the  sons  of 
Heth,"  Gen.  23  :  15,  16.  In  such  cases 
the  word  shekel  is  often  omitted  in  the 
Hebrew,  as  in  Gen.  20:16  ;  37:28,  where 
our  translators  have  supplied  the  word 
"pieces,"  but  improperly,  because  coin 
ed  money  was  not  then  known.  See 
MONEY.  Between  the  sacred  shekel,  Ex. 
30:13,  and  the  shekel  after  the  "king's 
weight,"  2  Sam.  14:26,  there  would 
seern  to  have  been  a  difference ;  but  this 
difference  cannot  now  be  determined, 
and  many  think  the  phrase  "shekel  of 
the  sanctuary  ' '  simply  means  a  full  and 
just  shekel,  according  to  the  temple 
standards.  The  first  coin  which  bore  the 
name  of  shekel  was  struck  after  the  ex 


ile,  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  1  Map. 
15:6,  and  bore  the  inscription,  Shekel  of 
Israel.  Bockh,  whose  authority  in  mat 
ters  pertaining  to  ancient  weights  and 
measures  is  very  high,  fixes  it  proxi- 
mately  at  274  Parfs  grains.  It  is  the 
coin  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
Matt.  26  : 15,  etc. ,  where  our  translators 
have  rendered  it  by  "pieces  of  silver." 

SHEM,  a  son  of  Noah,  Gen.  5  : 32  ; 
6 :  10,  always  named  before  Ham  and 
Japheth,  as  the  eldest  son ;  or,  as  some 
think,  because  he  was  the  forefather  of 
the  Hebrews.  In  Gen.  10  :  21,  the  word 
elder  may  be  applied  to  Shem,  instead  of 
Japheth.  He  received  a  blessing  from 
Jus  dying  father,  Gen.  9  :  26,  and  of  his 


line  the  Messiah  was  born.  He  had  five 
sons,  and  their  posterity  occupied  the 
central  regions  between  Ham  and  Ja 
pheth,  and  peopled  the  finest  provinces 
of  the  East.  The  languages  of  some  of 
these  nations  are  still  called  the  Shemitic 
languages,  including  the  Hebrew,  Chal- 
dee,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  etc.  ;  but 
in  this  general  class  are  found  several 
languages  spoken  by  nations  descended 
from  Ham. 

SHEMAI'AH,  I.,  a  prophet  of  Israel, 
by  whom  God  forbade  Rehoboam  to  en 
deavor  to  coerce  the  ten  tribes  back  to 
their  allegiance,  and  called  the  king  and 
his  court  to  repent  at  the  invasion  of 
Shishak.  He  is  said  to  have  written  the 
history  of  Rehoboam 's  reign,  1  Kings 
12:22-24;  2  Chr.  12:5-8,  15. 

II.  A  Levite,  who  made  a  registry  of 
the  twenty-four  priestly  classes,  1  Chr. 
15:8,  11;  24:6. 

III.  A  false  prophet  among  the  exiled 
Jews  in  Babylon,  who  opposed  the  proph 
et  Jeremiah,  and  incurred  divine  judg 
ments  on  himself  and  his  family.     For 
his  name,  Nehelamite,  the  marginal  read 
ing  is  a  dreamer,  Jer.  29:24-32. 

IV.  A  false  prophet  in  the  pay  of  San- 
ballat  and  Tobiah,  who  sought  to  terrify 
Nehemiah  into  the  cowardly  and  forbid 
den  step  of  taking  refuge  within  the  tem 
ple,  Nupi.  3:38;  Neh.  6:10-14. 

SHE'MER,  the  former  owner  of  the 
hill  on  which  Oinri  built  Samaria,  1  Kin. 
16:24. 

SHEM'INITH,  in  the  titles  of  Psa.  6, 
12,  and  in  1  Chr.  15:21.  It  means  prop 
erly  the  eighth,  and  seems  to  have  been 
not  an  instrument,  but  a  part  in  music, 
perhaps  the  lowest. 

SHE'NIR,     See  HERMON. 

SHEPHATI'AH,  the  name  of  seven 
distinguished  Jews,  alluded  to  in  the 
ifollowing^passages  :  2  Sam.  3:4;  1  Chr. 
12:5;  27:16;  2Chr.  21:2;  Ezra  2:4,  57; 
Neh.  11:4;  Jer.  38:1. 

SHEPHERD,  or  PASTOR.  Abel  was  a 
keeper  of  sheep,  Gen.  4:2,  as  were  the 
greater  number  of  the  ancient  patri 
archs.  When  men  began  to  multiply, 
and  to  follow  different  employments, 
Jabal  son  of  Lamech  was  acknowledged 
as  father,  that  is,  founder  of  shepherds 
and  nomads,  Gen.  4  :  20.  A  large  part 
of  the  wealth  of  ancient  patriarchs  con 
sisted  in  flocks  and  herds,  the  care  of 
which  was  shared  by  their  sons,  daugh 
ters,- and  servants.  Rachel  the  bride  of 
417 


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Jacob  was  a  shepherdess,  Gen.  29:6  ;  his 
sons,  the  fathers,  of  the  tribes  of  Israel 
were  shepherds,  and  so  was  David  their 
king,  Psa.  78 :  70-72.  The  employment 
is  highly  honored  in  the  Bible,  Luke 
2  :  8-20.  In  the  time  of  the  kings,  the 
"chief  herdsman"  occupied  a  post  of 
some  importance,  1  Sam.  21  :  7  ;  2  Kin. 
3 : 4  ;  1  Chr.  27 : 29-31.  In  Palestine  and 
its  vicinity,  besides  those  who  united  the 
keeping  of  flocks  and  herds  with  the  til 
lage  of  the  ground,  there  were  and  still 
are  numbers  of  nomades  or  wandering 
shepherds  confining  themselves  to  no 
settled  home.  These  dwellers  in  tents 
often  had  a  wide  range  of  pasture  grounds, 
from  one  to  another  of  which  they  drove 
their  flocks  as  occasion  required,  Gen. 
37  :  12-17.  In  the  vast  deserts  east  and 
south  of  Palestine  they  found  many  spots 
which  in  winter  and  spring  were  clothed 
with  verdure,  Ex.  3:1 ;  Psa.  65:12.  But 
the  heat  of  summer  withered  these  "pas 
tures  of  the  wilderness,"  and  drove  the 
shepherds  and  their  flocks  to  seek  for 
highlands  and  streams.  There  are  many 
indications  in  Scripture  of  the  conscious 
strength  and  independence  of  the  ancient 
shepherd  patriarchs,  of  the  extent  of 
their  households,  and  the  consideration 
in  which  they  were  held,  Gen.  14: 14-24 ; 
21:22-32;  26:13-16;  30:43;  Job  1:3. 

God  sometimes  takes  the  name  of 
Shepherd  of  Israel,  Psa.  80 : 1 ;  Jer*  31 : 10 ; 
and  kings,  both  in  Scripture  and  ancient 
writers,  are  distinguished  by  the  title  of 
' '  Shepherds  of  the  people. ' '  The  proph 
ets  often  inveigh  against  the  "  shepherds 
of  Israel,"  that  is,  the  kings,  who  feed 
themselves  and  neglect  their  flocks ;  who 
distress,  ill-treat,  seduce,  and  lead  them 
astray,  Ezek.  34  :  10.  In  like  manner 
Christ,  as  the  Messiah,  is  often  called  a 
shepherd,  Zech.  13  :  7,  and  also  takes  on 
himself  the  title  of  "the  Good  Shep 
herd,"  who  gives  his  life  for  his  sheep, 
John  10: 11,  14,  15.  Paul  calls  him  the 
great  Shepherd  of  the  sheep,  Heb.  13:20, 
and  Peter  gives  him  the  appellation  of 
Prince  of  shepherds,  1  Pet.  5  :  4.  His 
ministers  are  in  like  manner  the  pastors 
or  under-shepherds  of  the  flock,  Jer.  3:15; 
23:3;  Eph.  4:11. 

In  John  10:1-16,  our  Saviour  says  the 
good  shepherd  lays  down  his  life  for  his 
sheep ;  that  he  knows  them,  and  they 
know  him ;  that  they  hear  his  voice,  and 
follow  him  ;  that  he  goes  before  them ; 
that  no  one  shall  force  them  out  of  his 
418 


hands,  and  that  he  calls  them  by  their 
names.  These,  however,  being  all  inci 
dents  taken  from  the  customs  of  the 
country,  are  by  no  means  so  striking  to 
us  as  they  must  have  been  to  those  who 
heard  our  Lord,  and  who  every  day  wit 
nessed  such  methods  of  conducting  this 
domesticated  animal.  Modern  travellers 
in  the  East  meet  with  many  pleasing 
confirmations  of  the  truth  of  Scripture 
in  respect  to  these  particulars  ;  they  see 
the  shepherd  walking  before  his  flock, 
any  one  of  which  will  instantly  run  to 
him  when  called  by  its  own  name.  The 
hireling,  or  bad  shepherd,  forsakes  the 
sheep,  and  the  thief  enters  not  by  the 
door  of  the  sheepfold,  but  climbs  in 
another  way.  See  SHEEP.  The  Bible 
applies  many  of  the  excellences  of  the 
faithful  shepherd  in  illustration  of  the 
Saviour's  care  of  his  flock.  The  shep 
herd  was  responsible  for  each  member  of 
the  flock  intrusted  to  him,  Gen.  31  :  39  ; 
Ex.  22  :  12  ;  John  10  :  28 ;  he  had  need 
of  great  courage  and  endurance,  Gen. 
31  :  40  ;  1  Sam.  17:34,  35  ;  John  10:15  ; 
he  exercised  a  tender  care  towards  the 
feeble,  and  carried  the  lambs  in  his  arms, 
Gen.  33  :  13 ;  Isa.  40  :  11 ;  Mark  10  :  14, 
16;  and  searched  for  the  lost  sheep,  bring 
ing  it  back  from  the  "land  of  drought 
and  the  shadow  of  death ' '  into  green  pas 
tures  and  by  the  still  waters,  Psa.  23  ; 
Luke  15:4-7. 

SHE'SHACH,  a  poetical  name  for  Bab 
ylon,  signifying,  as  some  judge,  house  or 
court  of  the  prince,  Jer.  25:26;  51:41. 

SHESHBAZ  ZAR.     See  ZERUBBABEL. 

SHETH'AR-BOZ'NAI.     See  TATNAI. 

SHIB'BOLETH,  a  stream.  In  a  Avar 
between  the  Ephraimites  and  the  men  of 
Gilead  under  Jephthah,  the  former  were 
discomfited,  and  fled  towards  the  fords 
of  the  Jordan.  The  Gileadites  took  pos 
session  of  all  these  fords,  and  when  an 
Ephraimite  who  had  escaped  came  to  the 
river  side  and  desired  to  pass  over,  they 
asked  him  if  he  were  not  an  Ephraimite. 
If  he  said,  No,  they  bade  him  pronounce 
shibboleth  ;  but  he  pronouncing  it  sibboleth, 
according  to  the  dialect  of  the  Ephraim 
ites,  they  lulled  him.  In  this  war  there 
fell  42,000  Ephraimites,  Judg.  12.  This 
incident  should  not  be  passed  over  with 
out  observing,  that  it  affords  proof  of  di 
alectical  variations  among  the  tribes  of 
the  same  nation,  and  speaking  the  same 
language,  in  those  early  days.  There  can 
be  no  wonder,  therefore,  if  we  find  in 


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later  ages  the  same  word  written  differ 
ent  ways,  according  to  the  pronunciation 
of  different  tribes.  That  this  continued, 
is  evident  from  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Galilean  dialect,  by  which  Peter  was 
discovered  to  be  of  that  district,  Mark 
14:70. 

SHIELD,  a  piece  of  defensive  armor. 
God  is  often  called  the  shield  of  his  peo 
ple,  Gen.  15:1;  Psa.  5:12;-  84:11,  as  are 
also  princes  and  great  men,  2  Sam.  1:21 ; 
Psa.  47 : 9.  See  ARMOR. 

SHIGGAI'ON,  Psa.  7,  title,  and  SIIIG- 
GIONOTH,  Hab.  3:1;  probably  song,  or 
song  of  praise ;  perhaps  some  particular 
species  of  ode. 

SHI'LOH,  I.  This  term  is  used,  Gen. 
49  :  10,  to  denote  the  Messiah,  the  com 
ing  of  whom  Jacob  foretells  in  these 
words:  "The  sceptre  shall  not  depart 
from  Judah,  nor  a  lawgiver  from  be 
tween  his  feet,  until  Shiloh  come  ;  and 
unto  him  shall  the  gathering  of  the  peo 
ple  be  ;"  that  is,  until  the  time  of  Christ, 
Judah' s  self-government  as  a  tribe  should 
not  cease.  It  must  be  admitted,  how 
ever,  that  the  literal  signiiication  of  the 
word  is  not  well  ascertained.  Some 
translate,  "The  sceptre  shall  not  depart 
from  Judah  till  he  comes  to  whom  it 
belongs."  Others,  with  more  probabil 
ity,  till  the  coming  of  the  Peacemaker, 
or  of  the  One  desired. 

II.  A  famous  city  of  Ephraim,  about 
ten  miles  south  of  Shechem,  and  twenty- 
four  north  of  Jerusalem.  Here  Joshua 
assembled  the  people  to  make  the  second 
distribution  of  the  Land  of  Promise ;  and 


here  the  tabernacle  of  the  Lord  was  set 
up,  when  they  were  settled  in  the  coun 
try,  Josh.  18  :  1 ;  19  :  51.  The  ark  and 
the  tabernacle  continued  at  Shiloh,  from 
B.  c.  1444  to  B.  c.  1116,  when  it  was  taken 
by  the  Philistines,  under  the  administra 
tion  of  the  high-priest  Eli.  In  honor  of 
the  presence  of  the  ark,  there  was  "a 
feast  of  the  Lord  in  Shiloh  yearly ;"  and 
at  one  of  these  festivals  the  daughters  of 
Shiloh  were  seized  by  a  remnant  of  the 
Benjamites,  Judg.  21:19-23.  At  Shiloh 
Samuel  began  to  prophesy,  1  Sam.  4  :  1, 
and  here  the  prophet  Ahijah  dwelt, 
1  Kin.  14:2. 

SHIM'EI,  I.,  a  Benjamite  kinsman  of 
Saul,  who  insulted  king  David  when  rlee- 
ing  before  Absalom,  and  humbled  him 
self  on  David's  return.  On  both  occa 
sions  David  spared  and  forgave  him ; 
but  when  dying  he  cautioned  Solomon 
against  a  man  who  knew  no  restraints 
but  those  of  fear.  Shimei  gave  his  parole 
never  to  leave  Jerusalem  ;  but  broke  it 
by  pursuing  his  fugitive  servants  to  Gath, 
and  was  put  to  death  on  returning,  2  Sam. 
16:  5-14  ;  19  : 16-23  ;  1  Kin.  2:8,  9,  36- 
46. 

II.  An  officer  under  David,  and  per 
haps  under  Solomon,  1  Kin.  1:8 ;  4:18. 

III.  A  distinguished  family  at  Jerusa 
lem,  Zech.  12:18. 

SHI'NAR,  a  level  region  of  indefinite 
extent  a*ound  Babylon  and  the  junction 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  Gen.  10: 10  ; 
11:2;  14:1;  Josh.  7:21,  Hcb.,  garment 
of  Shinar ;  Isa.  11:11;  Dan.  1:2;  Zech. 
5 : 11.  See  MESOPOTAMIA. 


SHIP.  The  ships  of  the  ancients  were 
very  imperfect  in  comparison  with  mod 
ern  ones.  Navigators  crept  carefully 
along  the  shores,  from  one  headland  or 
prominent  point  to  another,  making  a 
harbor  if  practicable  every  night ;  and 
when  out  of  sight  of  land,  being  igno 
rant  of  the  compass  and  quadrant,  they 


guided  their  course  by  the  sun  and  cer 
tain  stars.  Even  in  St.  Paul's  time, 
vessels  passing  from  Palestine  to  Italy, 
sometimes  wintered  on  the  way !  Acts 
27  : 12  ;  28  : 11.  The  ancient  ships  were 
in  general  small,  though  a  few  large  ships 
are  on  record.  They  were  often  highly 
ornamented  both  at  the  prow  and  the 
419 


SHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHI 


atern  ;  and  the  figurehead  or  "sign,"  by 
which  the  vessel  was  known,  was  some 
times  an  image  of  its  tutelar  divinity. 


They  were  usually  propelled  by  oars, 
often  in  several  "banks"  or  rows  one 
above  another,  as  well  as  by  sails.  In 


PART  OF  A  WAR-GALLEY,  FROM  AN  ANCIENT  BAS-RELIEF. 


war,  the  galley  tried  to  pierce  and  run 
down  its  antagonist.  The  Phoenicians 
were  celebrated  for  their  ships  and  their 
extensive  commerce,  as  appears  from  Eze- 
kiel's  description,  ch.  27,  as  well  as  from 
numerous  ancient  historians.  Though 
Joppa  and  in  Christ's  time  Cfesarea  were 
Jewish  ports,  2  Chr.  2 :  26,  Jonah  1  :  3, 
yet  the  Jews  were  never  a  maritime  peo 
ple,  and  most  of  their  foreign  navigation 
would  appear  to  have  been  carried  on 
by  the  aid  of  Phoenicians,  1  Kin.  9  :  26  ; 
10  :  22  ;  22  :  49,  50.  Paul's  graphic  and 
faithful  description  of  his  voyage  and 
shipwreck  in  Acts  27,  discloses  many  of 
the  peculiarities  of  ancient  navigation. 
For  the  "ships  of  Tarshish,"  see  TAR- 
SHISII. 

SHIPH'RAH  and  PIT' AH,  midwives 
in  Egypt,  who  through  the  fear  of  God 
spared  the  newborn  sons  of  the  Hebrews, 
contrary  to  the  orders  of  the  king.  God 
rewarded  their  kindness  to  his  people, 
though  condemning  no  doubt  the  un- 
truthfulness  of  their  excuse  to  the  king. 
He  "made  them  houses,"  that  is,  prob 
ably  gave  each  of  them  a  numerous  fam 
ily,  Ex.  1:15-21. 

SHI'SHAK,  a  king  of  Egypt,  who  de- 
420 


clared  war  against  Rehoboam  king  of 
Judah  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign.    He 


SHISHAK,  FROM  A  THEBAN   TEMPLE. 

entered  Judah,  B.  c.  971,  with  an  innu 
merable  multitude  of  people  out  of 
Egypt,  the  countries  of  Lubim,  of  Su- 
chim,  and  of  Cush,  captured  the  strong- 


SHI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SHU 


est  places  in  the  country,  and  carried 
away  from  Jerusalem  the  treasures  of 
the  Lord's  house  and  of  the  king's  pal 
ace,  as  well  as  the  golden  bucklers  of 
Solomon.  Jeroboam  having  secured  the 
friendship  of  Shishak,  his  territories  were 
not  invaded,  1  Kin.  11  :  40  ;  14  :  25,  26  ; 
2  Chr.  12:2-9.  Shishak  is  generally  be 
lieved  to  have  been  the  Sesonchis  of  sec 
ular  history,  the  first  king  of  the  twenty- 
second  or  Bubastine  line.  He  dethroned 
the  dynasty  into  which  Solomon  mar 
ried,  1  Kin.  3:1,  and  made  many  foreign 
conquests.  In  the  palace-temple  of  Kar- 
nak  in  Egypt,  the  walls  of  which  are  yet 
standing,  Sesonchis  is  represented  in  a 
large  bas-relief,  dragging  captive  kings 
in  triumph  before  the  three  chief  The- 
ban  gods.  Each  country  or  city  is  per 
sonified,  and  its  name  written  in  an  oval 


above  it.  One  of  these  figures,  with  Jew 
ish  features,  has  an  inscription  which 
Champollion  interprets,  "kingdom  of 
Judah."  Several  other  symbols  are 
thought  to  denote  as  many  walled  towns 
of  Judah,  captured  by  Shishak.  See 
PHARAOH. 

SHIT'TAH,  and  SHIT'TIM,  a  valuable 
kind  of  wood,  of  which  Moses  made  the 


greater  part  of  the  tables,  altars,  and 
planks  belonging  to  the  tabernacle.  Je 
rome  says,  "The  wood  is  hard,  tough, 
smooth,  without  knots,  and  extremely 
beautiful ;  so  that  the  rich  and  curious 
make  screws  of  it  for  their  presses.  It 
does  not  grow  in  cultivated  places,  nor 
in  any  other  places  of  the  Roman  em 
pire,  but  only  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia. ' ' 
It  is  thought  he  means  the  black  acacia, 


the  Acacia  Seyal,  which  is  found  in  the 
deserts  of  Arabia,  and  the  wood  of  which 
is  very  common  about  mount  Sinai  and 
the  mountains  which  border  on  the  Red 
sea,  and  is  so  hard  and  solid  as  to  be 
almost  incorruptible. 

SHOES.     See  SANDALS. 

SHOSHAN'NIM-E'DUTH,  lilies  of  testi 
mony,  Psa.  60 ;  80.  See  SHUSHAN. 

SHRINE.     See  DIANA. 

SHU'LAMITE,  peaceful,  in  Hebrew  a 
feminine  name,  corresponding  to  Solo 
mon  as  Julia  does  to  Julius.  It  is  the 
figurative  name  of  the  bride  in  Solo 
mon's  Song,  6  :  13  ;  and  the  bridegroom 
is  represented  by  SOLOMON,  also  meaning 
peaceful. 

SHU'NEM,  a  city  of  Issachar,  Josh. 
19  :  18.  The  Philistines  encamped  at 
Shunem,  in  the  great  field  of  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  1  Sam.  28  :  4  ;  and  Saul  en 
camped  at  Gilboa.  Abishag,  king  Da 
vid's  nurse,  was  of  Shunem,  1  Kin.  1:3; 
so  also  was  the  woman  whose  son  Elisha 
restored  to  life,  2  Kin.  4  :  8-37.  Euse- 
bius  and  Jerome  place  it  five  miles  south 
of  Tabor ;  and  it  is  now  recognized  in  a 
poor  village  called  Solam,  on  a  declivity 
at  the  north-west  corner  of  the  smaller 
valley  of  Jezreel. 

SHUR,  a  city  on  the  north-east  border 
421 


SHU 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SID 


of  Egypt,  not  far  from  the  modern  Suez, 
Gen.  16:7;  20:1;  25:18;  1  Sam.  15:7  ; 
27  : 8.  It  gave  its  name  to  the  desert 
between  it  and  Canaan,  towards  the 
Mediterranean,  Ex.  15:22. 

SHU'SHAN,  I.,  Psa.  60,  title;  plural 
SHOSHAN'NIM,  Psa.  45,  69,  titles ;  the 
name  of  a  musical  instrument.  The 
word  signifies  a  lily,  or  lilies  ;  and  if  the 
instrument  were  so  named  from  its  sim 
ilarity  to  this  flower,  we  might  under 
stand  the  cymbal.  Or  it  may  denote  a 
melody,  so  named  for  its  pleasantness, 
or,  as  some  suppose,  the  pleasantness  of 
the  subject  matter  of  the  song,  as  in  the 
title  to  Psalm  45. 

II.  The  capital  city  of  Elam,  or  Per 
sia,  Gen.  14  : 1,  Dan.  8:2,  on  the  river 
Ulai.  It  was  the  winter  residence  of  the 
Persian  kings,  after  Cyrus,  Esth.  1:5; 
and  is  deeply  interesting  as  the  scene  of 
the  wonderful  events  narrated  in  the 
book  of  Esther.  Here  Daniel  had  the 
vision  of  the  ram  and  he-goat,  in  the 
third  year  of  Belshazzar,  Dan.  8.  Ne- 
hemiah  was  also  at  Shushan,  when  he 
obtained  from  Artaxerxes  permission  to 
return  into  Judea,  and  to  repair  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem,  Neh.  1:1. 

The  present  Shouster,  the  capital  of 
Khusistan,  in  long.  49  East,  lat.  32 
North,  on  the  river  Karun,  a  branch  of 
the  Shat-el-Arab,  has  been  generally 
believed  to  be  the  ancient  Shushan,  the 
Susa  of  the  Greeks;  but  Mr.  Kinneir 
rather  thinks  the  ruins  about  thirty-five 
miles  west  of  Shouster  are  those  of  that 
ancient  residence  of  royalty,  ' '  stretch 
ing  not  less,  perhaps,  than  twelve  miles 
from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  They 
occupy  an  immense  space  between  the 
rivers  Kerah  and  Abzal;  and  like  the 
ruins  of  Ctesiphon,  Babylon,  and  Kufa, 
consist  of  hillocks  of  earth  and  rubbish, 
covered  with  broken  pieces  of  brick  and 
colored  tile.  The  largest  is  a  mile  in 
circumference,  and  nearly  one  hundred 
feet  in  height ;  another,  not  quite  so 
high,  is  double  the  circuit.  They  are 
formed  of  clay  and  pieces  of  tile,  with 
irregular  layers  of  brick  and  mortar,  five 
or  six  feet  in  thickness,  to  serve,  as  it 
should  seem,  as  a  kind  of  prop  to  the 
mass.  Large  blocks  of  marble,  covered 
with  hieroglyphics,  are  not  unfrequently 
here  discovered  by  the  Arabs,  when  dig 
ging  in  search  of  hidden  treasure ;  and 
at  the  foot  of  the  most  elevated  of  the 
pyramids  (ruins)  stands  the  tomb  of 
422 


Daniel,  a  small  and  apparently  a  mod 
ern  building,  erected  on  the  spot  where 
the  relics  of  that  prophet  are  believed  to 
rest."  Major  Rennell  coincides  in  the 
opinion  that  these  ruins  represent  the  an 
cient  Susa.  The  desolation  of  the  place, 
abandoned  to  beasts  of  prey,  agrees  with 
the  prediction  in  Ezek.  32:24. 

The  preceding  statements  are  confirm 
ed  by  Loftus,  who  with  Col.  Williams 
visited  and  in  part  explored  these  ruins 
in  1851-2.  Shush,  he  says,  abounds  in 
lions,  wolves,  lynxes,  jackals,  boars,  etc. 
During  nine  months  of  the  year  the 
country  is  burnt  up  by  the  most  intense 
heat,  though  exceedingly  rich  and  beau 
tiful  in  the  rainy  season.  His  excava 
tions  in  the  great  mound  disclosed  the 
ruins  of  a  vast  palace,  commenced  ap 
parently  by  Darius,  carried  on  by  Xer 
xes,  and  finished  by  Artaxerxes  Mnemcn. 
It  is  altogether  probable  that  this  was 
the  scene  of  the  festival  described  in  Es 
ther  1.  The  "pillars  of  marble"  may 
perhaps  be  even  now  traced  in  the  ruined 
colonnade  forming  a  great  central  court ; 
the  huge  columns  were  fluted  and  highly 
ornamented,  and  one  of  the  capitals  meas 
ured  was  twenty-eight  feet  high. 

SIB'MAH,  a  city  of  Reuben,  Num. 
32  :  38  ;  Josh.  13  :  19.  Isaiah,  16  :  8,  9, 
speaks  of  the  vines  of  Sibmah,  which 
were  cut  down  by  the  enemies  of  the 
Moabites  ;  for  that  people  had  taken  the 
city  of  Sibmah,  Jer.  48  :  32,  and  other 
cities  of  Reuben,  after  this  tribe  had  been 
carried  into  captivity  by  Tiglath-pileser, 
2  Kin.  15  :  29 ;  1  Chron.  5  :  26.  Jerome 
says  that  between  Heshbon  and  Sibmah 
there  was  hardly  the  distance  of  five 
hundred  paces. 

SID'DIM.     See  SEA  III. 

SI'DON,  in  the  Old  Testament  ZIDON, 
now  called  Saida,  was  a  celebrated  city 
of  Phoenicia,  on  the  Mediterranean  sea, 
twenty  miles  north  of  Tyre  and  as  many 
south  of  Beyroot.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  in  the  world,  Gen.  49  : 13, 
and  is  believed  to  have  been  founded  by 
Zidon,  the  eldest  son  of  Canaan,  Gen. 
10  :  15  ;  49  :  13.  In  the  time  of  Homer, 
the  Zidonians  were  eminent  for  their 
trade  and  commerce,  their  wealth  and 
prosperity,  their  skill  in  navigation,  as 
tronomy,  architecture,  and  for  their  man 
ufactures  of  glass,  etc.  They  had  then  a 
commodious  harbor,  now  choked  with 
sand  and  inaccessible  to  any  but  the 
smallest  vessels.  Upon  the  division  of 


SIG 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIL 


Canaan  among  the  tribes  by  Joshua, 
Great  Zidon  fell  to  the  lot  of  Asher,  Josh. 
11:8;  19  :  28  ;  but  that  tribe  never  suc 
ceeded  in  obtaining  possession,  Judg. 
1:31;  3:3;  10:12.  The  Zidonians  con 
tinued  long  under  their  own  government 
and  kings,  though  sometimes  tributary, 
to  the  kings  of  Tyre.  They  were  sub 
dued  successively  by  the  Babylonians, 
Egyptians,  Seleucidce,  and  Romans,  the 
latter  of  whom  deprived  them  of  their 
freedom.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Sidon  became  followers  of  our  Saviour, 
Mark  3  :  8,  and  he  himself  visited  their 
coasts,  Matt.  15  :  21-28  ;  Mark  7  :  24-31. 
Many  of  them  also  resorted  to  him  in 
Galilee,  Luke  6  :  17.  The  gospel  was 
proclaimed  to  the  Jews  at  Sidon  after 
the  martyrdom  of  Stephen,  Acts  11  :  19, 
and  there  was  a  Christian  church  there, 
when  Paul  visited  it  on  his  voyage  to 
Rome,  Acts  27  :  3.  It  is  at  present,  like 
most  of  the  other  Turkish  towns  in  Syria, 
dirty  and  full  of  ruins,  though  it  still 
retains  a  little  coasting  trade,  and  has 
five  thousand  inhabitants.  It  incurred 
the  judgments  of  God  for  its  sins,  Ezek. 
28 :  21-24,  though  less  ruinously  than 
Tyre.  Our  Saviour  refers  to  both  cities, 
in  reproaching  the  Jews  as  more  highly 
favored  and  less  excusable  than  they, 
Matt.  1 1 : 22.  Saida  occupies  an  .elevated 
promontory,  projecting  into  the  sea,  and 


defended  by  walls.  Its  environs,  watered 
by  a  stream  from  Lebanon,  are  famous 
for  their  beautiful  gardens,  and  fruit- 
trees  of  every  kind. 

SIGN,  a  token,  pledge,  or  proof,  Gen. 
9:12,  13;  17:11;  Ex.  3:  12;  Isa.  8:  18. 
Also  a  supernatural  portent,  Luke  21 : 11; 
and  a  miracle,  regarded  as  a  token  of  the 
divine  agency,  Ex.  4:7-9;  Mark  8:11. 
The  "signs  of  heaven"  were  the  move 
ments  and  aspects  of  the  heavenly  bod 
ies,  from  which  heathen  astrologers  pre 
tended  to  obtain  revelations,  Isa.  44:25; 
Jer.  10:2.  See  SHIP. 

SIG'NET,  a  ring  for  sealing.  See 
RING,  and  SEAL. 

SI'HON,  king  of  the  Amorites  at  Hesh- 
bon,  on  refusing  passage  to  the  Hebrews, 
and  coming  to  attack  them,  was  himself 
slain,  his  army  routed,  and  his  domin 
ions  divided  among  Israel,  Num.  21:21- 
34;  Deut.  2:26-36. 

SI'HOR,  black  or  turbid,  the  Nile.  In 
Isa.  23:3,  and  Jer.  2:18,  this  name  must 
necessarily  be  understood  of  the  Nile. 
In  Josh.  13  :  3 ;  1  Chr.  13  :  5,  some  have 
understood  it  of  the  little  river  between 
Egypt  and  Judah. 

SI'LAS,  Acts  15:22,  and  SILVA'NUS, 
2  Cor.  1 :  19,  the  former  name  being  a 
contraction  of  the  latter ;  one  of  the  chief 
men  among  the  first  disciples  at  Jerusa 
lem,  Acts  15  :  22,  and  supposed  by  some 
423 


SIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIL 


to  have  been  of  the  number  of  the  sev 
enty.  On  occasion  of  a  dispute- at  Anti- 
och,  as  to  the  observance  of  legal  cere 
monies,  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  chosen 
to  go  to  Jerusalem,  to  advise  with  the 
apostles  ;  and  they  returned  with  Judas 
and  Silas.  Silas  joined  himself  to  Paul ; 
and  after  Paul  and  Barnabas  had  sepa 
rated,  Acts  15:37-41,  A.  D.  51,  he  accom 
panied  Paul  to  visit  the  churches  of  Syria 
and  Cilicia,  and  the  towns  and  provinces 
of  Lycaonia,  Phrygia,  Galatia,  and  Mace 
donia.  He  was  imprisoned  with  him  at 
Philippi.  joined  him  at  Corinth  after  a 
brief  separation,  bringing,  it  is  supposed, 
the  donation  referred  to  in  2  Cor.  11 :  9, 
Phil.  4  :  10,  15,  and  probably  went  with 
him  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  16:19,  25  ;  17:4, 
10,  14 ;  18  :  5  ;  1  and  2  Thess.  1:1.  He 
appears  always  as  a  "faithful  brother," 
well  known  and  praised  by  all  the  church 
es,  2  Cor.  1:19;  1  Pet.  5:12. 

SILK,  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies, 
came  to  Greece  and  Rome  from  the  far 
east  of  China,  etc. ,  by  the  way  of  Alex 
andria,  and  was  sold  for  its  weight  in 
gold.  It  sometimes  came  in  the  form 
of  skeins,  and  was  woven  into  a  light 
and  thin  gauze.  It  is  mentioned  in  Rev. 
18  : 12,  and  probably  in  Ezek.  16  : 10, 13. 
In  Gen.  41:42  and  Prov.  31:22,  the  word 
rendered  silk  in  our  version  is  the  same 
that  is  elsewhere  correctly  rendered  fine 
linen.  It  is  not  known  how  early  or 
extensively  the  Jews  used  it. 


The  pool  is  now  an  artificial  stone  reser 
voir,  fifty-three  feet  long,  eighteen  feet 
wide,  and  nineteen  feet  deep.  Steps  lead 
to  the  bottom  of  the  pool,  three  or  four 
feet  above  which  the  water  flows  off  south 
east  to  water  the  cultivated  grounds  in 
the  valley  below.  The  fountain  is  in  an 
arched  excavation  in  the  foot  of  the  cliff 
above  the  pool ;  and  the  small  basin 
here  is  connected  by  a  winding  passage 
cut  through  the  solid  rock  under  the 
hill  Ophel,  with  the  "Fountain  of  the 
Virgin ' '  eleven  hundred  feet  north  on  the 


FOUNTAIN   AND   POOL  OF    S1LOAM. 

SILO' AM,  John  9  :  7,  11,  or  SIIILOAH, 
Neh.  3  :  15 ;  Isa.  8:6;  a  fountain  and 
pool  at  the  base  of  the  hill  Ophel,  near 
the  opening  of  the  Tyropoeon  into  the 
valley  of  the  Kidron  on  the  south  of 
Jerusalem ; 

"  Siloah's  brook,  that  flowed 
Fast  by  the  oracle  of  God." 

MILTOW. 

424 


UPPER   POOL,  OR    FOUNTAIN   OF    THE   VIRGIN. 

east  side  of  mount  Moriah.  See  BETIIES- 
DA.  This  passage  was  traversed  through 
out  by  Dr.  Robinson.  The  water  flowing 
through  it  is  tolerably  sweet  and  clear, 
but  has  a  marked  taste,  and  in  the  dry 
season  is  slightly  brackish.  It  is  thought 
to  be  derived  from  the  reservoirs  under 
the  ancient  temple  area,  and  in  part 
from  mount  Zion.  It  runs  "softly," 
Isa.  8 :  6,  but  ebbs  and  flows  in  the 
"Fountain  of  the  Virgin,"  and  less  per 
ceptibly  in  that  of  Siloam,  at  irregular 
intervals.  Thus  the  water  rose  more 
than  a  foot  in  the  upper  fountain,  and 
fell  again  within  ten  minutes,  while  Dr. 
Robinson  was  on  the  spot.  He  once 
found  a  party  of  soldiers  there  washing 
their  clothes,  John  9  : 1-11,  and  it  is  in 
constant  use  for  purposes  of  ablution. 
At  Siloam  also  the  water  is  used  for  wash 
ing,  watering  animals,  etc. 

Nothing  is  known  respecting  the 
"tower"  near  Siloam,  the  fall  of  which 
killed  eighteen  men.  The  ancient  city 


SIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIM 


wall  is  believed  to  have  enclosed  this 
pool.  Christ  teaches  us  by  the  above 
incident  that  temporal  calamities  are 
not  always  pi-oofs  of  special  guilt,  Luke 
13  :  4,  5,  though  the  utmost  sufferings 
ever  endured  in  this  world  are  far  less 
than  the  sins  of  even  the  best  of  men 
deserve,  Lam.  3:39. 

SILVA'NUS.     See  SILAS. 

SIL'VER,  one  of  the  precious  metals, 
and  the  one  most  commonly  used  as  coin 
among  all  nations.  It  is  first  mentioned 
in  Scripture  in  the  history  of  Abraham, 
Gen.  13:2;  20:16;  23:16,  and  was  used 
in  constructing  the  tabernacle,  Ex.  26 : 19, 
32,  and  afterwards  the  temple,  1  Chr. 
29 :  4.  In  employing  it  as  a  medium  of 
trade,  the  ancient  Hebrews  weighed  it 
out,  instead  of  having  coins.  In  the 
times  of  the  New  Testament  there  were 
coins.  See  SHEKEL,  and  MONEY. 

SIM'EON,  I.,  one  of  the  twelve  patri 
archs,  the  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  Gen. 
29  :  33  ;  Ex.  6  :  15.  Some  have  thought 
he  was  more  guilty  than  his  brethren  in 
the  treatment  of  Joseph,  Gen.  37  :  20 ; 
42  :  24  ;  43  :  23  ;  but  he  may  have  been 
detained  as  a  hostage  because  he  was  one 
of  the  eldest  sons.  The  tribes  of  Simeon 
and  Levi  were  scattered  and  dispei-sed  in 
Israel,  in  conformity  with  the  prediction 
of  Jacob,  on  account  of  their  sacrilegious 
and  piratical  revenge  of  the  outrage  com 
mitted  against  Dinah  their  sister,  Gen. 
34  ;  49  :  5.  Levi  had  no  compact  lot  or 
portion  in  the  Holy  Land ;  and  Simeon 
received  for  his  portion  only  a  district 
dismembered  from  Judah,  with  some 
other  lands  the  tribe  overran  in  the 
mountains  of  Seir,  and  in  the  desert  of 
Gedor,  1  Chr.  4:24,  39,  42.  The  portion 
of  Simeon  was  west  and  south  of  that 
of  Judah,  having  the  Philistines  on  the 
north-west  and  the  desert  on  the  south, 
Josh.  19:1-9.  The  tribe  was  reduced  in 
numbers  while  in  the  wilderness,  from 
59,300  to  24,000,  Num.  1  :  23  ;  26  :  14  ; 
very  probably  on  account  of  sharing  in 
the  licentious  idolatry  of  Moab,  with 
Zimri  their  prince,  Num.  25,  or  for  other 
sins.  They  are  little  known  in  subse 
quent  history.  We  find  them  faithful 
to  David,  1  Chr.  12 :  25,  and  afterwards 
to  Asa,  2  Chr.  15  :  9,  and  in  general  ab 
sorbed  by  Judah.  Moses  omits  this  tribe 
in  his  dying  benedictions,  Deut.  33 ;  but 
its  place  in  Israel  is  restored  by  a  cove 
nant-keeping  God,  Ezek.  48  :  24 ;  Rev. 


II.  A  venerable  saint  at  Jerusalem, 
full  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  was  expect 
ing  the  redemption  of  Israel,  Luke  2:25- 
35.    It  had  been  revealed  to  him  that  he 
should  not  die  before  he  had  seen  the 
Christ  so  long  promised ;  and  he  there 
fore  came  into  the  temple,  prompted  by 
inspiration,  just  at  the  time  when  Joseph 
and  Mary  presented  our  Saviour  there, 
in  obedience  to  the  law.     Simeon  took 
the  child  in  his  arms,  gave  thanks  to 
God,  and  blessed  Joseph  and  Mary.    We 
know  nothing  further  concerning  him. 

III.  Surnamed  NI'GER,  or  the  Black, 
Acts  13:1,  was  among  the  prophets  and 
teachers  of  the  Christian  church  at  Anti- 
och.     Some  think  he  was  Simon  the  Cy- 
renian  ;  but  there  is  no  proof  of  this. 

IV.  The  apostle  Peter  is  also  called 
Simeon  in  Acts  15  :  14,  but  elsewhere 
Simon. 

SI'MON,  I.,  one  of  the  twelve  apos 
tles.     See  PETER. 

II.  The  Canaanite,  or  Zelotes,  one  of 
the  twelve  apostles.     See  ZELOTES. 

III.  One  of  the  "brethren"  of  Jesus, 
Matt.  13:55 ;  Mark  6:3.     He  is  by  some 
supposed  to  be  the  same  with  the  preced 
ing  Simon  Zelotes.     See  JAMES  III. 

IV.  The  Cyrenian,  who  was  compelled 
to  aid  in  bearing  the  cross  of  Jesus,  Matt. 
27:32,  probably  on  account  of  his  known 
attachment  to  His  cause.     He  was  "  the 
father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus,"  Mark 
15  :  21 ;  and  from  the  cordial  salutation 
of  Paul,  Rom.  16:13,  it  would  seem  that 
the  family  afterwards  resided  at  Rome, 
and  that  their  labor  of  love  was  not  for 
gotten  by  God. 

V.  A  Pharisee,  probably  at  Caperna 
um,  who  invited  Jesus  to  dinner  at  his 
house,  Luke  7:36-50. 

VI.  The  leper  ;  that  is,  who  had  been 
a  leper ;   a  resident  of  Bethany,  with 
whom  also  Jesus  supped,  Matt.  26  :  6 ; 
Mark  14 : 3.     Compare  John  12 : 1-11. 

VII.  The  tanner  ;  a  disciple  who  dwelt 
at  Joppa,  and  in  whose  house  Peter  lodg 
ed,  Acts  9: 43;  10:6,  17,  32. 

VIII.  The  sorcerer  of  Samaria ;  often 
called  Simon  Magus,  that  is,  the  Magi 
cian.     See  SORCERER.      This  artful  im 
postor,  by  the  aid  of  some  knowledge  of 
philosophy,  medicine,  physics,   and  as 
tronomy,  acquired  an  ascendency  over 
the  people  of  Samaria.     But  the  preach 
ing  and  miracles  of  Philip  brought  great 
numbers  to  Christ,  and  convinced  even 
Simon  that  a  real  and  great  power  at- 

425 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIN 


tended  the  gospel.  He  coveted  these 
spiritual  gifts  of  the  apostles  for  selfish 
ends,  and  sought  them  by  joining  the 
church  and  afterwards  offering  to  pur 
chase  them  with  money.  Peter  took  the 
occasion  to  expose  his  hypocrisy  by  a  ter 
rible  denunciation,  Acts  8: 9-24.  There 
are  various  doubtful  traditions  as  to  his 
subsequent  course.  The  sin  of  traffick 
ing  in  spiritual  things,  called  Simony 
after  him,  was  more  odious  to  Peter  than 
to  many  who  claim  to  be  his  especial  fol 
lowers. 

IX.  The  father  of  Judas  Iscariot,  John 
6:71;  13:2,  26. 

SIM'PLE  and  SIMPLICITY  are  some 
times  used  in  the  Bible  in  a  good  sense, 
denoting  sincerity,  candor,  and  an  art 
less  ignorance  of  evil,  Rom.  16  :  19  ; 
2  Cor.  1:12;  11:3;  sometimes  in  a  bad 
sense,  denoting  a  heedless  foolishness 
both  mental  and  moral,  Prov.  1  :  22 ; 
9:4;  14:15  ;  22:3  ;  and  sometimes  in  the 
sense  of  mere  ignorance  or  inexperience, 
2  Sam.  15:11;  Prov.  1:4;  21:11. 

SIN,  I.,  any  thought,  word,  desire, 
action,  or  omission  of  action,  contrary 
to  the  law  of  God,  or  defective  when 
compared  with  it. 

The  origin  of  sin  is  a  subject  which 
baffles  all  investigation ;  and  our  inqui 
ries  are  much  better  directed  when  we 
seek  through  Christ  a  release  from  its 
penalty  and  power,  for  ourselves  and  the 
world.  Its  entrance  into  the  world,  and 
infection  of  the  whole  human  race,  its 
nature,  forms,  and  effects,  and  its  fatal 
possession  of  every  unregenerate  -soul, 
are  fully  described  in  the  Bible,  Gen. 
6:5;  Psa.  51 :  5  ;  Matt.  15  :  19  ;  Rom. 
5:12;  Jas.  1:14,  15. 

As  contrary  to  the  nature,  worship, 
love,  and  service  of  God,  sin  is  called 
ungodliness ;  as  a  violation  of  the  law 
of  God  and  of  the  claims  of  man,  it  is  a 
transgression  or  trespass  ;  as  a  deviation 
from  eternal  rectitude,  it  is  called  iniqui 
ty  or  unrighteousness ;  as  the  evil  and 
bitter  root  of  all  actual  transgression, 
the  depravity  transmitted  from  our  first 
parents  to  all  their  seed,  it  is  called 
"original  sin,"  or  in  the  Bible,  "the 
flesh,"  "  the  law  of  sin  and  death,"  etc., 
Rom.  8  : 1,  2  ;  1  John  3  :  4  ;  5  : 17.  The 
just  penalty  or  "wages  of  sin  is  death ;" 
this  was  threatened  against  the  first  sin, 
Gen.  2  :  17,  and  all  subsequent  sins : 
"  The  soul  that  sinneth  it  shall  die."  A 
single  sin,  unrepented  of  and  unforgiv- 
426 


en,  destroys  the  soul,  as  a  single  break 
renders  a  whole  ocean  cable  worthless. 
Its  guilt  and  evil  are  to  be  measured  by 
the  holiness,  justice,  and  goodness  of  the 
law  it  violates,  the  eternity  of  the  misery 
it  causes,  and  the  greatness  of  the  Sacri 
fice  necessary  to  expiate  it. 

"Sin"  is  also  sometimes  put  for  the 
sacrifice  of  expiation,   the   sin-offering, 
described  in  Lev.  4:3,  25,  29.     So,  Rom.  ,* 
8:3  ;  and  in  2  Cor.  5  :  21,  Paul  says  that/ 
God  was  pleased  that  Jesus,  who  knew" 
no  sin,  should  be  our  victim  of  expia 
tion  :  ' '  For  he  hath  made  him  to  be  sin 
for  us,  who  knew  no  sin ;  that  we  might 
be  made  the   righteousness  of  God  in 
him." 

For  the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost, 
see  BLASPHEMY. 

II.  A  desert  of  Arabia  Petraa,  near 
Egypt,  and  on  the  western  arm  of  the 
Red  sea,  Ex.  16  : 1 ;  17:1;  Num.  33 : 12. 
To  be  distinguished  from  the  desert  of 
Zin.     See  ZIN. 

III.  An  ancient  fortified  city,  called 
"  the  strength  of  Egypt,"  Ezek.  30  :  15, 
16.     Its  name  means  mire,  and  in  this 
it  agrees  with  Pelusium  and  Tineh,  the 
Greek  and  modern  names  of  the  same 
place.     It  defended  the  north-east  fron 
tier  of  Egypt,  and  lay  near  the  Mediter 
ranean,  on  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Nile. 
Its  site,  near  the   village  of  Tineh,   is 
surrounded  with  morasses ;  and  is  now 
accessible  by  boats  only  during  a  high 
inundation,  or  by  land  in  the  driest  part 
of  summer.    A  few  mounds  and  columns 
alone  remain. 

SI'NAI,  a  mountain,  or  mountain 
range,  in  Arabia  Petraea,  in  the  penin 
sula  formed  by  the  two  arms  of  the  Red 
sea,  and  rendered  memorable  as  the  spot 
where  the  law  was  given  to  Israel  through 
Moses,  Ex.  19:1  to  Num.  10:33.  As  this 
mountain  has  been  almost  unknown  in 
modern  times,  until  recently,  and  is  of 
such  importance  in  Scripture  history, 
we  shall  enter  into  some  details  respect 
ing  it. 

The  upper  region  of  Sinai  forms  an 
irregular  circle  of  thirty  or  forty  miles 
in  diameter,  possessing  numerous  sources 
of  water,  a  temperate  climate,  and  a  soil 
capable  of  supporting  animal  and  vege 
table  life ;  for  which  reason  it  is  the 
refuge  of  all  the  Bedaweens  when  the 
low  country  is  parched  up.  This,  there 
fore,  was  the  part  of  the  peninsula  best 
adapted  to  the  residence  of  nearly  a  year, 


SIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIN 


PLAIN  ER-RAHAH,  AND  CONVENT  OF  ST.  CATHARINE. 


during  which  the  Israelites  were  num 
bered,  and  received  their  laws  from  the 
Most  High.  In  the  highest  and  central 
part  of  this  region,  seven  thousand  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  rises  the  sa 
cred  summit  of  Horeb  or  Sinai.  The  two 
names  are* used  almost  indiscriminately 
in  the  Bible,  the  former  predominating 
in  Deuteronomy.  Some  have  thought 
there  were  two  adjacent  summits,  called, 
in  the  time  of  Moses,  Horeb  and  Sinai ; 
and  indeed  the  monks  give  these  names 
to  the  northern  and  southern  heights  of 
the  same  ridge,  three  miles  long.  But 
the  comparison  of  all  the  Scripture  pas 
sages  rather  shows  that  HOREB  was  the 
general  name  for  the  group,  and  SINAI 
the  name  of  the  sacred  summit. 

In  approaching  this  elevated  region 
from  the  north-west,  Burckhardt  writes, 
"We  now  approached  the  central  sum 
mits  of  mount  Sinai,  which  we  had  had 
in  view  for  several  days.  Abrupt  cliffs 
of  granite,  from  six  to  'eight  hundred 
feet  in  height,  whose  surface  is  black 
ened  by  the  sun,  surround  the  avenues 
leading  to  the  elevated  region  to  which 
the  name  of  Sinai  is  specifically  applied. 
These  cliffs  inclose  the  holy  mountain  on 
three  sides,  leaving  the  east  and  north 
east  sides  only,  towards  the  gulf  of  Aka- 
ba,  more  open  to  the  view.  At  the  -end 
of  three  hours,  we  entered  these  cliffs 


by  a  narrow  defile  about  forty  feet  in 
breadth,  with  perpendicular  granite  rocks 
on  both  sides.  The  ground  is  covered 
with  sand  and  pebbles,  brought  down  by 
the  torrent  which  rushes  from  the  upper 
region  in  the  winter  time." 

The  general  approach  to  Sinai  from 
the  same  quarter  is  thus  described  by 
Mr.  Carne  :  "A  few  hours  more,  and  we 
got  sight  of  the  mountains  round  Sinai. 
Their  appearance  was  magnificent.  When 
we  drew  near,  and  emerged  out  of  a  deep 
pass,  the  scenery  was  infinitely  striking ; 
and  on  the  right  extended  a  vast  range 
of  mountains,  as  far  as  the  eye  could 
reach,  from  the  vicinity  of  Sinai  down 
to  Tor,  on  the  gulf  of  Suez.  They  were 
perfectly  bare,  but  of  grand  and  singular 
form.  We  had  hoped  to  reach  the  con 
vent  by  daylight ;  but  the  moon  had 
risen  some  time  when  we  entered  the 
mouth  of  a  narrow  pass,  where  our 
conductors  advised  us  to  dismount.  A 
gentle  yet  perpetual  ascent  led  on,  mile 
after  mile,  up  this  mournful  valley, 
whose  aspect  was  terrific,  yet  ever  vary 
ing.  It  was  not  above  two  hundred 
yards  in  width,  and  the  mountains  rose 
to  an  immense  height  on  each  side.  The 
road  wound  at  their  feet  along  the  edge 
of  a  precipice,  and  amid  masses  of  rock 
that  had  fallen  from  above.  It  was  a 
toilsome  path,  generally  over  stones 
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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIN 


placed  like  steps,  probably  by  the  Arabs ; 
and  the  moonlight  was  of  little  service 
to  us  in  this  deep  valley,  as  it  only  rest 
ed  on  the  frowning  summits  above. 
Where  is  mount  Sinai  ?  was  the  inquiry 
of  every  one.  The  Arabs  pointed  before 
to  Jebel  Moosa,  the  mount  of  Moses,  as  it 
is  called ;  but  we  could  not  distinguish  it. 
Again  and  again  point  after  point  was 
turned,  and  we  saw  but  the  same  stern 
scenery.  But  what  had  the  beauty  and 


softness  of  nature  to  do  here?  Mount 
Sinai  required  an  approach  like  this, 
where  all  seemed  to  proclaim  the  land 
of  miracles,  and  to  have  been  visited  by 
the  terrors  of  the  Lord.  The  scenes,  as 
you  gazed  around,  had  an  unearthly 
character,  suited  to  the  sound  of  the 
fearful  trumpet  that  was  once  heard 
there.  We  entered  at  last  on  the  more 
open  valley,  about  half  a  mile  wide,  and 
drew  near  this  famous  mountain." 


The  elevated  valley  or  plain  Er-Rahah, 
here  and  above  referred  to,  is  now  gen 
erally  believed  to  be  the  place  where  the 
Hebrews  assembled  to  witness  the  giving 
of  the  law.  It  is  two  miles  long  from 
north-west  to  south-east,  and  on  an  av 
erage  half  a  mile  wide.  The  square  mile 
thus  afforded  is  nearly  doubled  by  the 
addition  of  those  portions  of  side  val 
leys,  particularly  Esh- Sheikh  towards 
the  north-north-east,  from  which  the 
summit  Ras-Sufsafeh  can  be  seen.  This 
summit,  which  Dr.  Robinson  takes  to  be 
the  true  Sinai,  rises  abruptly  on  the  south 
side  of  the  plain  some  fifteen  hundred 
feet.  It  is  the  termination  of  a  ridge 
running  three  miles  south-east,  the 
southern  and  highest  point  of  which  is 
called  by  the  Arabs  Jebel  Musa,  or  Mo- 
428 


ses'  Mount.  Separated  from  this  ridge 
by  deep  and  steep  ravines,  are  two  par 
allel  ridges,  of  which  the  eastern  is  called 
the  Mountain  of  the  Cross,  and  the  west 
ern,  Jebel  Humr.  The  convent  of  St. 
Catharine  lies  in  the  ravine  east  of  the 
true  Sinai ;  while  mount  Catharine  is  the 
south  peak  of  the  western  ridge,  lying 
south-west  of  Jebel  Musa,  and  rising- 
more  than  one  thousand  feet  higher. 
From  the  convent,  Di.  Robinson  ascend 
ed  the  central  and  sacred  mountain,  and 
the  steep  peak  Ras-Sufsafeh.  "The  ex 
treme  difficulty,"  he  says,  "and  even 
danger  of  the  ascent,  was  well  rewarded 
by  the  prospect  that  now  opened  before 
us.  The  whole  plain  Er-Rahah  lay  spread 
out  beneath  our  feet ;  while  wady  Esh- 
Sheikh  on  the  right  and  a  recess  on  the 


SIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIN 


left,  both  connected  with  and  opening 
broadly  from  Er-Rahah,  presented  an 
area  which  serves  nearly  to  double  that 
of  the  plain.  Our  conviction  was  strength 
ened  that  here,  or  on  some  one  of  the  ad 
jacent  cliffs,  was  the  spot  where  the  Lord 
descended  in  fire  and  proclaimed  the  law. 
Here  lay  the  plain  where  the  whole  con 
gregation  might  be  assembled  ;  here  was 
the  mount  which  might  be  approached 
and  touched;  and  here  the  mountain  brow 
[where  alone  the  lightnings  and  the  thick 
*bloud  would  be  visible,  and  the  thunders 
and  the  voice  of  the  trump  be  heard, 
when  the  Lord  came  down  in  the  sight 
of  all  the  people  upon  mount  Sinai.  We 
gave  ourselves  up  to  the  impressions  of 
the  awful  scene  ;  and  read  with  a  feeling 
which  will  never  be  forgotten  the  sub 
lime  account  of  the  transaction  and  the 
commandments  there  promulgated,  in 
the  original  words  as  recorded  by  the 
great  Hebrew  legislator." 


The  plain  Er-Rahah  is  supposed  to 
have  been  reached  by  the  Hebrews  from 
the  shore  of  the  Red  sea,  south  of  the 
desert  of  Sin,  by  a  series  of  wadys  or 
broad  ravines  winding  up  among  the 
mountains  in  an  easterly  direction,  chief 
ly  wady  Feiran  and  wady  Esh-Sheikh. 
The  former  commences  near  the  Red  sea, 
and  opens  into  the  latter,  which  making 
a  circuit  to  the  north  of  Sinai,  enters  the 
plain  at  its  foot  from  the  north-north 
east.  For  several  miles  from  its  termi 
nation  here,  this  valley  is  half  a  mile 
wide.  By  the  same  northern  entrance 
most  travellers  have  approached  the  sa 
cred  mountain.  Its  south  side  is  less 
known.  To  the  spectator  on  Jebel  Mu- 
sa,  it  presents  no  trace  of  any  plain,  val 
ley,  or  level  ground  to  be  compared  with 
that  on  the  north ;  yet  some  writers 
maintain  that  the  Hebrews  received  the 
law  at  the  southern  foot  of  Sinai.  See 
map,  in  the  article  EXODUS. 


In  many  of  the  western  Sinaite  val 
leys,  and  most  of  all  in  El-Mukatteb, 
which  enters  wady  Feiran  from  the 
north-west,  the  more  accessible  parts  of 
the  rocky  sides  are  covered  by  thousands 
of  inscriptions,  usually  short,  and  rudely 
carved  in  spots  where  travellers  would 
naturally  stop  to  rest  at  noon  ;  frequent 
ly  accompanied  by  a  cross  and  mingled 
with  representations  of  animals.  The 


inscriptions  are  in  an  unknown  charac 
ter,  but  were  at  first  ascribed  to  the  an 
cient  Israelites  on  their  way  from  Egypt 
to  Sinai ;  and  afterwards  to  Christian  pil 
grims  of  the  fourth  century.  Recently, 
however,  many  of  them  have  been  deci 
phered  by  Prof.  Beer  of  Leipzig,  who 
regards  them  as  the  only  known  remains 
of  the  language  and  characters  once  pe 
culiar  to  the  Nabatha3ans  of  Arabia  Pe- 
429 


SIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SNA 


trsea.  Those  thus  far  deciphered  are 
simply  proper  names,  neither  Jewish  nor 
Christian,  preceded  by  some  such  words 
a£  "peace,"  "blessed,"  "in  memory 
of." 

The  giving  of  the  law  upon  mount  Si 
nai  made  it  one  of  the  most  memorable 
spots  on  the  globe.  Here,  moreover, 
God  appeared  to  Moses  in  the  burning 
bush,  Exod.  3  and  4 ;  and  six  centuries 
later,  sublimely  revealed  himself  to  the 
prophet  Elijah  when  fleeing  from  the 
fury  of  Jezebel,  1  Kin.  19.  There  are 
frequent  allusions  in  Scripture  to  the 
glorious  and  awful  delivery  of  the  Law, 
Judg.  5:5;  Psa.  68:8,  17;  Hab.  3:3.  In 
the  New  Testament,  the  dispensation 
proclaimed  on  Sinai  is  contrasted  with 
the  gospel  of  the  grace  of  God,  Gal. 
4:24,  25;  Heb.  12:18-29. 

SI'NIM,  Isa.  49  : 12,  a  people  very  re 
mote  from  the  Holy  Land,  towards  the 
east  or  south ;  generally  believed  to  mean 
the  Chinese,  who  have  been  known  to 
Western  Asia  from  early  times,  and  are 
called  by  the  Arabs  Sin,  and  by  the  Syr 
ians  Tsini. 

SI'NITES,  a  Canaanite  tribe,  probably 
near  mount  Lebanon,  Gen.  10:17;  IChr. 
1:15. 

SI'ON,  I. ,  a  name  given  in  Deut.  4 : 48 
to  one  of  the  elevations  of  the  mountain 
ridge  called  Hermon,  which  see. 

II.  The  Greek  or  New  Testament  form 
of  Zion,  which  see. 

SIR'ION.     See  HERMON. 

SIS'ERA,  a  general  in  the  army  of 
Jabin  king  of  Hazor,  sent  by  his  master 
against  Barak  and  Deborah,  who  occu 
pied  mount  Tabor  with  an  army.  Being 
defeated,  he  fled  on  foot,  and  was  inglo- 
riously  slain  by  Jael,  Judg.  4,  5.  See 
JAEL. 

SIS'TER.  In  the  style  of  the  Hebrews, 
' '  sister ' '  has  equal  latitude  with  ' '  broth 
er."  It  is  used,  not  only  for  a  sister  by 
natural  relation,  from  the  same  father 
and  mother,  but  also  for  a  sister  by  the 
same  father  only,  or  by  the  same  mother 
only  ;  or  for  any  near  female  relative, 
Gen.  12:13.  See  BROTHER. 

SITH,  an  obsolete  word,  meaning 
since,  Ezek.  35:6. 

SI' VAN,  the  third  Hebrew  ecclesiasti 
cal  month,  arid  the  ninth  of  the  civil 
year,  beginning  with  the  new  moon  of 
our  June,  Esth.  8:9. 

SLAVE,  Jer.  2 : 14 ;  Kev.  18 : 13.  See 
SERVANT. 

430 


SLIME.     See  PITCH,  and  SEA  III. 

SLING,  an  instrument  much  used  in 
war  before  the  invention  of  fire-arms. 
It  was  a  formidable  weapon  in  hands 
like  those  of  David  and  the  Benjamites, 
Judg.  20 : 16  ;  1  Sam.  17:  48-50 ;  1  Chr. 
12:2;  2  Chr.  26:14. 

SMITH,  an  artificer  in  brass,  iron,  etc., 
first  mentioned  in  Gen.  4  :  22.  The  art 
of  the  smith  is  one  of  the  essentials  of 
civilization ;  and  without  it  a  nation  was 
peculiarly  defenceless  in  time  of  war, 
Judg.  5  :  8 ;  1  Sain.  13  :  19-22  ;  2  Kin. 
24 : 14.  Workers  in  silver  and  in  copper 
were  distinguished  from  each  other,  Acts 
19:24;  2, Tim.  4:14. 

SMYR'NA,  a  celebrated  Ionian  city, 
situated  at  the  head  of  a  deep  gulf  on 
the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  forty 
miles  north  by  west  of  Ephesus.  It  was 
one  of  the  richest  and  most  powerful 
cities  of  that  region,  and  was  frequented 
by  great  numbers  of  Jews.  A  Christian 
church  was  established  there  at  an  early 
day,  and  was  one  of  the  seven  churches 
addressed  by  Christ  in  the  Revelation  of 
John,  1 :  11 ;  2  :  8-11.  It  is  still  a  pros 
perous  commercial  city,  being  visited  by 
many  foreign  ships,  and  by  numerous 
caravans  of  camels  from  the  interior.  Its 
population  is  nearly  150,000  ;  of  whom 
one-half  are  Turks,  one-fourth  Greeks, 
and  the  remainder  chiefly  Armenians, 
Jews,  and  Franks.  So  many  of  its  in 
habitants  arc  not  Mohammedans,  that  it 
is  called  by  the  Turks  Giaour  Izmir,  or 
Infidel  Smyrna.  It  has  a  deep  and  capa 
cious  harbor,  well  protected  except  tow 
ards  the  west  by  the  hills  which  rise  to 
a  great  height  in  the  rear  of  the  city, 
inclosing  it  on  three  sides.  On  these 
hills  lie  the  scanty  remains  of  the  an 
cient  city  ;  among  which  is  the  ground- 
plot  of  the  stadium,  where  is  said  to 
have  occurred  the  martyrdom  of  Poly- 
carp — the  pupil  of  the  apostle  John,  and 
very  probably  ' '  the  angel  of  the  church 
in  Ephesus,"  Rev.  2:8.  Smyrna  has 
been  often  devastated  by  earthquakes 
and  conflagrations;  multitudes  perished 
there  of  the  cholera  in  1831,  and  60,000 
died  of  the  plague  in  1824 ;  yet  its  fine 
situation  secures  a  prompt  recovery  from 
every  disaster.  It  is  now  the  seat  of 
important  missionary  efforts,  and  enjoys 
the  ordinances  of  a  Protestant  church. 

SNAIL,  in  Lev.  11  :  30,  is  probably  a 
sort  of  lizard  ;  and  in  Psa.  58 : 8,  the  com 
mon  slug  or  snail  without  a  shell,  which 


8X0 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SOD 


11  melteth  "  away  by  depositing  its  slime 
wherever  it  passes. 

SNOW  is  often  alluded  to  in  Scrip 
ture,  for  its  whiteness,  Ex.  4:6;  Num. 

12  :  10  ;  2  Kin.  5  :  27  ;   Psa.  51  :  7  ;  Isa. 
1 : 18,  and  for  its  cleansing  qualities,  Job 
9  :  30.     The  expression  in  Prov.  25  :  13, 
' '  as  the  cold  of  snow  in  the  time  of  har 
vest,"  alludes  to  its  use  in  preparing  cool 
drinks  for  the   reapers ;    while   on   the 
other  hand,  in  Prov.  26  :  1,   "snow  in 
summer,"  that  is,  a  fall  of  snow,  being 
unseasonable  and  unnatural,  is  compared 
to  honors  inappropriately  lavished  on  a 
fool.     Snow  from  Anti-Lebanon  is  still 
sold  at  Damascus  and  Beyroot  in   the 
summer,  and  even  conveyed  to  Egypt. 
It  rarely  fell  of  any  great  depth  in  the 
latitude  of  Palestine,  or  remained  long 
on  the  ground  except  in  elevated  spots, 
2  Sam.  23:20.    Like  every  other  wonder 
of  nature,  it  is  ascribed  to  the  hand  of 
God,  Psa.  147:16,  17. 

SO,  king  of  Egypt,  made  an  alliance 
with  Hoshea  king  of  Israel,  and  prom 
ised  him  assistance ;  but  was  unable  to 
prevent  Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria 
from  taking  Samaria  and  subverting  the 
kingdom,  u.  c.  721,  2  Kin.  17  :  4.  See 
PHARAOH.  So  is  believed  to  have  been 
the  Servetus  or  Sabaco  II.  of  secular  his 
tory,  the  second  king  of  the  Ethiopian 
or  twenty-fifth  dynasty,  and  the  prede 
cessor  of  Tirhakah.  A  singular  fact  has 
been  brought  to  light  by  the  recent  ex 
plorations  at  Nineveh,  corroborating  the 
Scripture  record  the  more  forcibly,  be 
cause  unexpected  and  direct.  The  Bible 
shows  that  Egypt  and  Assyria,  though 
remote,  were  often  in  conflict  during  the 
height  of  the  Assyrian  power,  and  that 
So  was  at  war  with  Shalmaneser.  After 
war  comes  the  treaty  of  peace ;  and  as 
the  Bible  prepares  us  to  suppose  such 
treaties  were  made,  the  Assyrian  ruins 
furnish  evidence  of  their  existence.  In 
the  remains  of  Sennacherib's  palace  re 
cently  disentombed,  a  small  room  was 
found  which  seems  to  have  been  a  hall 
of  records ;  and  among  the  seals  it  con 
tained  was  the  seal  of  So,  well  known 
to  students  of  Egyptian  antiquities.  It 
was  impressed,  as  was  then  the  custom, 
on  a  piece  of  fine  clay,  which  also  bore 
the  impress  of  a  royal  signet  of  Assyria ; 
thus  showing  the  probability  that  such 
a  treaty  between  the  two  nations  had 
here  been  deposited.  If  so,  when  the 
two  monarchs  affixed  their  seals  to  a 


document  which  like  themselves  has 
turned  to  dust,  the  Most  High  by  their 
act  affixed  an  additional  seal  to  his  holy 
word,  which  is  true  and  abideth  for  ever. 

SOAP,  Mai.  3  :  2,  Hebrew,  borith,  the 
cleanser;  in  Jer.  2  :  22  distinguished  from 
nitre,  which  see.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  ancients  used  certain  vegetables  and 
their  ashes  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing 
linen,  etc.  The  ashes  of  seashore  plants 
contain  barilla  or  carbonate  of  soda,  and 
those  of  poplar  and  other  inland  plants 
contain  carbonate  of  potash.  Combined 
with  oil  or  fat  these  alkalies  produced 
soap  ;  but  it  is  not  known  in  what  forms 
the  Jews  used  them. 

SO'COH,  or  SIIO'CIIOH,  I.,  1  Kin.  4:10, 
a  town  in  the  plain  of  Judah,  near  Aze- 
kah,  famous  for  a  battle  of  David  and 
Saul  with  the  Philistines,  1  Sam.  17  :  1 ; 
against  whom  Rehoboam  fortified  it,  and 
by  whom  it  was  afterwards  taken,  2  Chr. 
11:7;  28:18. 

II.  A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Ju 
dah,  south  by  west  of  Hebron,  Josh. 
15  :  48.  Dr.  Robinson  found  traces  of 
both  these  sites,  under  the  name  of  Su- 
weikeh,  or  Shaukeh. 

SOD'OM,  one  of  the  cities  of  the  plain, 
and  for  some  time  the  dwelling-place  of 
Lot,  Gen.  13  : 10-13  ;  14:12.  Its  crimes 
and  vices  were  so  enormous,  that  God 
destroyed  it  by  fire  from  heaven,  with 
three  neighboring  cities,  Gomorrah,  Ze- 
boim,  and  Admah,  which  were  as  wick 
ed  as  itself,  Gen.  19.  The  plain  of  Sid- 
dim  in  which  they  stood  was  pleasant 
and  fruitful,  like  an  earthly  paradise ; 
but  it  was  first  burned,  and  afterwards 
mostly  overflowed  by  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  sea  or  lake  of  Sodom.  See  JOR 
DAN,  and  SEA  III.  The  prophets,  in 
denouncing  woes  upon  other  countries, 
mention  the  destruction  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  and  intimate  that  these  places 
shall  be  desert  and  dried  up  and  unin 
habited,  Jer.  49  :  18  ;  50  :  40 ;  that  they 
shall  be  covered  with  briers  and  bram 
bles,  a  land  of  salt  and  sulphur,  where 
can  be  neither  planting  nor  sowing, 
Deut.  29  :  23  ;  Amos  4:11.  Throughout 
Scripture  the  ruin  of  Sodom  and  Gomor 
rah  is  represented  as  a  most  signal  effect 
of  God's  anger,  and  as  a  mirror  in  which 
those  living  at  ease  in  sin  and  lust  may 
see  their  own  doom.  The  name  is  given 
in  Rev.  11  :  8,  to  the  great  and  corrupt 
city  of  antichrist.  "Sodomites"  were 
men  addicted  to  the  beastly  lusts  allud- 
431 


SOL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SOL 


ed  to  in  Gen.  19  ;  1  Kin.  14  :  24  ;  Horn. 
1:26,  27. 

SOL'OMON,  peaceful,  the  son  and  suc 
cessor  of  David,  born  of  Bathsheba,  B.  c. 
1033.  The  prophet  Nathan  called  him 
Jedidiah,  "  beloved  of  the  Lord,"  2  Sam. 
12  :  25,  and  he  was  a  child  of  promise, 
1  Chr.  22:9,  10.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  received  from  David  the  throne  which 
his  brother  Adonijah  had  endeavored  to 
usurp.  Scripture  records  his  earnest  and 
pious  petition  for  wisdom  from  above, 
that  he  might  govern  that  great  people 
well ;  and  the  bestowal  of  that  wisdom, 
with  numerous  other  blessings  in  its 
train,  Matt.  6:33.  His  unequalled  learn 
ing  and  sagacity  soon  became  renowned 
throughout  the  East,  and  continue  so 
even  to  this  day.  In  every  kind  of  tem 
poral  prosperity  he  was  preeminently 
favored.  His  unquestioned  dominion 
extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  the 
"river  of  Egypt;"  Palmyra  in  the  des 
ert  and  Ezion-geber  on  the  Red  sea  were 
in  his  possession.  He  accomplished  Da 
vid's  purpose  by  erecting  a  temple  for 
Jehovah  with  the  utmost  magnificence. 
Many  other  important  public  and  pri 
vate  works  were  executed  during  his 
reign.  He  established  a  lucrative  com 
merce  with  Tyre,  Egypt,  Arabia,  India, 
and  Babylon,  by  the  fruits  of  which  he 
himself  tirst  and  chiefly,  and  indirectly 
the  whole  land,  were  greatly  enriched. 
He  was  the  wisest,  wealthiest,  most 
honored,  and  fortunate  of  men.  But 
through  the  temptations  connected  with 
this  flood  of  prosperity,  he  became  lux 
urious,  proud,  and  forgetful  of  God; 
plunged  into  every  kind  of  self-indul 
gence  ;  allowed  his  wives,  and  at  length 
assisted  them,  in  their  abominable  idol 
atries  ;  and  forfeited  the  favor  of  God. 
Yet  divine  grace  did  not  forsake  him ; 
he  was  reclaimed,  and  has  given  us  the 
proofs  of  his  repentance  and  the  fruits  of 
his  experience  in  his  inspired  writings. 
His  reign  continued  forty  years,  B.  c. 
1015-975,  and  was  uniformly  peaceful, 
and  favorable  to  the  people,  if  we  except 
the  evils  of  a  corrupt  example  and  an 
excessive  taxation.  His  history  is  less 
fully  recorded  than  David's  by  the  sacred 
historians,  1  Kin.  1:11 ;  2  Chr.  1-9;  but 
we  may  learn  much  respecting  him  from 
his  writings,  especially  from  the  book  of 
Ecclesiastes.  Nothing  could  more  em 
phatically  teach  us  the  weakness  of  hu 
man  nature,  even  when  accompanied 
432 


with  the  utmost  learning  and  sagacity, 
the  perils  of  prosperity,  or  the  insuffi 
ciency  of  all  possible  earthly  good  to 
satisfy  the  wants  of  man. 

The  writings  of  Solomon  covered  a 
wide  range  in  the  natural  sciences,  as 
well  as  in  philosophy  and  morals.  "He 
spake  three  thousand  proverbs ;  and  his 
songs  were  a  thousand  and  five  :  and  he 
spake  of  trees — of  beasts,  and  of  fowl,  and 
of  creeping  things,  and  of  fishes,"  1  Kin. 
4:32,  33. 

SOLOMON'S  POOLS,  Eccl.  2  :  6.  Among 
these  may  perhaps  be  included  the  an 
cient  structures  now  so  called,  two  or 
three  miles  south-west  of  Bethlehem. 
These  are  three  fcirge  reservoirs  lying 
one  above  and  beyond  another  in  a  nar 
row  valley.  They  are  built  of  large 
stones,  and  plastered  within ;  and  the 
water  collected  in  them,  and  in  several 
fountains  in  the  vicinity,  was  conveyed 
in  an  aqueduct  to  Bethlehem  and  Jeru 
salem.  The  upper  pool  is  380  feet  in 
length,  the  middle  pool  423,  and  the 
lower  one  582.  Their  average  breadth 
is  200  feet,  and  their  depth  38  feet.  At 
present  they  contain  comparatively  little 
water ;  yet  they  are  of  incalculable  im 
portance  to  Bethlehem,  and  might  easily 
be  made  so  to  Jerusalem.  The  aqueduct 
crosses  the  valley  of  Hinnom  below  the 
south-west  corner  of  the  city  wall,  winds 
south  around  mount  Zion,  and  turns 
north  again  into  the  city  towards  the 
Haram  area. 

SOLOMON'S  PORCH.     See  TEMPLE. 

SOXOMON'S  SONG,  called  also  CANTICLES, 
and  SONG  OF  SONGS,  B.  c.  1012.  This 
highly  figurative  and  beautiful  poem  has 
always  held  a  place  in  the  canonical 
Scriptures,  and  of  course  was  a  part  of 
the  Bible  in  the  time  of  Christ ;  it  was 
so  regarded  by  the  early  Christians,  and 
appears  in  the  ancient  catalogues,  man 
uscripts,  and  versions.  Numerous  and 
very  different  opinions  have  been  held 
as  to  the  subject  and  plan  of  this  poem  ; 
but  that  its  design  is  to  set  forth  the 
spiritual  love  and  mutual  communion 
between  Christ  and  his  people,  is  evident 
from  its  harmony,  when  so  understood, 
with  the  large  class  of  Scripture  passages 
which  represent  God  and  particularly 
Christ  as  the  husband  of  the  church,  and 
employ  the  marriage  relation  in  its  va 
rious  aspects  to  illustrate  the  relation 
between  the  Saviour  and  his  people. 
Thus  Psalm  45  is  a  Messianic  nuptial 


SON 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SOP 


song.  See  also  Isa.  54:5  ;  62:5  ;  Jer.  3 ; 
Ezek.  16  ;  Hos.  1-3  ;  2  Cor.  11:2  ;  Eph. 
6:23-32;  Rev.  19:7-9;  21:2-9. 

In  the  exposition  of  this  beautiful 
poem  we  must  remember  the  difference 
between  eastern  and  western  nations. 
Modern  conventional  rules  and  notions 
are  not  the  standard  to  which  its  plan, 
its  images,  or  its  phraseology  should  be 
brought.  The  veiling  of  spiritual  fervor 
and  enjoyment  under  the  symbol  of  love 
is  common  among  oriental  nations,  and 
commentators  have  quoted  portions  of 
Eastern  allegorical  songs  which  bear  no 
small  resemblance  to  this  inspired  alle 
gory.  Many  Christians,  deeply  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  the  gospel,  have  found 
great  delight  and  benefit  in  reading  it. 
Jonathan  Edwards  says,  "I  found  an 
inward  sweetness  that  would  carry  me 
away  in  my  contemplations.  This  I 
know  not  how  to  express  otherwise  than 
by  a  calm,  delightful  abstraction  of  the 
soul  from  all  concerns  of  the  world ;  and 
sometimes  a  kind  of  vision  of  fixed  ideas 
and  imaginations  of  being  alone  in  the 
mountains  or  some  solitary  wilderness, 
far  from  mankind,  sweetly  conversing 
with  Christ,  and  rapt  and  swallowed  up 
in  God.  The  sense  I  had  of  divine  things 
would  often  of  a  sudden  kindle  up  an 
ardor  in  my  soul  that  I  knew  not  how  to 
express.  While  thus  engaged,  it  always 
seemed  natural  to  me  to  sing  or  chant 
forth  my  meditations,  or  to  speak  my 
thoughts  in  soliloquies  with  a  singing 
voice." 

Dr.  John  Brown  of  Haddington,  in  the 
introduction  to  his  admirable  paraphrase 
of  this  book,  says,  "If  understood  of  the 
marriage  and  fellowship  between  Christ 
and  his  people,  it  will  appear  most  exalt 
ed,  instructive,  and  heart-warming.  Its 
majestic  style,  its  power  on  men's  con 
science  to  promote  holiness  and  purity, 
the  harmony  of  its  language  with  that 
of  Christ's  parables  and  the  book  of  Rev 
elation,  the  sincerity  of  the  bride  in  ac 
knowledging  her  faults,  and  its  general 
reception  by  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
church,  sufficiently  prove  it  inspired  of 
God.  To  such  as  read  it  with  a  carnal 
and  especially  with  a  wanton  mind,  it  is 
the  savor  of  death  unto  death,  as  the 
,  mind  and  conscience  of  such  are  defiled ; 
but  to  such  as  have  experienced  much 
fellowship  with  Christ,  and  read  it  with 
a  heavenly  and  spiritual  temper  of  mind, 
it  will  be  the  savor  of  life  unto  life.  The 
19 


speakers  in  it  are,  Christ,  Believers,  and 
the  Daughters  of  Jerusalem,"  or  com 
panions  and  friends  of  believers. 

SON  sometimes  denotes  a  grandson, 
or  any  remote  descendant,  Gen.  29  :  5 ; 
2  Sam.  19:24.  At  other  times  a  son  by 
adoption  is  meant,  Gen.  48  :  5 ;  or  by 
law,  Ruth  4:17  ;  or  by  education,  1  Sam. 
3:6;  20  :  35  ;  or  by  conversion,  as  Titus 
was  Paul's  "son  after  the  common 
faith,"  Tit.  1  : 4.  And  again  it  denotes 
a  mental  or  moral  resemblance,  etc., 
Judg.  19:22;  Psa.  89:6;  Isa.  57:3;  Acts 
13:10.  In  a  similar  sense  men  are  some 
times  called  sons  of  God,  Luke  3  :  38 ; 
Rom.  8:14. 

SON  OF  GOD,  a  peculiar  appellation  of 
Christ,  expressing  his  eternal  relation 
ship  to  the  Father,  Psa.  2:7;  Dan.  3:25? 
Luke  1  :  35  ;  John  1 : 18,  34.  Christ  al 
ways  claimed  to  be  the  only-begotten  Son 
of  the  Father,  Matt.  4:3;  8:29;  27:54; 
John  3  :  16-18 ;  and  the  Jews  rightly 
understood  him  as  thus  making  himself 
equal  with  God,  John  5  :  18  ;  10:30-33. 

SON  OF  MAN,  a  title  of  Christ,  assumed 
by  himself  in  his  humiliation,  John  1:51. 
It  was  understood  as  a  designation  of  the 
Messiah,  according  to  Old  Testament  pre 
dictions;  Psa.  80:17  ;  Dan.  7:13,  14  ;  but 
appears  to  indicate  especially  his  true 
humanity  or  oneness  with  the  human 
race.  It  is  applied  to  him  more  than 
eighty  times  in  the  New  Testament. 

SOOTH'SAYER.     See  SORCKRER. 

SOP,  John  13  :  26,  a  small  portion  of 
bread,  dipped  in  sauce,  wine,  or  some 
other  liquid  at  table,  Ruth  2:14.  Mod 
ern  table  utensils  were  unknown  or  little 
used  by  the  ancients.  The  food  was  con 
veyed  to  the  mouth  by  the  thumb  and 
fingers,  and  a  choice  morsel  was  often 
thus  bestowed  on  a  favored  guest.  Sim 
ilar  customs  still  prevail  in  Palestine. 
Jowett  says,  ' '  There  are  set  on  the  table 
in  the  evening  two  or  three  messes  of 
stewed  meat,  vegetables,  and  sour  milk. 
To  me  the  privilege  of  a  knife,  spoon, 
and  plate  was  granted ;  but  the  rest 
helped  themselves  immediately  from  the 
dish,  in  which  five  Arab  fingers  might 
be  seen  at  once.  Their  bread,  which  is 
extremely  thin,  tearing  and  folding  up 
like  a  sheet  of  paper,  is  used  for  rolling 
together  a  large  mouthful,  or  sopping 
up  the  fluid  and  vegetables.  When  the 
master  of  the  house  found  in  the  dish 
any  dainty  morsel,  he  took  it  out  with 
his  fingers,  and  put  it  to  my  mouth." 
433 


SOP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SPA 


SOPATER,  a  Berean  Christian,  and 
one  of  those  who  attended  Paul  from 
Greece  into  Asia  Minor,  Acts  20 :  4.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  kinsman  of 
Paul  called  Sosipatcr  in  Kom.  10:21. 

SOR'CERER,  one  who  practised  sor 
cery  ;  nearly  synonymous  with  magi 
cian,  soothsayer,  or  wizard.  This  was  a 
class  of  persons  who  dealt  in  incantations 
and  divinations,  and  boasted  of  a  power, 
in  consequence  of  their  deep  science  and 
by  means  of  certain  rites,  to  evoke  the 
spirits  of  the  dead  from  their  gloomy 
abodes,  and  compel  them  to  disclose  in 
formation  on  subjects  beyond  the  reach 
of  human  powers.  They  pretended  also 
that,  by  means  of  certain  herbs  and  in 
cantations,  they  were  able  to  expel  de 
mons,  Acts  13:6,  8.  Those  persons  also 
who  devoted  themselves  to  the  general 
studies  above  mentioned,  often  abused 
their  knowledge  and  deceived  the  com 
mon  people,  by  pretending  to  foretell 
the  destinies  of  men  from  the  motions 
and  appearances  of  the  planets  and  stars, 
and  to  cure  diseases  by  repeating  certain 
phrases,  etc.  Of  this  class  appears  to 
have  been  Simon  the  sorcerer,  mention 
ed  in  Acts  8  :  9,  11.  Females  who  prac 
tised  such  arts  were  called  sorceresses 
and  witches,  Mai.  3:5  ;  Rev.  22:15.  See 
DIVINATION,  ENCHANTMENTS,  and  MAGIC. 

SO'REK,  a  valley  in  which  Delilah 
resided,  not  far  from  Zorah  and  Eshtaol, 
Judg.  16:4.  In  winter  and  spring  it  was 
the  channel  of  a  brook,  ilowing  north 
west  from  Judah,  by  the  region  of  Dan 
and  the  Philistines,  into  the  Mediterra 
nean.  Jerome  mentions  a  village  of  So- 
rek  in  that  vicinity.  The  same  Hebrew 
word,  translated  ' '  choice ' '  and  ' '  noble ' ' 
in  Gen.  49  :  11,  Isa.  5  :  2,  Jer.  2  :  21,  is 
the  name  of  a  vine  bearing  small  grapes, 
but  very  sweet  and  almost  without  seeds. 
This  vine  may  have  given  the  valley  its 
name. 

SOSIPATER.     See  SOPATER. 

SOS'THENES,  the  chief  of  the  syna 
gogue  at  Corinth,  who  was  beaten  by 
the  Gentiles  when  the  Jews  carried  Paul 
before  Gallio  the  proconsul,  Acts  18:17. 
He  appears  to  have  been  the  leader  of 
the  Jews  in  this  attempt  to  destroy  Paul. 
Whether  he  was  converted,  and  is  iden 
tical  with  the  "Sosthenes  our  brother" 
in  1  Cor.  1:1,  is  unknown. 

SOUL.  The  ancients  supposed  the 
soul,  or  rather  the  animating  principle 
of  life,  to  reside  in  the  breath,  and  that 
434 


it  departed  from  the  body  with  the 
breath.  Hence  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words  which,  when  they  refer  to  man, 
in  our  Bibles  are  translated  "soul,"  are 
usually  rendered  "life"  or  "breath" 
when  they  refer  to  animals,  Gen.  2:7; 
7:15;  Num.  16:22;  Job  12: 10;  34:14, 
15;  Psa.  104:29;  Eccl.  12:7;  Acts  17: 25. 

But  together  with  this  principle  of  life, 
which  is  common  to  men  and  brutes, 
and  which  in  brutes  perishes  with  the 
body,  there  is  in  man  a  spiritual,  rea 
sonable,  and  immortal  soul,  the  seat  of 
our  thoughts,  affections,  and  reasonings, 
which  distinguishes  us  from  the  brute  cre 
ation,  and  in  which  chiefly  consists  our 
resemblance  to  God,  Gen.  1  :  26.  This 
must  be  spiritual,  because  it  thinks ;  it 
must  be  immortal,  because  it  is  spiritual. 
Scripture  ascribes  to  man  alone  under 
standing,  conscience,  the  knowledge  of 
God,  wisdom,  immortality,  and  the  hope 
of  future  everlasting  happiness.  It 
threatens  men  only  with  punishment  in 
another  life,  and  with  the  pains  of  hell. 
In  some  places  the  Bible  seems  to  distin 
guish  soul  from  spirit,  1  Thess.  5 :  23  ; 
Heb.  4:12  :  the  organ  of  our  sensations, 
appetites,  and  passions,  allied  to  the 
body,  from  that  nobler  portion  of  our 
nature  which  most  allies  man  to  God. 
Yet  we  are  to  conceive  of  them  as  one 
indivisible  and  spiritual  being,  called 
also  the  mind  and  the  heart,  spoken  of 
variously  as  living,  feeling,  understand 
ing,  reasoning,  willing,  etc.  Its  usual 
designation  is  the  soul. 

The  immortality  of  the  soul  is  a  fun 
damental  doctrine  of  revealed  religion. 
The  ancient  patriarchs  lived  and  died 
persuaded  of  this  truth  ;  and  it  was  in 
the  hope  of  another  life  that  they  receiv 
ed  the  promises.  Compare*Gen.  50:33; 
Num.  23  : 10  ;  1  Sam.  28:13-15  ;  2  Sam. 
12:23;  Job  19:25,  26;  Eccl.  12:7;  Heb. 
11 :  13-16.  In  the  gospel  "life  and  im 
mortality,"  and  the  worth  of  immortal 
souls,  are  fully  brought  to  light,  Matt. 
16  :  26  ;  1  Cor."  15  : 45-57  ;  2  Tim.  1 : 10. 
To  save  the  souls  of  men,  Christ  freely 
devoted  himself  to  death ;  and  how  doc  i 
it  become  us  to  labor  and  toil  and  strive, 
in  our  respective  spheres,  to  promote  tlu 
great  work  for  which  He  bled  and  died  ! 

SPAIN  comprehended,  in  ancient 
usage,  the  modern  kingdoms  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  that  is,  the  whole  Spanish 
peninsula.  In  the  time  of  Paul,  it  was 
subject  to  the  Romans,  and  was  fre-- 


SPA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SPI 


quented  by  many  Jews.  For  the  sup 
posed  origin  of  its  name,  see  CONEY.  In 
Rom.  15  :  24,  28,  Paul  expresses  his  in 
tention  of  visiting  Spain  ;  and  many  con 
jecture  that  he  did  so  between  his  first 
and  second  imprisonments  at  Home, 
about  A.  D.  64-66. 

SPAN,  Lam.  2  :  20,  the  distance  from 
the  extremity  of  the  thumb  to  that  of 
the  little  linger,  when  stretched  apart ; 
some  nine  inches. 


SPAR'ROW,  a  small  bird,  the  Passer 
Domesticus  of  naturalists,  with  quill  and 
tail  feathers  brown,  and  its  body  gray 
.and  black,  resembling  the  small  "  chirp 
ing-bird  ' '  of  America.  It  is  a  general 
inhabitant  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ; 
is  bold  and  familiar  in  its  habits,  and 
frequents  populous  places.  It  builds 
under  the  eaves  of  houses,  and  in  simi 
lar  situations  ;  feeds  on  seeds,  fruits,  and 
insects;  and  lays  five  or  six  eggs  of  a 
pale  ash  color,  with  brown  spots.  The 
Hebrew  name  Tzippor  includes  also  other 
small  chirping  birds,  feeding  on  grain 
and  insects,  and  classed  as  clean,  Lev. 
14  :  4 ;  among  others  the  thrush,  which 
may  be  alluded  to  in  Psa.  102  :  7,  a  bird 
remarkable  throughout  the  East  for  sit 
ting  solitary  on  the  habitations  of  men 
and  warbling  in  sweet  and  plaintive 
strains.  A  sparrow  is  of  course  of  com 
paratively  little  value  ;  and  it  is  there 
fore  a  striking  exemplification  of  God's 
providence  to  say  that  he  watches  even 
over  the  sparrow's  fall,  Matt.  10  :  29. 
These  birds  are  still  very  numerous, 
troublesome,  and  cheap  in  Jerusalem, 
Luke  12:6,  and  flit  in  great  numbers 
around  the  mosque  of  Omar,  on  the  site 
of  the  ancient  temple,  within  the  pre 


cincts  of  which  they  built  their  favored 
nests  of  old,  Psa.  84:3. 


THE   NAKDOSTACHYS   JATAMAXSI. 

SPIKE'NARD,  Song  1:12  ;  4:13,  14,  a 
highly  perfumed  ointment  prepared  from 
a  plant  in  India  growing  in  short  spikes. 
It  was  highly  prized  by  the  ancients,  and 
was  a  favorite  perfume  at  their  baths  and 
banquets.  Horace  represents  a  small  box 
of  it  as  equivalent  to  a  large  vessel  of 
wine,  and  as  a  handsome  quota  for  a 
guest  to  contribute  to  an  entertainment. 
It  was  kept  closely  sealed,  sometimes  in 
alabaster  boxes ;  and  to  unseal  and  open 
it  was  called  breaking  the  box,  Mark 
14  :  3.  The  evangelists  speak  of  it  as 
diffusing  a  rich  perfume  ;  and  as  ' '  pre 
cious,"  and  "very  costly,"  a  pound  of 
it  being  wrorth  more  than  three  hundred 
denarii,  or  over  forty  dollars,  John  12:3- 
5.  See  ALABASTER,  and  PENNY. 

SPI'DER,  a  well-known  insect,  re 
markable  for  the  thread  which  it  spins, 
and  with  which  it  forms  a  web  of  curious 
texture,  but  so  frail  that  it  is  exposed  to 
be  broken  and  destroyed  by  the  slightest 
accident.  To  the  slenderness  of  this  filmy 
workmanship  Job  compares  the  hope  of 
435 


SPI 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SPI 


the  wicked,  8  : 14.  So  also  in  Isa.  59  :  5, 
it  is  shown  that  the  works  of  sinners  are 
utterly  inadequate  to  cover  or  protect 
them.  In  Prov.  30  :  28,  it  is  said  in  our 
version  that  ' '  the  spider  taketh  hold 
with  her  hands,  and  is  in  kings'  pal 
aces ;"  but  the  Hebrew  employs  here  a 
different  word,  which  signifies,  accord 
ing  to  the  best  interpreters,  a  species  of 
lizard  frequent  in  Palestine. 

SPIR'IT  is  a  word  employed  in  various 
senses  in  Scripture. 

I.  For  THE  HOLY  SPIRIT,  the  third  per 
son  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  who  inspired  the 
prophets,  animates  good  men,  pours  his 
unction  into  our  hearts,  imparts  to  us 
life  and  comfort ;  and  in  whose  name  we 
are  baptized  and  blessed,  as  well  as  in 
that  of  the  Father  and  the  Son.     When 
the  adjective  Holy  is  applied  to  the  term 
Spirit,  we  should  always  understand  it 
as  here  explained ;  but  there  are  many 
places  where  it  must  be  taken  in  this 
sense,  although  the  term  Holy  is  omit 
ted.     See  HOLY  SPIRIT. 

II.  BREATH,  respiration ;  or  the  princi 
ple  of  animal  life,  common  to  men  and 
animals :  this  God  has  given,  and  this 
he  recalls  when  he  takes  away  life,  Eccl. 
3:21.     See  SOUL. 

III.  The   RATIONAL  SOUL  which   ani 
mates  us,  and  preserves  its  being  after 
the  death  of  the  body.     That  spiritual, 
reasoning,  and  choosing  substance,  which 
is  capable  of  eternal  happiness.      See 
SOUL. 

The  "spirits  in  prison,"  1  Pet.  3  :  19, 
it  is  generally  thought,  are  the  souls  of 
antediluvian  sinners  now  reserved  unto 
the  judgment-day,  but  unto  whom  the 
Spirit  preached  by  the  agency  of  Noah, 
etc. ,  2  Pet.  2  :  5,  when,  they  were  in  the 
flesh.  Thus  Christ  "preached"  to  the 
Ephesians,  whom  he  never  visited  in  per- 
gon,  Eph.  2:17. 

IV.  An  ANGEL,  good  or  bad;  a  soul 

436 


separate  from  the  body,  Mark  14:26.  It 
is  said,  Acts  23  :  8,  that  the  Sadducees 
denied  the  existence  of  angels  and  spir 
its.  Christ,  appearing  to  his  disciples, 
said  to  them,  Luke  24:39,  "Handle  me, 
and  see  ;  for  a  spirit  hath  not  flesh  and 
bones,  as  ye  see  me  have." 

V.  The  DISPOSITION  of  the  mind  or  in 
tellect.     Thus  we  read  of  a  spirit  of  jeal 
ousy,  a  spirit  of  fornication,  a  spirit  of 
prayer,  a  spirit  of  infirmity,  a  spirit  of 
wisdom  and  understanding,  a  spirit  of 
fear  of  the  Lord,  Hos.  4 : 12  ;  Zech.  12 : 10 ; 
Luke  13: 11;  Isa.  11:2. 

VI.  The  RENEWED   NATURE  of  true   be- 

lievers,  which  is  produced  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  conforms  the  soul  to  his  like 
ness.  Spirit  is  thus  the  opposite  of  flesh, 
John  3:6.  This  spirit  is  vitally  united 
with,  and  in  some  passages  can  hardly 
be  distinguished  from  the  "Spirit  of 
Christ,"  which  animates  true  Christians, 
the  children  of  God,  and  distinguishes 
them  from  the  children  of  darkness,  who 
are  animated  by  the  spirit  of  the  world, 
Rom.  8:1-16.  'This  indwelling  Spirit  is 
the  gift  of  grace,  of  adoption — the  Holy 
Spirit  poured  into  our  hearts — which  em 
boldens  us  to  call  God  ' '  Abba,  my  Fa 
ther."  Those  who  are  influenced  by  this 
Spirit  "have  crucified  the  flesh,  with  its 
affections  and  lusts,"  Gal.  5:16-25. 

' '  Distinguishing  or  discerning  of  spir 
its"  consisted  in  discerning  whether  a 
man  were  really  inspired  by  the  Spirit  of 
God,  or  was  a  false  prophet,  an  impos 
tor,  who  only  followed  the  impulse  of 
his  own  spirit  or  of  Satan.  Paul  speaks, 
1  Cor.  12 : 10,  of  the  discerning  of  spirits 
as  being  among  the  miraculous  gifts 
granted  by  God  to  the  faithful  at  the 
first  settlement  of  Christianity. 

To  "quench  the  Spirit,"  1  Thess. 
5:19,  is  a  metaphorical  expression  easily 
understood.  The  Spirit  may  be  quench 
ed  by  forcing,  as  it  were,  that  divine 
Agent  to  withdraw  from  us,  by  irregu 
larity  of  life,  frivolity,  avarice,  negli 
gence,  or  other  sins  contrary  to  charity, 
truth,  peace,  and  his  other  gifts  and 
qualifications. 

We  ' '  grieve ' '  the  Spirit  of  God  by 
withstanding  his  holy  inspirations,  the 
impulses  of  his  grace  ;  or  by  living  in  a 
lukewarm  and  incautious  manner ;  by 
despising  his  gifts,  or  neglecting  them ; 
by  abusing  his  favors,  either  out  of  van 
ity,  curiosity,  or  indifference.  In  a  con 
trary  sense,  2  Tim.  1  :  6,  we  "stir  up" 


SPO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


STE 


the  Spirit  of  God  which  is  in  us,  by 
the  practice  of  virtue,  by  compliance 
with  his  inspirations,  by  fervor  in  his 
service,  by  renewing  our  gratitude,  arid 
by  diligently  serving  Christ  and  doing 
the  works  of  the  Spirit. 

SPOIL,  booty  taken  in  war,  in  which 
all  the  soldiers  were  permitted  by  David 
to  share,  whether  actually  engaged  in 
battle  or  not,  1  Sam.  30 : 21-35.  A  portion 
of  what  was  thus  gained  was  devoted  to 
the  Lord  of  hosts  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Abraham,  Gen.  14  :  20 ;  and  under  the 
Mosaic  legislation  a  delinite  rule  for  this 
purpose  was  established,  Num.  31  :  26- 
47;  1  Chr.  26:27.  Christ  "spoiled]' 
principalities  and  powers  when  by  his 
atoning  work  he  triumphed  over  Satan 
and  his  hosts,  and  deprived  them  of  their 
power  to  injure  his  people,  Col.  2  :  15. 
Paul  warns  Christians  not  to  permit 
human  philosophy,  tradition,  etc.,  to 
"spoil"  them,  that  is,  to  rob  them  of 
Scripture  truths  and  spiritual  blessings, 
Col.  2:8.  See  PHILOSOPHY. 

STA'CHYS,  a  disciple  of  Paul,  by 
whom  he  is  honorably  mentioned,  Rom. 
16:9.  From  his  name  it  would  seem 
that  he  was  a  Greek,  though  residing  at 
Rome. 

STAC'TE,  one  of  the  four  ingredients 
composing  the  sacred  perfume,  Exod. 
30  :  34,  35.  Some  think  the  gum  called 
storax  is  intended ;  but  it  is  generally 
understood  to  be  the  purest  kind  of 
myrrh ;  and  as  the  Hebrew  properly  sig 
nifies  a  drop,  it  would  seem  to  refer  to 
myrrh  as  distilling,  dropping  from  the 
tree  of  its  own  accord,  without  incision. 
So  Pliny,  speaking  of  the  trees  whence 
myrrh  is  produced,  says,  "Before  any 
incision  is  made,  they  exude  of  their 
own  accord  what  is  called  Stacte,  to 
which  no  kind  of  myrrh  is  preferable. ' ' 

STAR.  Under  the  name  of  stars,  the 
Hebrews  comprehended  all  the  constel 
lations,  planets,  and  heavenly  lumina 
ries,  except  the  sun  and  moon.  The 
psalmist,  to  exalt  the  power  and  om 
niscience  of  God,  says,  "He  telleth  the 
number  of  the  stars ;  he  calleth  them  all 
by  their  names,"  Psa.  147  : 4  ;  God  being 
described  as  a  king  taking  a  review  of 
his  army,  and  knowing  the  name  of 
every  one  of  his  soldiers.  Christ  is  called 
' '  the  Morning  Star,"  which  is  the  bright 
est  of  the  heavenly  train,  and  ushers  in 
the  day,  Rev.  22 :  16.  Compare  Num. 
24:17.  To  express  a  very  extraordinary 


increase  and  multiplication,  Scripture 
uses  the  similitude  of  the  stars  of  heav 
en,  or  of  the  sands  of  the  sea,  Gen.  15:5 ; 
22  :  17  ;  26  : 4  ;  Ex.  32  : 13.  In  times  of 
disgrace  and  public  calamity,  it  is  said 
the  stars  withhold  their  light ;  they  are 
covered  with  darkness ;  they  fall  from 
heaven,  and  disappear.  These  figurative 
and  emphatic  expressions,  which  refer 
to  the  governing  powers  of  nations,  are 
only  weakened  and  enervated  by  being 
explained. 

In  the  pure  atmosphere  of  Judea  and 
the  East  the  stars  shine  with  peculiar 
brilliancy,  and  seem  as  if  hanging  mid 
way  in  the  heavenly  canopy,  while  the 
eye  penetrates  the  ether  far  beyond 
them.  The  beauty  and  splendor  that 
men  observed  in  the  stars  ;  the  great 
advantages  they  derived  from  them ; 
the  wonderful  order  apparent  in  their 
courses ;  the  influence  ascribed  to  their 
returns,  in  the  production  and  preserva 
tion  of  animals,  fruits,  plants,  and  min 
erals,  have  induced  almost  all  heathen 
nations  to  impute  to  them  life,  know 
ledge,  power,  and  to  pay  them  a  sove 
reign  worship  and  adoration.  The  Is 
raelites  also  needed  to  be  warned  against 
this  sin.  "Learn  not  the  way  of  the 
heathen,"  says  God,  "and  be  not  dis 
mayed  at  the  signs  of  heaven  ;  for  the 
heathen  are  dismayed  at  them,"  Jer. 
10:2.  See  IDOLATRY. 

STAR  IN  THE  EAST.  It  is  a  fact  of  great 
interest,  that  when  the  Saviour  appeared, 
not  only  were  the  Jews  eagerly  expect 
ing  the  Messiah,  but  many  in  various 
heathen  lands  were  cherishing  similar 
hopes :  in  part  through  the  diffusion  of 
the  Hebrew  prophecies  ;  in  part  through 
the  felt  need  of  a  Saviour ;  and  in  part 
perhaps  through  direct  divine  intima 
tions.  The  eastern  magi  apparently 
were  not  only  apprized  of  the  coming 
birth  of  a  royal  and  divine  being  in 
Judea,  but  were  miraculously  guided  to 
Bethlehem  by  a  meteoric  light,  appear 
ing  in  the  right  direction  for  their  course, 
Matt.  2  :  9.  The  fanciful  theory  of  the 
distinguished  astronomer  Kepler,  that 
the  conjunction  of  the  planets  Jupiter 
and  Saturn  six  years  before  the  common 
Christian  era  may  have  constituted  the 
"star  in  the  east,"  does  not  appear  to 
meet  the  terms  of  the  inspired  narrative. 
See  MAGI. 

STEPHANAS,  a  Christian  of  Corinth, 
whose  family  Paul  baptized,  the  first  con' 
437 


STE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY 


STO 


vert  to  the  gospel  in  Achaia,  probably 
about  A.  D.  52,  1  Cor.  1 : 16.  He  was  for 
ward  in  the  service  of  the  church,  and 
came  to  Paul  at  Ephesus,  1  Cor.  16  :  15, 
17. 

STE'PHEN,  one  of  the  seven  deacons 
first  chosen  by  the  church  at  Jerusalem, 
and  distinguished  among  them  as  "a 
man  full  of  faith  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. ' ' 
He  seems  from  his  name  to  have  been  a 
Hellenistic  Jew,  (see  GRECIANS,)  and  to 
have  been  chosen  in  part  as  being  famil 
iar  with  the  language,  opinions,  and  cus 
toms  of  the  Greeks,  Acts  6  :  1-6.  His 
mighty  works  and  unanswerable  argu 
ments  roused  the  bitterest  hostility 
against  him,  and  he  was  brought  before 
the  Sanhedrim  for  trial,  on  the  charge 
of  blasphemy  and  heresy.  His  speech  in 
his  own  defence,  probably  recorded  only 
in  part,  shows  historically  that  Christi 
anity  was  the  true  development  of  the 
religion  of  Moses,  fulfilling  all  its  types 
and  prophecies  ;  and  that  the  opponents 
of  Christianity  were  but  the  children  and 
imitators  of  those  who  had  always  op 
posed  true  religion.  Plis  enraged  hear 
ers  hurried  him  to  death,  a  judicial  tri 
bunal  becoming  a  riotous  mob  for  the 
occasion.  Compare  John  18  :  31.  With 
Christlike  magnanimity  he  forgave  his 
murderers,  and  "fell  asleep"  amid  their 
stones,  with  his  eyes  upon  the  Saviour 
"standing  at  the  right  hand  of  God,"  as 
if  rising  from  his  throne  to  protect  and 
receive  the  first  martyr  of  his  church, 
Acts  7.  The  results  of  Stephen's  death 
illustrate  the  saying  of  Tertullian,  "The 
blood  of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the 
church,"  Acts  8  :  1,  4 ;  11  :  19-21.  Au 
gustine  observes  that  the  church  owes 
the  conversion  and  ministry  of  Paul  to 
the  prayer  of  Stephen.  Paul,  himself  a 
Cilician,  Acts  6:9;  22  :  3,  had  undoubt 
edly  felt  the  force  of  his  arguments  in 
the  discussions  which  preceded  his  arrest; 
and  long  afterwards  alluded  to  his  own 
presence  at  the  martyr's  death,  Acts 
22  :  19,  20  —  that  triumph  of  Christian 
faith  and  love  which  has  taught  so  many 
martyrs  and  Christians  how  to  die.  Yet 
nothing  he  heard  or  witnessed  availed 
for  his  conversion,  till  he  saw  the  Sav 
iour  himself,  Acts  9.  The  scene  of  Ste 
phen's  martyrdom  is  placed  by  modern 
tradition  on  the  east  side  of  Jerusalem, 
near  the  gate  called  after  his  name.  Ear 
lier  traditions  located  it  more  to  the 
north. 

438 


STOCK,  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  Job  14:8, 
or  a  reproachful  name  for  the  idols  carv 
ed  out  of  it,  Jer.  2:27  ;  Hos.  4:12.  The 
stocks  in  which  Paul  and  Silas  were  fast 
ened,  Acts  16  :  24,  were  an  instrument 
well  known  in  Europe  and  America  until 


recent  times ;  consisting  of  two  beams, 
the  upper  one  movable,  with  grooves 
between  them  large  enough  to  receive 
the  ancles  of  the  prisoner.  The  arms 
also  were  sometimes  confined.  Stocks 
were  frequently  erected  in  market-places, 
that  the  insults  of  the  populace  might  be 
added  to  the  pain  of  confinement,  Job 
13:27;  Jer.  20:2. 

STOICS,  a  set  of  fatalistic  heathen 
philosophers,  so  named  from  the  Greek 
word  signifying  porch,  or  portico,  be 
cause  Zeno  its  founder,  more  than  three 
centuries  before  Christ,  held  his  school 
in  a  porch  of  the  city  of  Athens.  They 
placed  the  supreme  happiness  of  man  in 
living  agreeably  to  nature  and  reason ; 
affecting  the  same  stiffness,  patience, 
apathy,  austerity,  and  insensibility  as 
the  Pharisees,  whom  they  much  resem 
bled.  They  were  in  great  repute  at  Ath 
ens  when  Paul  visited  that  city,  Acts 
17  :  18. 

STONE.  The  allusion  in  Rev.  2 :  17 
may  be  to  the  practice  at  the  Olympic 
games  of  giving  the  successful  competi 
tor  a  .white  stone,  inscribed  with  his 
name  and  the  value  of  his  prize  ;  or  to 
the  mode  of  balloting  with  black  and 


STO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SIR 


white  stones  on  the  question  of  the  ac 
quittal  of  an  accused  person,  or  his  ad 
mission  to  certain  privileges ;  if  the 
stones  deposited  in  the  urn  by  the  judges 
were  all  white,  the  decision  was  favor 
able.  In  early  ages,  flint-stone  knives 
were  in  common  use,  instead  of  steel, 
Ex.  4 : 25 ;  Josh.  5:2.  It  was  also  custom 
ary  to  raise  a  heap  or  mound  of  stones 
in  commemoration  of  any  remarkable 
event,  Gen.  31 :  46  ;  Josh.  4:5-7  ;  7 :  26  ; 
8:29;  2  Sam.  18:17.  The  same  custom 
still  prevails  in  Syria,  and  passing  trav 
ellers  are  wont  to  add  each  one  a  stone 
to  the  heap.  See  CORNER-STONE. 

STON'ING  was  a  punishment  much  in 
use  among  the  Hebrews,  and  the  rabbins 
reckon  all  crimes  as  being  subject  to  it, 
which  the  law  condemns  to  death  with 
out  expressing  the  particular  mode. 
They  say  that  when  a  man  was  Con 
demned  to  death,  he  was  leu  out  of  the 
city  to  the  place  of  execution,  and  there 
exhorted  to  acknowledge  and  confess  his 
fault.  He  was  then  stoned  in  one  of  two 
ways ;  either  stones  were  thrown  upon 
him  till  he  died,  or  he  was  thrown  head 
long  down  a  steep  place,  and  a  large 
stone  rolled  upon  his  body.  The  former 
was  the  usual  mode ;  and  the  witnesses 
were  required  to  cast  the  first  stones, 
Deut.  17  :  5-7  ;  for  which  purpose  they 
sometimes  threw  off  their  outer  gar 
ments,  Acts  7  :  58.  To  the  latter  mode 
it  is  supposed  there  is  a  reference  in 
Matt.^  21 :  44.  So  also  in  Luke  4  :  29, 
where  compare  NAZARETH. 


STORK.  Its  Hebrew  name  signifies 
kindness  or  mercy,  and  its  Greek  name 
natural  affection,  probably  because  of 
the  tenderness  which  it  is  said  to  mani 
fest  towards  its  parents — never,  as  is  re 


ported,  forsaking  them,  but  feeding  and 
defending  them  in  their  decrepitude.  In 
modern  times,  parent  storks  are  known 
to  have  perished  in  the  effort  to  rescue 
their  young  from  flames ;  and  it  has 
been  a  popular,  but  perhaps  ill-founded 
opinion,  that  in  their  migratory  flights, 
the  leader  of  the  flock  when  fatigued  is 
partially  supported  by  others  as  he  falls 
into  the  rear.  In  Jer.  8:7,  allusion  is 
made  to  the  unerring  instinct  of  the 
stork  as  a  bird  of  passage,  and  perhaps 
to  its  lofty  flight :  ' '  The  stork  in  thd 
heavens  knoweth  her  appointed  times." 
Moses  places  it  among  unclean  birds, 
Lev.  11 : 19 ;  Deut.  14 : 18.  The  psalmist 
says,  "As  for  the  stork,  the  fir-trees  are 
her  house,"  Psa.  104:17.  In  the  climate 
of  Europe,  she  commonly  builds  her  nest 
on  some  high  tower  or  ruin,  or  on  iha 
top  of  a  house  ;  but  in  Palestine,  where 
the  coverings  of  the  houses  are  flat,  she 
builds  in  high  trees. 

The  stork  has  the  beak  and  legs  long 
and  red ;  it  feeds  on  field-mice,  lizards, 
snakes,  frogs,  and  insects.  Its  plumage 
would  be  wholly  white,  but  that  the 
extremities  of  its  wings,  and  some  small 
part  of  its  head  and  thighs,  are  black. 
It  sits  for  the  space  of  thirty  days,  and 
lays  but  four  eggs.  Storks  migrate  to 
southern  countries  in  August,  and  return 
in  the  spring.  They  are  still  the  object 
of  much  veneration  among  the  common 
people  in  some  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

STKAIT,  narrow,  and  difficult  to  pass, 
Matt.  7  :  13,  14.  This  word  should  not 
be  confounded  with  straight.  To  be  "in 
a  strait,"  is  to  have  one's  way  beset  with 
doubts  or  difficulties,  to  be  at  a  loss, 
1  Sam.  13:6;  2  Sam.  24:14;  Phil.  1:23. 

STRANGER  is  sometimes  used  in  a 
special  sense,  easily  understood  from  the 
context.  It  usually  denotes  a  foreigner, 
one  who  is  not  a  native  of  the  land  in 
which  he  resides,  Gen.  23  : 4.  The  Mo 
saic  law  enjoined  a  generous  hospitality 
towards  foreign  residents,  saying,  "Thou 
shalt  love  him  as  thyself,"  Lev.  19  :  33, 
34  ;  Deut.  10  :  18,  19  ;  24  :  17  ;  27  : 19. 
They  were  subject  to  the  law,  Ex.  20:10, 
Lev.  16 : 20,  and  were  admitted  to  many 
of  the  privileges  of  the  chosen  people  of 
God,  Num.  9:14;  15:14.  The  strangers 
whom  David  collected  to  aid  in  building 
the  temple,  1  Chr.  22  :  2,  probably  com 
prised  many  of  the  remnants  of  the  Ca- 
naanite  tribes,  1  Kin.  9:20,  21.  Hospi 
tality  to  strangers,  including  all  travel- 
439 


STR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SWI 


lers,  was  the  duty  of  all  good  citizens, 
Job  31: 32;  Heb.  13:2. 

STREETS,  in  the  towns  and  cities  of 
Palestine,  are  supposed  to  have  been 
comparatively  narrow  and  ill  graded,  on 
account  of  the  unevenness  of  their  sites, 
and  the  little  use  of  wheel  -  carriages. 
They  were  wider,  however,  than  in  many 
modern  cities,  Laike  14  :  21,  and  'termi 
nated  in  large  public  areas  around  the 
gates,  Neh.  8:1.  Josephus  says  that 
those  of  Jerusalem  were  paved.  They 
were  named,  like  our  own  streets,  Acts 
9:11,  and  often  resembled  the  bazaars  of 
modern  eastern  cities,  the  shops  of  the 
same  kind  being  in  the  same  street  and 
giving  it  its  name,  as  the  bakers'  street, 
Neh.  3  :  31,  32 ;  Jer.  37:21,  and  the  val 
ley  of  the  cheesemongers.  Here,  and 
especially  at  the  prominent  points  and 
corners,  men  loved,  as  the  Turks  do 
now,  to  spread  their  piece  of  carpet  and 
sit,  1  Sam.  4:13  ;  Job  29:7  ;  and  here  at 
the  hours  of  prayer  they  performed  their 
devotions,  Matt.  6:5. 

STRONG  DRINK.     See  WINE. 

SUC'COTH,  booths,  L,  a  spot  in  the  val 
ley  of  the  Jordan  and  near  the  Jabbok, 
where  Jacob  set  up  his  tents  on  his  return 
from  Mesopotamia,  Gen.  33:17.  Joshua 
assigned  the  city  subsequently  built  here 
to  the  tribe  of  Gad,  Josh.  13:27.  Gideon 
tore  the  flesh  of  the  principal  men  of 
Succoth  with  thorns  and  briars,  because 
they  returned  him  a  haughty  answer 
when  pursuing  the  Midianites,  Judg.  8 : 5. 
It  seems  to  have  lain  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Jordan  ;  but  may  possibly  have  been 
on  the  west  side,  at  the  place  now  called 
Sakut.  Compare  1  Kin.  7  :  46  ;  Psa. 
60:6. 

II.  The  first  encampment  of  the  Is 
raelites,  on  their  way  out  of  Egypt,  Ex. 
12  :  37. 

SUC'COTH  BE'NOTH,  tents  of  the  daugh 
ters,  2  Kin.  17:30,  an  object  of  idolatrous 
worship  among  the  Babylonians :  an  idol ; 
or  as  some  think,  tents  or  booths,  in 
which  the  Babylonian  females  prosti 
tuted  themselves  to  Mylitta,  the  Assyr 
ian  Venus. 

SUK'KIIM,  allies  of  Shishak  in  his 
invasion  of  Judah,  2  Chr.  12  :  3  ;  proba 
bly  from  regions  south-east  of  Egypt. 

SUM'MER.     See  CANAAN. 

SUN,  the  great  luminary  of  day,  which 
furnishes  so  many  similitudes  to  the  He 
brew  poets,  as  well  as  those  of  all  nations, 
Judg.  5  : 31 ;  Psa.  84 : 11 ;  Prov.  4  : 18  ; 
440 


Luke  I  :  78,  79  ;  John  8  : 12.  For  the 
idolatrous  worship  of  the  sun,  see  BAAL. 

SUPERSTITION  and  SUPERSTP- 
TIOUS,  Acts  17:22  and  19:25,  are  not  to 
be  understood  offensively.  Paul  found 
the  Athenians  "much  addicted  to  devo 
tion,"  such  as  it  was:  perhaps  "relig 
ion"  and  "  religiously  inclined  "  may 
better  express  the  sense  of  the  original. 

SUPPER,  see  EATING,  and  LORD'S  SUP 
PER.  For  the  suppers,  or  love-feasts, 
which  used  to  accompany  the  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  supper,  see  FEASTS. 

SURE'TY,  one  who  makes  himself  per 
sonally  responsible  for  the  safe  appear 
ing  of  another,  Gen.  43 : 9  and  44 : 32,  or  for 
the  full  payment  of  his  debts,  etc. ,  Prov. 
22 : 26.  Christ  is  the  ' '  surety  of  a  better 
testament ;"  that  is,  in  the  glorious  and 
complete  covenant  of  grace  he  engages 
to  meet  all  the  claims  of  the  divine  law 
against  his  people,  that  they  may  be  ab 
solved,  and  enriched  with  all  covenant 
blessings,  Heb.  7  :  22.  Hence  his  obedi 
ence  unto  death,  Isa.  53:5,  12. 


SWAL'LOW,  the  well-known  bird  of 
passage,  which  is  so  common  both  in  our 
country,  in  Europe,  and  in  the  East,  Psa. 
84:3;  Isa.  38:14;  Jer.  8:7.  See  CRANE, 
and  SPARROW. 

SWAN.  This  bird  is  mentioned  only 
in  Lev.  11  :  18,  and  Deut.  14:16  ;  and  it 
is  there  quite  doubtful  whether  the  He 
brew  word  means  a  swan.  The  Septua- 
gint  calls  it  the  ibis,  and  the  purple  hen, 
a  water-fowl. 

SWEARING.     See  OATH. 
.    SWINE,  a  well-known  animal,  forbid 
den  as  food  to  the  Hebrews,  who  held  its 
flesh  in  such  detestation  that  they  would 
not  so  much  as  pronounce  its  name,  Lev* 


SYC 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SYE 


11:7;  Deut.  14:8.  The  eating  of  swine's 
flesh  was  among  the  most  odious  of  the 
idolatrous  abominations  charged  upon 
some  of  the  Jews,  Isa.  65  :  4  ;  66  :  3-,  17. 
The  herd  of  swine  destroyed  by  evil  spir 
its  in  the  sea  of  Gennesaret,  Matt.  8:32, 
are  supposed  to  have  been  kept  by  Jews 
for  sale  to  the  Gentiles  around  them,  in 
defiance  of  the  law.  The  beautiful  and 
affecting  parable  of  the  prodigal  son 
shows  that  the  tending  of  swine  was 
considered  to  be  an  employment  of  the 
most  despicable  character ;  it  was  the 
last  resource  of  that  depraved  and  un 
happy  being  who  had  squandered  his 
patrimony  in  riotous  living,  Luke  15:14- 
16.  The  irreclaimably  filthy  habits  of 
this  animal  illustrate  the  insufficiency  of 
reformation  without  regeneration,  2  Pet. 
2  :  22 ;  as  its  treading  in  the  mire  any 
precious  thing  which  it  cannot  eat,  illus 
trates  the  treatment  which  some  profli 
gates  give  to  the  gospel,  Matt.  7:6. 


SYC'AMORE,  or  SYCAMINE,  Luke  17:6, 
a  curious  tree,  which  seems  to  partake  of 
the  nature  of  both  the  mulberry  and  the 
fig,  the  former  in  its  leaf,  and  the  latter 
in  its  fruit.  Hence  its  name  in  Greek, 
meaning  the  mulberry-fig.  The  syca 
more  is  thus  described  by  Norden  :  "I 
shall  remark  that  they  have  in  Egypt 
divers  sorts  of  figs ;  but  if  there  is  any 
difference  between  them,  a  particular 
kind  differs  still  more.  I  mean  that 
which  the  sycamore  bears,  that  they 
name  in  Arabic  giomez.  It  was  upon  a 
tree  of  this  sort  that  Zaccheus  got  up,  to 
see  bur  Saviour  pass  through  Jericho, 
Luke  19  :  4.  This  sycamore  is  of  the 
height  of  a  beech,  and  bears  its  fruit  in 
a  manner  quite  different  from  other 
trees.  It  has  them  on  the  trunk  itself, 
which  shoots  out  little  sprigs  in  form  of 
19* 


a  grape-stalk,  at  the  end  of  which  grows 
the  fruit,  close  to  one  another,  much 
like  bunches  of  grapes.  The  tree  is  al 
ways  green,  and  bears  fruit  several  times 
in  the  year,  for  I  have  seen  some  syca 
mores  which  had  fruit  two  months  after 
others.  The  fruit  has  the  figure  and 
smell  of  real  figs,  but  is  inferior  to  them 
in  the  taste,  having  a  disgustful  sweet 
ness.  (Compare  Amos  7:14.)  Its  color 
is  a  yellow,  inclining  to  an  ochre,  shad 
owed  by  a  flesh  color; -in  the  inside,  it 
resembles  the  common  fig,  excepting 
that  itjias  a  blackish  coloring,  with  yel 
low  spots.  This  sort  of  tree  is  pretty 
common  in  Egypt.  The  people,  for  the 
greater  part,  live  on  its  fruit." 

The  sycamore  has  a  very  large  trunk, 
which  breaks  up  into  five  or  six  stout 
branches  not  many  feet  above  the 
ground;  it  is  planted  by  the  roadside, 
and  often  where  two  ways  meet ;  and 
sends  its  enormous  roots  deeply  into  the 
ground  in  every  direction,  so  that  few 
trees  can  compare  with  it  in  steadfast 
firmness.  The  power  that  could  say  to 
it,  "  Be  thou  plucked  up  by  the  root, 
and  be  thou  planted  in  the  sea,"  and  it 
should  obey,  must  be  of  God,  Luke  17:6. 
From  1  Kin.  10  :  27  ;  1  Chr.  27  :  28,  and 
2  Chr.  1  :  15,  it  is  evident  that  this  tree 
was  quite  common  in  Palestine,  as  well 
as  in  Egypt ;  and  from  its  being  joined 
with  the  vines  in  Psa.  78  :  47,  as  well  as 
from  the  circumstance  of  David's  ap 
pointing  a  particular  officer  to  superin 
tend  the  plantations  of  them,  it  seems  to 
have  been  as  much  valued  in  ancient  as 
in  modern  times.  From  Isa.  9  :  10,  we 
find  that  the  timber  of  the  sycamore  was 
used  in  the  construction  of  buildings ; 
and  notwithstanding  its  porous  and 
spongy  appearance,  it  was  of  extreme 
durability.  Describing  the  catacombs 
and  mummies  of  Egypt,  Dr.  Shaw  states 
that  he  found  the  mummy  chests,  and 
the  little  square  boxes  containing  vari 
ous  figures,  which  are  placed  at  the  feet 
of  each  mummy,  to  be  both  made  of  syc 
amore  wood,  and  thus  preserved  entire 
and  uncorrupted  for  at  least  three  thou 
sand  years. 

SY'CHAR,  or  SY'CIIEM.     See  SHEOHEM. 

SYE'NE,  a  city  on  the  southern  fron 
tiers  of  Egypt,  towards  Ethiopia,  between 
Thebes  and  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  and 
now  called  Assouan.  Pliny  says  it  stands 
in  a  peninsula  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Nile ;  that  it  was  a  mile  in  circum- 
441 


SYN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SYN 


fjrence,  and  had  a  "Rrmrm  garrison. 
"  From  Migdol,"  the  tower,  "unto  Sye- 
ne,"  denotes  the  whole  length  of  Egypt 
from  north  to  son Ui,  Ezek.  29:10;  30:6. 
Few  remains  of  the  ancient  city  are  now 
extant.  In  its  vicinity  are  quarries  of 
the  Egyptian  granite  called  Syenite, 
which  furnished  the  material  for  numer 
ous  obelisks  and  colossal  statues. 

SYN'AGOGUE,  a  word  which  prima 
rily  signifies  an  assembly  ;  but,  like  the 
word  church,  came  at  length  to  be  ap 
plied  to  the  buildings  in  which  the  ordi 
nary  Jewish  assemblies  for  the  worship 
of  God  were  convened.  From  the  silence 
of  the  Old  Testament  with  reference  to 
these  places  of  worship,  many  commen 
tators  and  writers  on  biblical  antiquities 
are  of  opinion  that  they  were  not  in  use 
till  after  the  Babylonish  captivity  ;  and 
that  before  that  time,  the  Jews  held 
their  social  meetings  for  religious  wor 
ship  either  in  the  open  air  or  in  the 
houses  of  the  prophets.  See  2  Kin.  4:23. 
In  Psa.  74  :  8,  it  is  at  least  very  doubtful 
whether  the  Hebrew  word  rendered  syna 
gogues,  refers  to  synagogue-buildings  such 
as  existed  after  the  captivity.  Properly 
the  word  signifies  only  places  where  relig 
ious  assemblies  were  held.  In  the  time 
of  our  Saviour  they  abounded.  Syna 
gogues  could  only  be  erected,  in  those 
places  where  ten  men  of  age,  learning, 
pieby^  and  easy  circumstances  could  be 
found  to  attend  to  the  service  which  was 
enjoined  in  them.  Large  towns  had  sev 
eral  synagogues ;  and  soon  after  trie  cap 
tivity  their  utility  became  so  obvious, 
that  they  were  scattered  over  the  land, 
and  became  the  parish  churches  of  the 
Jewish  nation.  Their  number  appears 
to  have  been  very  considerable  ;  and 
when  the  erection  of  a  synagogue  was 
considered  a  mark  of  piety,  Luke  7  :  5, 
or  a  passport  to  heaven,  we  need  not  be 
surprised  to  hear  that  they  were  multi- 

?lied  beyond  all  necessity,  so  that  in 
erusalem  alone  there  were  not  fewe,r 
than  460  or  480.  They  were  generally 
built  on  the  most  elevated  ground,  and 
consisted  of  two  parts.  The  westerly 
part  of  the  building  contained  the  ark 
or  chest  in  which  the  book  of  the  law 
and  the  sections  of  the  prophets  were 
deposited,  and  was  called  the  temple  by 
way  of  eminence.  The  other,  in  which 
the  congregation  assembled,  was  termed 
the  body  of  the  synagogue.  The  people 
sat  with  their  faces  towards  the  temple, 
442 


and  the  elders  in  the  contrary  direction, 
and  opposite  to  the  people  ;  the  space 
between  them  being  occupied  by  the 
pulpit  or  reading-desk.  The  seats  of  the 
elders  were  considered  more  holy  than 
the  others,  an<?  are  spoken  of  as  "  the 
chief  seats  in  the  synagogues,"  Matt. 
23:6.  The  women  sat  by  themselves  in 
a  gallery  secluded  by  lattice- work. 

The  stated  office-bearers  in  every  syn 
agogue  were  ten,  forming  six  distinct 
classes.  We  notice  first  the  Archisyji- 
agogos,  or  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  who 
regulated  all  its  concerns  and  granted 
permission  to  address  the  assembly.  Of 
these  there  were  three  in  each  syna 
gogue.  Dr.  Lightfoot  believes  them  to 
have  possessed  a  civil  power,  and  to  have 
constituted  the  lowest  civil  tribunal, 
commonly  known  as  ' '  the  council  of 
three,"  whose  office  it  was  to  judge  mi 
nor  offences  against  religion,  and  also  to 
decide  the  differences  that  arose  between 
any  members  of  the  synagogue,  as  to 
money  matters,  thefts,  losses,  etc.  To 
these  officers  there  is  perhaps  an  allusion 
in  1  Cor.  6 : 5.  See  also  JUDGMENT.  The 
second  office-bearer  was ' '  the  angel  of  the 
synagogue,"  or  minister  of  the  congre 
gation,  who  prayed  and  preached.  In  al 
lusion  to  these,  the  pastors  of  the  Asiatic 
churches  are  called  "angels,"  Kev.  2  ;  3. 

The  service  of  the  synagogue  was  as 
follows :  The  people  being  seated,  the 
' '  angel  of  the  synagogue ' '  ascended  the 
pulpit,  and  offered  up  the  public  pray 
ers,  the  people  rising  from  their  seats, 
and  standing  in  a  posture  of  deep  devo 
tion,  Matt.  6:5;  Mark  11  :  25  ;  Luke 
18  :  11,  13.  The  prayers  were  nineteen 
in  number,  and  were  closed  by  reading 
the  execration.  The  next  thing  was  the 
repetition  of  their  phylacteries ;  after 
which  came  the  reading  of  the  law  and 
the  prophets.  The  former  was  divided 
into  fifty-four  sections,  with  which  were 
united  corresponding  portions  from -the 
prophets;  (see  Acts  13:15,  27;  15:21;) 
and  these  were  read  through  once  in  the 
course  of  the  year.  After  the  return 
from  the  captivity,  an  interpreter  was 
employed  in  reading  the  law  and  the 
prophets,  Neh.  8  :  2-8,  who  interpreted 
them  into  the  Syro  -  Chaldaic  dialect, 
which  Avas  then  spoken  by  the  people. 
The  last  part  of  the  service  was  the  ex 
pounding  of  the  Scriptures,  and  preach 
ing  from  them  to  the  people.  This  was 
done  either  by  one  of  the  officers,  or  by 


SYN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


SYR 


some  distinguished  person  who  happen 
ed  to  be  present.  The  reader  will  recol 
lect  one  memorable  occasion  on  which 
our  Saviour  availed  himself  of  the  oppor 
tunity  thus  afforded  to  address  his  coun 
trymen,  Luke  4  :  20  ;  and  there  are  sev 
eral  other  instances  recorded  of  himself 
and  his  disciples  teaching  in  the  syna 
gogues.  See  Matt.  13  :  54 ;  Mark  6:2; 
John  18  :  20  ;  Acts  13  :  5,  15,  44  ;  14  : 1 ; 
17 :  2-4,  10,  17  ;  18  :  4,  26  ;  19  :  8.  The 
whole  service  was  concluded  with  a  short 
prayer  or  benediction. 

The  Jewish  synagogues  were  not  only 
used  for  the  purposes  of  divine  worship, 
but  also  for  courts  of  judicature,  in  such 
matters  as  fell  under  the  cognizance  of 
the  Council  of  Three,  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken.  On  such  occasions,  the 
sentence  given  against  the  offender  was 
sometimes,  after  the  manner  of  prompt 
punishment  still  prevalent  in  the  East, 
carried  into  effect  in  the  place  where  the 
council  was  assembled.  Hence  we  read 
of  persons  being  beaten  in  the  syna 
gogue,  and  scourged  in  the  synagogue, 
Matt.  10 : 17  ;  Mark  13  :  9  ;  Acts  22  :  19  ; 
26  : 11 ;  2  Cor.  11 :  24.  To  be  "put  out 
of  the  synagogue,"  or  excommunicated 
from  the  Jewish  church  and  deprived  of 
the  national  privileges,  was  a  punish 
ment  much  dreaded,  John  9:22;  12 : 42  ; 
16  :  2.  In  our  own  day  the  Jews  erect 
synagogues  wherever  they  are  sufficient 
ly  numerous,  and  assemble  on  their  Sab 
bath  for  worship  ;  this  being  conducted, 
that  is,  the  reading  or  chanting  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  of  prayers,  in  the 
original  Hebrew,  though  it  is  a  dead 
language  spoken  by  few  among  them. 
Among  the  synagogues  of  Jerusalem, 
now  eight  or  ten  in  number,  are  some 
for  Jews  of  Spanish  orighi,  and  others 
for  German  Jews,  etc.,  as  in  the  time  of 
Paul  there  were  separate  synagogues  for 
the  Libertines,  Cyrenians,  Alexandrians, 
etc.,  Acts  6: 9. 

SYN'TYCHE,  and  EUO'DIAS,  Phil. 
4 .  2,  3,  women  eminent  for  virtue  and 
good  works  in  the  church  at  Philippi. 
Paul  exhorts  them  tf>  persevere,  or  rath 
er,  to  act  harmoniously  together  in  their 
Christian  labors,  as  all  should  do  who 
are  ' '  in  the  Lord. ' ' 

SYRACUSE,  now  Siracasa,  a  large 
and  celebrated  city  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Sicily,  furnished  with  a  capacious 
and  excellent  harbor.  The  city,  found 
ed  734  B.  c.,  was  opulent  and  powerful, 


and  was  divided  into  four  or  five  quar 
ters  or  districts,  which  were  of  them 
selves  separate  cities.  The  whole  cir 
cumference  is  stated  by  Strabo  to  have 
been  one  hundred  and  eighty  stadia,  or 
about  twenty-two  English  miles.  Syra 
cuse  is  celebrated  as  having  been  the 
birthplace  and  residence  of  Archimedes, 
whose  ingenious  mechanical  contrivances 
during  its  siege  by  the  Romans,  200  B.  c. , 
long  delayed  its  capture.  Paul  passed 
three  days  here,  on  his  way  from  Melita 
to  Rome,  in  the  spring  of  A.  D.  63,  Acts 
28  :  12.  Population  anciently  20(T,000  ; 
now  11,000. 

SYR'IA,  in  Hebrew  ARAM,  a  large  dis 
trict  of  Asia,  lying,  in  the  widest  accep 
tation  of  the  name,  between  the  Medi 
terranean,  mount  Taurus,  and  the  Ti 
gris,  and  thus  including  Mesopotamia, 
that  is,  in  Hebrew,  Syria  of  the  two  riv 
ers.  Sec  ARAM  II.  Excepting  the  Leb 
anon  range,  it  is  for  the  most  part  a  level 
country.  In  the  New  Testament,  Syria 
may  be  considered  as  bounded  west  and 
north-west  by  the  Mediterranean  and  by 
mount  Taurus,  which  separates  it  from 
Cilicia  and  Cataonia  in  Asia  Minor,  east 
by  the  Euphrates,  and  south  by  Arabia 
Deserta  and  Palestine,  or  rather  Judea, 
for  the  name  Syria  included  also  the 
northern  part  of  Palestine.  The  valley 
between  the  ridges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti- 
Lebanon  was  called  Ccele-Syria,  which 
appellation  was  also  sometimes  extended 
to  the  adjacent  country  on  the  east.  At 
the  time  of  the  Jewish  exile,  Syria  and 
Phoenicia  were  subject  to  the  king  of 
Babylon,  and  they  afterwards  were  trib 
utary  to  the  Persian  monarchs.  After 
the  country  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans,  Syria  was  made  the*  province  of 
a  proconsul ;  to  which  Judea,  although 
governed  by  its  own  procurators,  was 
annexed  in  such  a  way,  that  in  some 
cases  an  appeal  might  be  made  to  the 
proconsul  of  Syria,  who  had  at  least  the 
power  of  removing  the  procurators  from 
office.  Syria  is  now  in  the  possession  of 
the  Turks.  Its  better  portions  have  been 
thickly  populated  from  a  very  early  pe 
riod,  and  travellers  find  traces  of  numer 
ous  cities  wholly  unknown  to  history. 

SY'RO-PH(ENI'CIA  is  Phoenicia  prop 
erly  so  called,  but  during"  the  period 
when  by  conquest  it  was  united  to  the 
kingdom  of  Syria,  it  prefixed  to  its  old 
name  Phoenicia,  that'  of  Syria.  The 
Canaanitish  woman  is  called  a  Syro- 
443 


TAA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


Phoenician,  Mark  7  :  26,  because  she  was 
of  Phoenicia,  then  considered  as  part  of 
Syria.  Matthew,  who  is  by  some  sup 
posed  to  have  written  in  Hebrew  or  Syr- 
iac,  calls  her  a  Canaanitish  woman,  Matt. 
15 :  22,  because  that  country  was  really 
peopled  by  Canaanites,  Zidon  being  the 
eldest  son  of  Canaan,  Gen.  10  :  15.  See 
PHCENICIA. 


TA'ANACH,  a  Canaanite  royal  city, 
Josh.  12:21,  in  the  territory  of  Issachar, 
but  assigned  to  Manasseh,  Josh.  17  : 11 ; 


21:25.  There  is  still  a  small  place  called 
Taannuk  on  the  south  border  of  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  four  miles  south-east  of  the 
site  of  Megiddo,  which  is  usually  named 
with  Taanach,  Judg.  1:27  ;  5:19  ;  IKin. 
4:12. 

TA'BER,  to  beat  the  tabret,  a  small 
drum  or  tambourine.  The  word  is  used 
in  Nah.  2  :  7  of  women  beating  their 
breasts  in  sign  of  grief. 

TAB'ERAH,  burning,  so  named  on  ac 
count  of  the  fire  wiiich  fell  upon  the 
Israelites  for  their  murmurings  while 
encamped  here,  Num.  11  :  1-3 ;  Deut. 
9:22. 


TAB'ERNACLE,  a  tent,  booth,  pavil 
ion,  or  temporary  dwelling.  For  its 
general  meaning  and  uses,  see  TENT.  In 
the  Scriptures  it  is  employed  more  par 
ticularly  of  the  tent  made  by  Moses  at 
the  command  of  God,  for  the  place  of 
religious  worship  of  the  Hebrews,  before 
the  building  of  the  temple.  The  direc 
tions  of  God,  and  the  account  of  the  ex 
ecution  of  them,  are  contained  in  Exod. 
25,  and  the  following  chapters.  This  is 
usually  called  the  tabernacle  of  the  con 
gregation,  or  tent  of  assembly,  and  some 
times  the  tabernacle  of  the  testimony. 

The  tabernacle  was  of  an  oblong  rec 
tangular  form,  thirty  cubits  long,  ten 
broad,  and  ten  in  height,  Ex.  20:15-80  ; 
36  :  20-30 ;  that  is,  about  fifty-five  feet 
long,  eighteen  broad,  and  eighteen  high. 
The  two  sides  and  the  western  end  were 
444 


formed  of  boards  of  shittim  wood,  over 
laid  with  thin  plates  of  gold,  and  fixed 
in  solid  sockets  or  vases  of  silver. 
Above,  they  were  secured  by  bars  of  the 
same  wood  overlaid  with  gold,  passing 
through  rings  of  gold  which  were  fixed 
to  the  .boards.  On  the  east  end,  which 
was  the  entrance,  there  were  no  boards, 
but  only  five  pillars  of  shittim  wood, 
whose  chapiters  and  fillets  were  overlaid 
with  gold,  and  th^ir  hooks  of  gold, 
standing  in  five  sockets  of  brass.  The 
tabernacle  thus  erected  was  covered  with 
four  different  kinds  of  curtains.  The 
first  and  inner  curtain  was  composed  of 
fine  linen,  magnificently  embroidered 
with  figures  of  cherubim,  in  shades  of 
blue,  purple,  and  scarlet ;  this  formed 
the  beautiful  ceiling.  The  next  cover 
ing  was  made  of  fine  goats'  hair ;  the 


TAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


third  of  rams'  skins  or  morocco  dyed 
red  ;  and  the  fourth  and  outward  cover 
ing  of  a  thicker  leather.  See  BADGERS' 
SKINS.  We  have  already  said  that  the 
east  end  of  the  tabernacle  had  no  boards, 
but  only  five  pillars  of  shittim  wood ;  it 
was  therefore  closed  with  a  richly  em 
broidered  curtain  suspended  from  these 
pillars,  Ex.  27:16. 


Such  was  the  external  appearance  of 
the  sacred  tent,  which  was  divided  into 
two  apartments  by  means  of  four  pillars 
of  shittim  wood  overlaid  with  gold,  like 
the  pillars  before  described,  two  cubits 
and  a  half  distant  from  each  other  ;  only 
they  stood  in  sockets  of  silver  instead  of 
brass,  Ex.  26  :  32  ;  -36  :  36  ;  and  on  these 
pillars  was  hung  a  veil,  formed  of  the 
same  materials  as  the  one  placed  at  the 
east  end,  Exod.  26:31-33;  36:35;  Heb. 
9:3.  The  interior  of  the  tabernacle  was 
thus  divided,  it  is  generally  supposed,  in 
the  same  proportions  as  the  temple  aftcr- 
.wards  built  according  to  its  model ;  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  length  being  allotted 
to  the  first  room,  or  the  Holy  -Place,  and 
one-third  to  the  second,  or  Most  Holy 
Place.  Thus  the  former  would  be  twen 
ty  cubits  long,  ten:  wide,  and  ten  high, 
and  the  latter  ten  cubits  every  way.  It 
is  observable,  that  neither  the  Holy  nor 
the  Most  Holy  place  had. any  window. 
Hence  the  need  of  the  candlestick  in  the 
one,  for  the  service  that  was  performed 
therein. 

The  tabernacle  thus  described  stood 
in  an  open  space  or  court  of  an  oblong 
form,  one  hundred  cubits  in  length,  and 
fifty  in  breadth,  situated  due  east  and 
west,  Ex.  27  :  18.  This  court  was  sur 
rounded  with  pillars  of  brass,  filleted 
with  silver,  and  placed  at  the  distance 
of  five  cubits  from  each  other,  twenty 
on  each  side  and  ten  on  each  end.  Their 


MOLEST/  iP 


HE\ \CWEi 


N. 


Q  LAVER. 


E. 


sockets  were  of  brass,  and  were  fastened 
to  the  earth  with  pins  of  the  same  metal, 
Exod.  38  :  10,  17,  20.  Their  height  was 
probably  five  cubits,  that  being  the  length 
of  the  curtains  that  were  suspended  on 
them,  Ex.  38:18.  These  curtains,  which 
formed  an  enclosure  round  the  court, 
were  of  fine  twined  white  linen  yarn, 
Ex.  27  :  9  ;  38  :  9,  16,  except  that  at  the 
entrance  on  the  east  end,  which  was  of 
blue  and  purple  and  scarlet  and  fine 
white  twined  linen,  with  cords  to  draw 
it  either  up  or  aside  when  the  priests 
entered  the  court,  Ex.  27  :  16 ;  38  :  18. 
Within  this  area  stood  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offerings,  and  the  laver  with  its  foot  or 
base.  This  altar  was  placed  in  a  line 
between  the  door  of  the  court  and  the 
door  of  the  tabernacle,  but  nearer  the 
former,  Exod.  40  :  6,  29 ;  the  laver  stood 
between  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  and 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  Ex.  38  :  8. 
In  this  court  all  the  Israelites  presented 
their  offerings,  vows,  and  prayers. 
But  although  the  tabernacle  was  sur- 
445 


TAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


rounded  by  the  court,  there  is  no  reason 
to  think  that  it  stood  in  the  centre  of  it. 
It  is  more  probable  that  the  area  at  the 
east  end  was  fifty  cubits  square  ;  and  in 
deed  a  less  space  than  that  could  hardly 
suffice  for  the  work  that  was  to  be  done 
there,  and  for  the  persons  who  were  im 
mediately  to  attend  the  service.  We 
now  proceed  to  notice  the  furniture 
which  the  tabernacle  contained. 

In  the  Holy  Place,  to  which  none  but 
priests  were  admitted,  Heb.  9  :  6,  were 
three  objects  worthy  of  notice  :  namely, 
the  altar  of  incense,  the  table  for  the 
show-bread,  and  the  candlestick  for  the 
lights,  all  of  which  have  been  described 
in  their  respective  places.  The  altar  of 
incense  was  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
sanctuary,  before  the  veil,  Ex.  30:6-10; 
40  :  26,  27  ;  and  on  it  the  incense  was 
burnt  morning  and  evening,  Ex.  CO  :  7, 
8.  On  the  north  side  of  the  altar  of 
incense,  that  is,  on  the  right  hand  of  the 
priest  as  he  entered,  stood  the  table  for 
the  shoAv-bread,  Ex.  26  :  35  ;  40  :  22,  23 ; 
and  on  the  south  side  of  the  Holy  Place, 
the  golden  candlestick,  Ex.  25  :  31-39. 
In  the  Most  Holy  Place,  into  which  only 
the  high -priest  entered  once  a  year, 
Heb.  9:7,  was  the  ark,  covered  by  the 
mercy-scat  and  the  cherubim. 

The  gold  and  silver  employed  in  dec 
orating  the  tabernacle  are  estimated  at 
not  less  than  a  million  of  dollars.  The 
remarkable  and  costly  structure  thus 
described  was  erected  in  the  wilderness 
of  Sinai,  on  the  first  day  of  the  first 
month  of  the  second  year,  after  the  Is 
raelites  left  Egypt,  Ex.  40:17  ;  and  when 
erected  was  anointed,  together  with  its 
furniture,  with  holy  oil,  vcr.  9-11,  and 
sanctified  by  blood*  Ex.  24:' 6-8;  Heb. 
9  :  21.  The  altar  of  burnt-offerings,  es 
pecially,  was  sanctified  by  sacrifices  dur 
ing  seven  days,  Ex.  29 :  37  ;  while  rich 
donations  were  given  by  the  princes  of 
the  tribes  for  the  service  of  the  sanctu 
ary,  Num.  7. 

We  should  not  omit  to  observe,  that 
the  tabernacle  was  so  constructed  as  to 
be  taken  to  pieces  and  put  together 
again,  as  occasion  required.  This  was 
indispensable ;  it  being  designed  to  ac 
company  the  Israelites  during  their  trav 
els  in  the  wilderness.  With  it  moved 
and  rested  the  pillar  of  fire  and  of  cloud. 
As  often  as  Israel  removed,  the  taber 
nacle  was  taken  to  pieces  by  the  priests, 
closely  covered,  and  borne  in  regular 
44G 


order  by  the  Levites,  Num.  4.  Wher 
ever  they  encamped,  it  was  pitched  in 
the  midst  of  their  tents,  which  were  set 
up  in  a  quadrangular  form,  under  their 
respective  standards,  at  a  distance  from 
the  tabernacle  of  two  thousand  cubits ; 
while  Moses  and  Aaron,  with  the  priests 
and  Levites,  occupied  a  place  between 
them. 

How  long  this  tabernacle  existed  we 
do  not  know.  During  the  conquest  it 
remained  at  Gilgal,  Josh.  4  : 19  ;  10  :  43. 
After  the  conquest  it  was  stationed  for 
many  years  at  Shiloh,  Josh.  18 : 1 ;  1  Sam. 
1:3.  In  2  Sam.  6:17,  and  IChr.  15:1, 
it  is  said  that  David  had  prepared  and 
pitched  a  tabernacle  in  Jerusalem  for  the 
ark,  which  before  had  long  been  at  Kir- 
jath-jearim,  and  then  in  the  house  of 
Obed-edom,  1  Chr.  13  :  G,  14;  2  Sam. 
6:11,  12.  In  1  Chr.  21:29,  it  is  said  that 
the  tabernacle  of  Moses  was  still  at  Gib- 
eon  at  that  time  ;  and  it  would  there 
fore  seem  that  the  ark  had  long  been 
separated  from  it.  The  tabernacle  still 
remained  at  Gibeon  in  the  time  of  Solo 
mon,  who  sacrificed  before  it,  2  Chr.  1:3, 
13.  This  is  the  last  mention  made  of  it ; 
for  apparently  the  tabernacle  brought 
with  the  ark  into  ths  temple,  2  Chr.  5:5, 
was  the  tent  in  which  the  ark  had  been 
kept  on  Zion,  2  Chr.  1:4  ;  5:2. 

FEAST  OP  TABERNACLES.  This  festival 
derives  its  name  from  the  booths  in 
which  the  people  dwelt  during  its  con 
tinuance,  which  were  constructed  of  the 
branches  and  leaves  of  trees,  on  the 
roofs  of  their  houses,  in  the  courts,  and 
also  in  the  streets.  Nehcmiah  describes^ 
the  gathering  of  palm-branches,  olive- 
branches,  myrtle-branches,  etc.,  for  this 
occasion,  from  the  mount  of  Olives.  It 
was  one  of  the  three  great  festivals  of 
the  year,  at  which  all  the  men  of  Israel 
were  required  to  be  present,  Dcut.  16 : 16. 
It  was  celebrated  during  eight  days, 
commencing  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the 
month  Tishri,  that  is,  fifteen  days  after 
the  new  moon  in  October  ;  and  the  first 
and  last  days  were  particularly  distin 
guished,  Lev.  23:34-43  ;  Nch.  8  : 14-18. 
This  festival  was  instituted  in  memory 
of  the  forty  years'  wanderings  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  desert,  Lev.  23  :  42,  43, 
and  also  as  a  season  of  gratitude  and 
thanksgiving  for  the  gathering  in  of  the 
harvest;  whence  it  is  also  called  the 
Feast  of  the  Harvest,  Ex.  23:16  ;  34:22. 
The  season  was  an  occasion  of  rejoicing 


TAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAB 


and  feasting.  The  public  sacrifices  con 
sisted  of  two  rams  and  fourteen  lambs 
on  each  of  the  first  seven  days,  together 
with  thirteen  bullocks  on  the  first  day, 
twelve  on  the  second,  eleven  on  the 
third,  ten  on  the  fourth,  nine  on  the 
fifth,  eight  on  the  sixth,  and  seven  on 
the  seventh ;  while  on  the  eighth  day 
one  bullock,  one  ram,  and  seven  lambs 
were  offered,  Num.  29:12-39.  On  every 
seventh  year,  the  law  of  Moses  was  also 
read  in  public,  in  the  presence  of  all  the 
people,  Deut.  31:10-13;  Neh.  8:18.  To 
these  ceremonies  the  later  Jews  added  a  j 
libation  of  water  mingled  with  wine,  j 
which  was  poured  upon  the  morning 
sacrifice  of  each  day.  The  priests,  hav 
ing  filled  a  vessel  of  water  from  the 
fountain  of  Siloam,  bore  it  through  the 
water-gate  to  the  temple,  and  there, 
while  the  trumpets  and  horns  were 
sounding,  poured  it  upon  the  sacrifice 
arranged  upon  the  altar.  This  was 
probably  done  as  a  memorial  of  the 
abundant  supply  of  water  which  God 
afforded  to  the  Israelites  during  their 
wanderings  in  the  desert ;  and  perhaps 
with  reference  to  purification  from  sin, 
1  Sam.  7:6.  This  was  accompanied  with 
the  singing  of  Isa.  12  :  "With  joy  shall 
ye  draw  water  from  the  wells  of  salva 
tion  ;"  and  may  naturally  have  suggest 
ed  our  Saviour's  announcement  while 
attending  this  festival,  "If  any  man 
thirst,  let  him  come  unto  me  and 
drink,"  John  7  :  37,  38.  The  first  and 
eighth  days  of  the  festival  were  sabbaths 
to  the  Lord,  in  which  there  was  a  holy 
convocation,  and  in  which  all  labor  was 
prohibited,  Lev.  23  :  39  ;  Num.  29  : 12, 
35 ;  and  as  the  eighth  was  the  last  festi 
val  day  celebrated  in  the  course  of  each 
year,  it  appears  to  have  been  esteemed 
as  peculiarly  important  and  sacred. 

TA'BLE.     See  BREAD,  and  EATING. 

TAB'ITHA.     See  DORCAS. 

TABOR,  an  isolated  mountain  of  Gal 
ilee,  on  the  north-eastern  side  of  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  an  arm  of  which  ex 
tends  beyond  the  mountain  in  the  same 
direction.  It  is  of  limestone  formation, 
conical  in  form,  and  well  wooded,  espec 
ially  on  the  north  side,  with  fine  oaks 
and  other  trees  and  odoriferous  plants. 
It  rises  1,350  feet  above  the  plain  at  its 
base,  which  is  400  feet  above  the  Medi 
terranean,  and  by  a  winding  path  on  the 
north-west  side  one  may  ride  to  its  sum 
mit  in  an  hour..  There  is  a  small  oblong 


MOUNT   TABOR,    FROM   THE    PLAIN    OF   ESDRAELON. 

plain  on  the  svimmit,  surrounded  by  a 
larger  but  less  regular  tract,  perhaps  a 
mile  in  circumference.  The  prospect 
from  mount  Tabor  is  extensive  and  beau 
tiful.  Dr.  Robinson  and  many  others 
speak  of  it  as  one  'of  the  finest  in  Pales 
tine  ;  and  Lord  Nugent  declared  it  the 
most  splendid  he  could  recollect  having 
ever  seen  from  any  natural  height.  See 
Jer.  46:18.  Its  general  features  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  view  from  the 
heights  of  Nazareth,  five  miles  to  the 
west.  See  NAZARETH.  Glimpses  of  the 
Mediterranean  appear  over  the  high 
grounds  which  intervene.  In  the  plain 
at  the  southern  base  of  the  mountain 
are  the  sources  of  the  brook  Kishon,  and 
the  villages  Endor  and  Nain,  famous  in 
Bible  history.  Besides  the  fertile  ex 
panse  of  Esdraelon,  and  mounts  Carmel, 
Gilboa,  etc. ,  on  its  borders,  the  view  em 
braces  a  portion  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  in 
the  north-east ;  and  towards  the  north 
the  mountains  of  Galilee,  with  the  town 
of  Safed  crowning  the  highest  of  them 
all,  recalling  the  proverb  which  it  is  said 
to  have  first  suggested,  "  A  city  that  is 
set  on  a  hill  cannot  be  hid."  Still  far 
ther  to  the  north  and  east,  the  snow- 
crowned  head  of  Hermon  overlooks  the 
fifty  miles  which  intervene,  Psa.  89:12. 

On  the  summit  of  Tabor  a  fortified 
town  anciently  stood,  probably  of  the 
same  name,  1  Chr.  6  :  77.  This  was  in 
existence,  and  was  garrisoned  by  the 
Romans  in  the  time  .of  Christ,  which 
conflicts  with  the  tradition  that  makes 
Tabor  the  scene  of  the  transfiguration. 
447 


TAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAH 


Kuins  of  ancient  walls  enclose  the  area 
on  the  summit ;  and  at  various  points 
there  are  remains  of  fortifications  and 
dwellings,  some  of  which  are  of  the  age 
of  the  crusaders,  and  others  of  more  an 
cient  date.  Tabor  lay  on  the  borders 
of  Issachar  and  Zebulun,  Josh.  19  :  12, 
22.  The  host  of  Barak  encamped  upon 
it,  before  the  battle  with  Sisera,  Judg. 
4  :  6,  12,  14.  At  a  later  day  it  appears 
to  have  been  desecrated  by  idolatry, 
Hos.  5:1. 

TAB'RET,  Gen.  31:27,  Isa.  5:12,  a 
sort  of  small  drum  or  tambourine,  play 
ed  as  an  accompaniment  to  singing.  See 
TIMBREL. 

TACH'ES,  golden  and  brazen  clasps, 
uniting  the  separate  curtains  of  the  tab 
ernacle,  Ex.  26:6,  11. 


TAD'MOR,  or  TA'MAR,  apalm-tree,  1  Kin. 
9  :  18,  a  city  founded  by  Solomon  in  the 
desert  of  Syria,  on  the  borders  of  Arabia 
Deserta,  towards  the  Euphrates,  2  Chr. 
8:4.  It  was  remote  from  human  habi 
tations,  on  an  oasis  in  the  midst  of  a 
dreary  wilderness  ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  Solomon  built  it  to  facilitate  his 
commerce  with  the  East,  as  it  afforded  a 
supply  of  water,  a  thing  of  the  utmost 
importance  in  an  Arabian  desert.  It  was 
about  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles 
north-east  of  Damascus,  mor°  than  half 
the  distance  to  the  Euphrates.  The 
original  name  was  preserved  till  the 
time  of  Alexander,  who  extended  his 
448 


conquests  to  this  city,  which  then  ex 
changed  its  name  Tadmor  for  that  of 
Palmyra,  both  signifying  that  it  was  a 
"city  of  palms."  It  submitted  to  the 
Romans  about  the  year  130,  and  contin 
ued  in  alliance  with  them  during  a  pe 
riod  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years.  In 
the  third  century  the  famous  queen  Ze- 
nobia  reigned- here  over  all  the  adjacent 
provinces,  till  conquered  and  carried  cap 
tive  to  Home  by  Aurelian.  When  the 
Saracens  triumphed  in  the  East, '  they 
acquired  possession  of  this  city,  and  re 
stored  its  ancient  name.  It  is  still  called 
Thadmor.  Of  the  time  of  its  ruin  there 
is  no  authentic  record  ;  but  it  is  thought, 
with  some  probability,  that  its  destruc 
tion  occurred  during  the  period  in  which 
it  was  occupied  by  the  Saracens. 

Of  its  appearance  in  modern  times, 
Messrs.  Wood  and  Dawkins,  who  visited 
it  in  1751,  thus  speak:  "It  is  scarcely 
possible  to  imagine  any  thing  more  strik 
ing  than  this  view.  So  great  a  number 
of  Corinthian  pillars,  mixed  with  so  lit 
tle  wall  or  solid  building,  afforded  a  most 
romantic  variety  of  prospect."  Volney 
observes,  ' '  In  the  space  covered  by  these 
ruins,  we  sometimes  find  a  palace,  of 
which  nothing  remains  but  the  court 
and  walls ;  sometimes  a  temple,  whose 
peristyle  is  half  thrown  down  ;  and  now 
a  portico,  a  gallery,  a  triumphal  arch. 
If  from  this  striking  scene  we  cast  our 
eyes  upon  the  ground,  another  almost 
as  varied  presents  itself.  On  which  side 
soever  we  look,  the  earth  is  strowed  with 
vast  stones  half  buried,  with  broken  en 
tablatures,  mutilated  friezes,  disfigured 
reliefs,  effaced  sculptures,  violated  tombs, 
and  altars  defiled  by  the  dust. ' '  Most  of 
the  edifices  the  ruins  of  which  are  above 
described,  date  from  the  first  three  cen 
turies  of  the  Christian  era ;  while  shape 
less  mounds  of  rubbish,  covered  with  soil 
and  herbage,  contain  the  only  memori 
als  of  the  Tadmor  of  Solomon.  The  city 
was  situated  under  and  east  of  a  ridge  of 
barren  hills,  and  its  other  sides  were  sep 
arated  only  by  a  wall  from  the  open  des 
ert.  It  was  originally  about  ten  miles 
in  circumference ;  but  such  have  been 
the  destructions  effected  by  time,  that 
the  boundaries  are  with  difficulty  traced 
and  determined. 

TAHAPANES,  Jer.  2:16,  or  TAHPAN'- 
HES,  Jer.  43:7,  9,  or  TEIIAPII'NEHES,  Ezek. 
30:18,  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  city,  for 
which  the  Seventy  put  Taphne,  and  the 


TAL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TAR 


Greek  historians  Daphne.  This  city  lay 
in  the  vicinity  of  Pelusium,  towards  the 
south-west,  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile,  and  is  there 
fore  called  by  Herodotus  the  Pelusiac 
Daphne.  To  this  city  Johanan  and  many 
of  the  Jews  retired,  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans,  taking 
with  them  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  Jer. 
43  :  7-9;  44:1.  That  Tahapanes  was  a 
large  and  important  city,  is  apparent 
from  the  threats  uttered  against  it  by 
Ezeldcl,  30:18.  According  to  some,  Ha- 
nes,  in  Isa.  30:4;  is  an  abbreviated  name 
of  the  same  city. 

TALE  sometimes  means  a  number, 
verified  by  counting,  Ex.  5:8,  18;  IChr. 
9:28. 

TAL'ENT.  This  was  a  weight  used 
among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans, 
but  varying  exceedingly  in  different 
countries  and  in  different  parts  of  the 
same  country.  The  Jewish  talent  is 
usually  estimated  at  about  125  pounds 
troy  weight,  though  others  estimate  it 
a  little  less  than  114  pounds  troy.  The 
common  Attic  talent  was  equal,  on  the 
usual  estimate,  to  about  56  Ibs.  11  oz. 
troy.  In  the  New  Testament,  a  talent  is 
a  denomination  of  money,  which  was  an 
ciently  reckoned  by  weight.  The  value 
of  the  talent,  therefore,  varied  in  differ 
ent  countries,  in  proportion  to  the  differ 
ent  weights  of  the  talent.  The  Jewish 
talent  appears,  from  Ex.  38 :  25,  26,  to 
have  been  equal  to  3,000  shekels;  and 
as  the  shekel  is  estimated  at  about  fifty 
cents,  the  value  of  the  talent  would  be 
about  1,500  dollars.  The  Attic  talent  is 
usually  reckoned  at  about  225  pounds 
sterling,  or  1,000  dollars,  though  others 
make  it  only  about  860  dollars.  The 
talent  spoken  of  in  the  New  Testament 
is  probably  the  Jewish,  and  is  used  only 
of  an  indefinitely  large  sum,  Matt.  18:24; 
25:14-30. 

TAL'MAI,  king  of  Geshur,  on  the  bor 
ders  of  Palestine  and  Syria.  David  mar 
ried  Maacha  his  daughter,  the  mother  of 
Tamar  and  Absalom.  The  latter  aveng 
ed  the  wrongs  of  his  sister  Tamar  by  the 
murder  of  Amnon,  and  then  took  refuge 
at  the  court  of  his  grandfather,  where  he 
remained  three  years,  2  Sam.  3:3;  13 
and  14. 

TAMAR,  a  palm-tree,  I. ,  a  Canaanitish 
woman,  mother  of  Pharez  and  Zarah, 
Gen.  38.' 

II.  A  daughter  of  David.   SeeTALMAi. 


III.  A  daughter  of  Absalom,  2  Sam. 
14:27. 

TAM'MUZ,  a  Syrian  idol,  mentioned 
in  Ezek.  8:14,  where  the  women  are  rep 
resented  as  weeping  for  it.  It  is  gener 
ally  supposed  that  Tammuz  was  the  same 
deity  as  the  Phoenician  Adonis,  and  per 
haps  the  Egyptian  Osiris.  The  fabled 
death  and  restoration  of  Adonis,  sup 
posed  to  symbolize  the  departure  and 
return  of  the  sun,  were  celebrated  at 
the  summer  solstice  first  with  lamenta 
tion,  and  then  with  rejoicings  and  ob 
scene  revels. 

TAP'ESTRY,  cloth  for  hangings  and 
bed -covers,  covered  with  ornamental 
needlework,  Prov.  7:16. 

TAP'PUAH,  I.,  now  Teffuh,  a  town 
among  the  hills  north-west  of  Hebron, 
Josh.  12:17;  15:53. 

II.  Another  city  of  Judah,  south-west 
of  Hebron,  Josh.  15:34. 

III.  A  town  on  the  line  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh,  Josh.  16:8. 

IV.  A  descendant  of  Caleb,    1  Chr. 
2:43. 


TARES,  a  noxious  plant  of  the  grass 
family,  supposed  to  mean  the  darnel, 
the  "infelix  lolium"  of  Virgil,  now 
called  Siwan  or  Zowan  by  the  Arabs. 
It  grows  among  the  wheat  everywhere 
in  Palestine,  and  bears  a  great  resem 
blance  to  it  while  growing,  so  much  so 
that  before  they  head  out  the  two  plants 
449 


TAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEA 


can  hardly  be  distinguished.  The  grains 
are  found  two  or  three  together  in  a 
dozen  small  husks  scattered  on  a  rather 
long  head.  The  Arabs  do  not  separate 
the  darnel  from  the  wheat,  unless  by 
means  of  a  fan  or  sieve  after  threshing, 
Matt.  13  :  25-30.  If  left  to  mingle  with 
the  bread,  it  occasions  dizziness,  and 
often  acts  as  an  emetic. 

TAR'GET,  1  Sam.  17:6,  a  small  round 
shield.  The  same  word  in  verse  45  is 
translated  a  shield,  and  elsewhere  a  jav 
elin.  See  ARMOR. 

TAR'SHISH,  I.,  the  second  son  of  Ja- 
van,  Gen.  10:4. 

II.  Tartessus,  an  ancient  city  between 
two  mouths  of  the  Guadalquiver,  in  the 
south  of  Spain.  It  was  a  Phoenician  col 
ony,  and  was  the  most  celebrated  empo 
rium  in  the  west  to  which  the  Hebrews 
and  Phoenicians  traded.  That  Tarshish 
was  situated  in  the  west  is  evident  from 
Gen.  10:4,  where  it  is  joined  with  Elisha, 
Kittim,  and  Dodanim.  See  also  Psa. 
72  : 10.  According  to  Ezek.  38  :  13,  it 
was  an  important  place  of  trade ;  accord 
ing  to  Jer.  10  :  9,  it  exported  silver,  and 
according  to  Ezek.  27 : 12,  25,  silver,  iron, 
tin,  and  lead  to  the  Tyrian  markets. 
They  embarked  for  this  place  from  Jop- 
pa,  Jonah  1:3,  4.  In  Isa.  23:1,  6,  10,  it 
is  evidently  represented  as  an  important 
Phoenician  colony.  It  is  named  among 
other  distant  states,  in  Isa.  66  : 19.  All 
these  notices  agree  with  Tartessus. 

In  some  of  these  passages,  however, 
Tarshish  may  be  used  as  a  general  ex 
pression,  applicable  to  all  the  distant 
shores  of  Europe ;  and  thus  the  custom 
may  have  arisen  of  designating  as  ' '  ships 
of  Tarshish ' '  any  large  merchant  ships 
bound  on  long  voyages  in  any  direction. 
The  English  term  Indiaman  is  very  sim 
ilarly  used.  Whether  the  ships  fitted  out 
by  Solomon  at  Ezion-geber  on  the  Red 
sea,  sailed  around  Africa  to  Tarshish  in 
Spain,  or  gave  the  name  of  Tarshish  to 
some  place  in  India  or  Ethiopia,  as  the 
discoverers  of  America  gave  it  the  east 
ern  names  India  and  Indians,  cannot 
now  be  determined,  IKin.  10:22  ;  22:48, 
49;  2  Chr.  9:21 ;  20:26  ;  Isa.  23  : 1,  14  ; 
60:9. 

TAR'SUS,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
city,  the  metropolis  of  Cilicia,  in  the 
south-eastern  part  of  Asia  Minor ;  situ 
ated  six  miles  from  the  Mediterranean, 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Cydnus,  which 
flowed  through  and  divided  it  into  two 
450 


parts.  Tarsus  was  distinguished  for  the 
culture  of  Greek  literature  and  philoso 
phy,  so  that  at  one  time,  in  its  schools 
and  in  the  number  of  its  learned  men,  it 
was  the  rival  of  Athens  and  Alexandria. 
In  reward  for  its  exertions  and  sacrifices 
during  the  civil  wars  of  Rome,  Tarsus 
was  made  a  free  city  by  Augustus.  It 
was  the  privilege  of  such  cities  that  they 
were  governed  by  their  own  laws  anct 
magistrates,  and  were  not  subjected  to 
tribute,  to  the  jurisdiction  of  a  Roman 
governor,  nor  to  the  power  of  a  Roman 
garrison,  although  they  acknowledged 
the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  people,  and 
were  bound  to  aid  them  against  their 
enemies.  That  the  freedom  of  Tarsus, 
however,  was  not  equivalent  to  being  a 
Roman  citizen,  appears  from  this,  that 
the  tribune,  although  he  knew  Paul  to 
be  a  citizen,  of  Tarsus,  Acts  21  :  39,  yet 
ordered  him  to  be  scourged,  22  :  24,  but 
desisted  from  his  purpose  when  he  learn 
ed  that  Paul  was  a  Roman  citizen,  22:27. 
It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  ances 
tors  of  Paul  had  obtained  the  privilege 
of  Roman  citizenship  in  some  other  way, 
Acts  9 : 30  ;  11 : 25  ;  22 : 3.  It  is  now  call 
ed  Tarsous ;  and  though  much  decayed 
and  full  of  ruins,  is  estimated  to  contain 
a  population  in  summer  of  7,000,  and  in 
winter  of  30,000,  chiefly  Turks.  During 
the  excessive  heat  of  summer,  a  large 
part  of  the  people  repair  to  the  high 
lands  of  the  interior. 

TAR'TAK,  an  idol,  introduced  by  the 
Avites  into  Samaria,  2  Kin.  17:31. 

TARTAN,  an  Assyrian  general,  sent 
to  Jerusalem  with  Rabshakeh  by  Sen 
nacherib,  2  Kin.  18:17  ;  and  perhaps  the 
same  who  captured  Ashdod  in  the  reign 
of  Sargon,  Isa.  20:1. 

TAT'NAI,  a  governor  of  Samaria  un 
der  Darius,  whose  administration  was 
characterized  by  great  justice  and  mod 
eration  towards  the  Jews,  Ezra  5  and  6, 
B.  c.  519. 

TAVERNS,  THREE,  a  village  thirty- 
three  miles  south  of  Rome,  mentioned 
by  Cicero,  and  still  called  Tre  Taverne. 
See  Arm  FORUM. 

TEARS.  Small  urns  or  lachrymato 
ries,  of  thin  glass  or  simple  pottery,  and 
containing  the  tears  of  mourners  at  fu 
nerals,  used  to  be  placed  in  the  sepul 
chres  of  the  dead  at  Rome  and  in  Pales 
tine,  where  they  are  found  in  great  num 
bers  on  opening  ancient  tombs.  This 
custom  is  illustrative  of  Psa.  56 : 8,  which 


TEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEM 


shows  that  God  is  ever  mindful  of  the 
sorrows  of  his  people.  In.  Rev.  7 : 17  he  is 
represented  as  tenderly  wiping  all  tears 
from  their  eyes,  or  removing  for  ever  all 
their  griefs. 

TE'BETH,  Esth.  2:16,  the  tenth  month  - 
of  the  Hebrew  sacred  year,  commencing 
with  the  new  moon  in  January. 

TEHAPH'NEI-IES.     See  TAIIAPANES. 

TEIL-TREE,  the  lime  or  linden.  See 
OAK. 

TEKO'A,  Jer.  6  :  1,  a  city  of  Judah, 
now  in  ruins,  situated  on  an  extended 
height,  twelve  miles  south  of  Jerusalem. 
Here  originated  the  wise  woman  who 
was  Joab's  agent,  2  Sam.  14 :  2,  and 
Amos  the  prophet,  Amos  1:1.*  It  was 
inhabited  by  Christians  in  the  time  of 
the  crusades.  The  wilderness  of  Tekoa, 
mentioned  in  2  Chr.  20:20,  inclines  tow 
ards  the  Dead  sea. 

TEL-ABIB,  a  place  on  the  river  Che- 
bar  in  Mesopotamia,  where  a  colony  of 
captive  Jews  was  located,  Ezek.  3  :  15. 
A  town  called  Thallaba  is  still  found  in 
that  region. 

TE'MA,  an  Ishmaelite  tribe  and  dis 
trict,  in  the  north  of  Arabia  Deserta  tow 
ards  Damascus,  Gen.  25  : 15.  It  is  asso 
ciated  with  Dedan,  Isa.  21  :  14  ;  Jer. 
25:23,  and  was  famous  for  its  caravans, 
Job  6:19.  The  region  is  still  called  Te- 
ma  by  the  Arabs. 

TE'MAN,  south,  a  city  and  region  in 
Eastern  Iduixuea,  settled  by  Ternan  the 
grandson  of  Esau,  Gen.  36  : 11,  15,  42  ; 
Amos  1:12;  Hab.  3  :  3.  The  men  of 
Tcman,  Gen.  36  :  34,  like  others  of  the 
Edornites,  had  the  reputation  of  great 
wisdom,  Jer.  49:7,  20  ;  Obad.  8,  9.  Com 
pare  the  sayings  of  Eliphaz  the  Temanite 
in  the  book  of  Job. 

TEM'PLE,  a  building  hallowed  by  the 
special  presence  of  God,  and  consecrated 
to  his  worship.  The  distinctive  idea  of 
a  temple,  contrasted  with  all  other  build 
ings,  is  that  it  is  the  dwelling-place  of  a 
deity ;  and  every  heathen  temple  had  its 
idol,  but  the  true  and  living  God  dwelt 
"  between  the  cherubim  "  in  the  Holy  of 
Holies  at  Jerusalem.  Hence,  figurative 
ly  applied,  a  temple  denotes  the  church 
of  Christ,  2  Tbess.  2:4;  Rev.  3 : 12  ;  heav 
en,  Psa.  11:4;  Rev.  7:15;  and  the  soul 
of  the  believer,  in  which  the  Holy  Spirit 
dwells,  1  Cor.  3  :  16,  17  ;  6  :  19  ;  2  Cor. 
6  :  16. 

After  the  Lord  had  instructed  David 
that  Jerusalem  was  the  place  he  had 


chosen  in  which  to  fix  his  dwelling,  that 
pious  prince  began  to  realize  his  design 
of  preparing  a  temple  for  the  Lord  that 
might  be  something  appropriate  to  His 
divine  majesty.  But  the  honor  was  re 
served  for  Solomon  his  son  and  successor, 
who  was  to  be  a  peaceful  prince,  and  not 
like  David,  who  had  shed  much  blood  in 
war.  David,  however,  applied  himself 
to  collect  great  quantities  of  gold,  silver, 
brass,  iron,  and  other  materials  for  this 
undertaking,  2  Sam.  7  ;  1  Chr.  22. 

The  place  chosen  for  erecting  this  mag 
nificent  structure  was  mount  Moriah, 
Gen.  22  .  2,  14  ;  2  Chr.  3  :  1,  the  summit 
of  which  originally  was  unequal,  and  its 
sides  irregular  ;  but  it  was  a  favorite  ob 
ject  of  the  Jews  to  level  and  extend  it. 
The  plan  and  the  whole  model  of  this 
structure  was  laid  by  the  same  divine 
architect  as  that  of  the  tabernacle,  name 
ly,  God  himself ;  and  it  was  built  much 
in  the  same  form  as  the  tabernacle,  but 
was  of  much  larger  dimensions.  The 
utensils  for  the  sacred  service  were  also 
the  same  as  those  used  in  the  tabernacle, 
only  several  of  them  were  larger,  in  pro 
portion  to  the  more  spacious  edifice  to 
which  they  belonged.  The  foundations 
of  this  magnificent  edifice  were  laid  by 
Solomon,  in  the  year  B.  c.  1011,  about 
four  hundred  and  eighty  years  after  the 
exodus  and  the  building  of  the  taber 
nacle  ;  and  it  was  finished  B.  c.  1004, 
having  occupied  seven  years  and  six 
months  in  the  Imilding.  It  was  dedi 
cated  with  peculiar  solemnity  to  the  wor 
ship  of  Jehovah,  who  condescended  to 
make  it  the  place  for  the  special  mani 
festation  of  his  glory,  2  Chr.  5-7.  The 
front  or  entrance  to  the  temple  was  on 
the  eastern  side,  and  consequently  facing 
the  mount  of  Olives,  which  commanded 
a  noble  prospect  of  the  building.  The 
temple  itself,  strictly  so  called,  which 
comprised  the  Porch,  the.  Sanctuary,  and 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  formed  only  a  small 
part  of  the  sacred  precincts,  being  sur 
rounded  by  spacious  courts,  chambers, 
and  other  apartments,  which  were  much 
more  extensive  than  the  temple  itself. 
It  should  be  observed  that  the  word 
temple  does  not  always  denote  the  cen 
tral  edifice  itself,  but  in  many  passages 
some  of  the  outer  courts  are  intended. 

From  the  descriptions  which  are  hand 
ed  down  to  us  of  the  temple  of  Solomon, 
it  is  utterly  impossible  to  obtain  so  accu 
rate  an  idea  of  its  relative  parts  and  their 
451 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEM 


respective  proportions,  as  to  furnish  such 
an  account  as  may  be  deemed  satisfac 
tory  to  the  reader.  Hence  we  find  no 
two  writers  agreeing  in  their  descrip 
tions.  The  following  account  may  give 
a  general  idea  of  the  building. 

The  Temple  itself  was  seventy  cubits 
long  ;  the  Porch  being  ten  cubits,  1  Kin. 
6:3,  the  Holy  place  forty  cubits,  ver.  17, 
and  the  Most  Holy  place,  twenty  cubits, 
2  Chr.  3  :  8.  The  width  of  the  Porch, 
Holy,  and  Most  Holy  places  was  twenty 
cubits,  2  Chr.  3 :  3,  and  the  height  over 
the  Holy  and  Most  Holy  places  was  thir 
ty  cubits,  1  Kin.  6:2  ;  but  the  height  of 
the  porch  was  much  greater,  being  no 
less  than  one  hundred  and  .twenty  cu 
bits,  2  Chr.  3:4,  or  four  times  the  height 
of  the  rest  of  the  building.  The  Most 
Holy  place  was  separated  from  the  Sanc 
tuary  by  an  impervious  veil,  Luke  23:45, 
and  was  perhaps  wholly  dark,  1  Kings 
8: 12,  but  for  the  glory  of  the  Lord  which 
filled  it.  To  the  north  and  south  sides, 
and  the  west  end  of  the  Holy  and  Most 
Holy  places,  or  all  around  the  edifice, 
from  the  back  of  the  porch  on  one  side, 
to  the  back  of  the  porch  on  the  other 
side,  certain  buildings  were  attached. 
These  were  called  side  chambers,  and 
consisted  of  three  stories,"  each  five  cu 
bits  high,  1  Kin.  6:10,  and  joined  to  the 
wall  of  the  temple  without.  Thus  the 
three  stories  of  side  chambers,  when 
taken  together,  were  fifteen  cubits  high, 
and  consequently  reached  exactly  to  half 
the  height  of  the  side  walls  and  end  of 
the  temple ;  so  that  there  was  abun 
dance  of  space  above  these  for  the  win 
dows  which  gave  light  to  the  temple, 
ver.  4. 

Solomon'^  temple  appears  to  have  been 
surrounded  by  two  main  courts  :  the  in 
ner  court,  that  "of  the  Priests,"  1  Kin. 
6:36  ;  2  Chr.  4:9;  and  the  outer  court, 
that  "of  Israel;"  these  were  separated 
by  a  "middle  wall  of  partition,"  with 
lodges  for  priests  and  Levites.  for  wood, 
oil,  etc.,  1  Chron.  28  : 12.  The  ensuing 
description  is  applicable  to  the  temple 
courts  in  the  time  of  our  Lord. 

The  "court  of  the  Gentiles"  was  so 
called  because  it  might  be  entered  by 
persons  of  all  nations.  The  chief  en 
trance  to  it  was  by  the  east  or  Shushan 
gate,  which  was  the  principal  gate  of 
the  temple.  It  was  the  exterior  court, 
and  by  far  the  largest  of  all  the  courts 
belonging  to  the  temple,  and  is  said  to 
452 


have  covered  a  space  of  more  than  four 
teen  acres.  It  entirely  surrounded  the 
other  courts  and  the  temple  itself;  and 
in  going  up  to  the  temple  from  its  east 
or  outer  gate,  one  would  cross  first  this 
'court,-  then  the  court  of  the  Women, 
then  that  of  Israel,  and  lastly  that  of  the 
Priests.  This  outmost  court  was  sepa 
rated  from  the  court  of  the  women  by  a 
wall  three  cubits  high  of  lattice  work, 
and  having  inscriptions  on  its  pillars  Mr- 
bidding  Gentiles  and  unclean  persons  to 
pass  beyond  it,  on  pain  of  death,  Acts 
21 : 28  ;  Eph.  2 : 13, 14.  From  this  court  of 
the  Gentiles  our  Saviour  drove  the  per 
sons  who  had  established  a  cattle-market 
in  it,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  those 
with  sacrifices  who  came  from  a  distance, 
Matt.  21 : 12,  13.  We  must  not  overlook 
the  baautiful  pavement  of  variegated 
marble,  and  the  "porches"  or  covered 
walks,  with  columns  supporting  mag 
nificent  galleries,  with  which  this  court 
was  surrounded.  Those  on  the  east, 
west,  and  north  sides  were  of  the  same 
dimensions ;  but  that  on  the  south  was 
much  larger.  The  porch  called  Solo 
mon's,  John  10:23,  Acts  3  :  11,  was  on 
the  east  side  or  front  of  this  court,  and 
was  so  called  because  it  was  built  by  this 
prince,  upon  a  high  wall  rising  from  the 
valley  of  Kidron. 

The  "court  of  the  Women,"  called  in 
Scripture  the  "new  court,"  2  Chr.  20:5, 
and  the  "  outer  court,''  Ezek,  46:21,  sep 
arated  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  from  the 
court  of  Israel,  extending  along  the  east 
side  only  of  the  latter.  It  was  called  the 
court  of  the  women  because  it  was  their 
appointed  place  of  worship,  beyond  which 
they  might  not  go,  unless  when  they 
brought  a  sacrifice,  in  which  case  they 
went  forward  to  the  court  of  Israel.  The 
gate  which  led  into  this  court  from  that 
of  the  Gentiles,  was  "the  Beautiful 
gate"  of  the  temple,  mentioned  in  Acts 
3  :  2,  10 ;  so  called,  because  the  folding- 
doors,  lintel,  and  side -posts  were  all 
overlaid  with  Corinthian  brass.  The 
worshipper  ascended  to  its  level  by  a 
broad  flight  of  steps.  It  was  in  this 
court  of  the  women,  called  the  "treas 
ury,"  that  our  Saviour  delivered  his 
striking  discourse  to  the  Jews,  related 
in  John  8  :  1-20.  It  was  into  this  court 
also  that  the  Pharisee  and  the  publican 
went  to  pray,  Luke  18:10-13,  and  hith 
er  the  lame  man  followed  Peter  and 
John,  after  he  was  cured— the  court  of 


TEM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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the  women  being  the  ordinary  place  of 
worship  for  those  who  brought  no  sacri 
fice,  Acts  3:8.  From  thence,  after  pray 
ers,  he  went  back  with  them,  through 
the  "Beautiful  gate"  of  the  temple, 
where  he  had  been  lying,  and  through 
the  sacred  fence,  into  the  court  of  the 


Gentiles,  where,  under  the  eastern  piaz 
za,  or  Solomon's  porch,  Peter  preached 
Christ  crucified.  It  was  in  the  same 
court  of  the  women  that  the  Jews  laid 
hold  of  Paul,  when  they  judged  him  a 
violator  of  the  temple  by  taking  Gentiles 
within  the  sacred  fence,  Acts  21:26-29. 


PLAN   OF   THE   TEMPLE   IN  THE   TIME   OF  CHRIST. 


A.  The  Holy  of  Holies. 

B.  The  Holy  Place. 

C.  The  Altar  of  Burnt  offerings. 

D.  The  brazen  Laver. 

E.  The  court  of  the  Priests. 

F.  The  court  of  Israel. 
•  G.  The  gate  Nicanor. 

H.  The  court  of  the  Women. 

The  "court  of  Israel"  was  separated 
from  the  court  of  the  women  by  a  wall 
thirty-two  and  a  half  cubits  high  on  the 
outside,  but  on  the  inside  only  twenty- 
five.  The  reason  of  which  difference 


I.    The  gate  Beautiful. 

J.   The  court  of  the  Gentiles. 

K.  The  Eastern  or  Shushaii  gate. 

L.  Solomon's  Porch,  or  colonnade. 

M.  The  Koyal  Porch. 

N.  The  outer  Wall. 

o.  Apartments  for  various  uses. 


was,  that  as  the  rock  on  which  the  tem 
ple  stood  became  higher  on  advancing 
westward,  the  several  courts  naturally 
became  elevated  in  proportion.  The  as 
cent  into  this  court  from  the  east  was  by 
453 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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a  flight  of  fifteen  steps,  of  a  semicircular 
form,  and  the  magnificent  gate  Nicanor. 
On  these  steps  the  Levites  stood  in  sing 
ing  the  "songs  of  degrees."  The  whole 
length  of  the  court  from  east  to  west  was 
one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  cubits, 
and  the  hreadth  from  north  to  south, 
one  hundred  and  thirty-five  cubits.  In 
this  court,  and  the  piazza  which  sur 
rounded  it,  the  Israelites  stood  in  sol 
emn  and  reverent  silence  while  their  sac 
rifices  were  burning  in  the  inner  court, 
and  while  the  services  of  the  sanctuary 
were  performed,  Luke  1:8-11,  21,  22. 

Within  this  court,  and  surrounded  by 
it,  was  the  "court  of  the  Priests;"  one 
hundred  and  sixty-five  cubits  long  and 
one  hundred  and  nineteen  cubits  wide, 
and  raised  two  and  a  half  cubits  above 
the  surrounding  court,  from  which  it 
was  separated  by  pillars  and  a  railing. 
Within  this  court  stood  the  brazen  altar 
on  which  the  sacrifices  Avere  consumed, 
the  molten  sea  in  which  the  priests 


washed,  and  the  ten  brazen  lavers  for 
washing  the  sacrifices ;  also  the  various 
utensils  and  instruments  for  sacrificing, 
which  are  enumerated  in  2  Chr.  4.  It  is 
necessary  to  observe  here,  that  although 
the  court  of  the  Priests  was  not  accessi 
ble  to  all  Israelites,  as  that  of  Israel  was 
to  all  the  priests,  yet  they  might  enter 
it  for  three  several  purposes  :  to  lay  their 
hands  on  the  animals  which  they  offered, 
or  to  kill  them,  or  to  wave  some  part  of 
them. 

From  the  court  of  the  Priests,  the 
ascent  to  the  temple  was  by  a  flight  of 
twelve  steps,  each  half  a  cubit  in  height, 
which  led  into  the  sacred  porch.  Of  the 
dimensions  of  this  in  Solomon's  temple, 
as  also  of  the  Sanctuary  and  Holy  of  Ho 
lies,  we  have  already  spoken.  It  was 
within  the  door  of  the  porch,  and  in  the 
sight  of  those  Avho  stood  in  the  courts 
immediately  before  it,  that  the  two  pil 
lars,  Jachin  and  Boaz,  were  placed,  2  Chr. 
3;17;  Ezek.  40:49. 


SIDE   VIEW  OF  THE   TEMPLE,  IN  PART  AFTER   BR.  BARCLAY. 

Tn  this  profile  view  of  the  Temple  and  its  precincts  from  the  south,  n  n  is  the  outer  south 
ern  wall  of  the  temple  area  ;  a  is  a  part  of  the  royal  buildings  on  mount  Zion  ;  b  is  the  Tyro- 
poeon  bridge,  connecting  Zion  with  the  south  portico  of  the  temple  ;  o  and  p  are  gates  lead 
ing  subterraneously  to  the  area  above  ;  q  is  a  gate  to  the  substructions  ;  I  is  the  tower  Ophel ; 
and  m  the  Red-heifer  bridge  over  the  Kidron. 

Within,  towards  the  north,  is  shown  a  section  of  the  temple  area  ;  c  representing  the  west 
ern  cloister  ;  d  the  liil  or  sacred  fence  ;  e  the  high  wall  in  the  rear  of  the  temple  ;  /  the  Holy 
House  ;  g  the  great  altar  of  burnt  offerings  ;  h  a  covered  colonnade  in  the  court  of  the  priests  ; 
i  the  gate  Nicanor  in  front  of  the  court  of  Israel ;  j  the  gate  Beautiful  in  front  of  the  court  of 
the  women  ;  and  k  the  eastern  cloister,  Solomon's  porch. 


The  temple  of  Solomon  retained  its 
pristine  splendor  but  thirty-three  years, 
when  it  was  plundered  by  Shishak  king 
of  Egypt,  1  Kin.  14:25,  26  ;  2  Chr.  12:9. 
After  this  period  it  underwent  sundry 
profanations  and  pillages  from  Hazael, 
Tiglath-pileser,  Sennacherib,  etc.,  2  Kin. 
12 ;  16 ;  18 ;  and  was  at  length  utterly 
destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar  king  of 
Babylon,  B.  c.  588,  after  having  stood, 
according  to  Usher,  four  hundred  and 
454 


twenty-four  years,   three  months,  and 
eight  days. 

After  lying  in  ruins  for  fifty -two  years, 
the  foundations  of  the  second  temple 
were  laid  by  Zerubbabel,  and  the  Jews 
who  had  availed  themselves  of  the  priv 
ilege  granted  by  Cyrus  and  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  Ezra  1:1-4;  2:1;  3  :  8-10. 
After  various  hinderances,  it  was  fin* 
ished  and  dedicated  twenty-one  years 
after  it  was  begun,  B.  c.  515,  Ezra  6:15, 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY- 


TEM 


16.  The  dimensions  of  this  temple  in 
breadth  and  height  were  double  those  of 
Solomon's.  The  weeping  of  the  people 
at  the  laying  of  the  foundation,  there 
fore,  Ezra  3  : 12,  13,  and  the  disparaging 
manner  in  which  they  spoke  of  it,  when 
compared  with  the  first  one,  Hag.  2:3, 
were  occasioned  by  its  inferiority  not  in 
size,  but  in  glory.  It  wanted  the  five 
principal  things  which  could  invest  it 
with  this :  namely,  the  ark  and  mercy- 
seat,  the  divine  presence  or  visible  glo 
ry,  the  holy  fire  on  the  altar,  the  urim 
and  thmnmim,  and  the  Spirit  of  proph 
ecy.  In  the  year  B.  c.  163,  this  temple 
was  plundered  and  profaned  by  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes,  who  ordered  the  dis 
continuance  of  the  daily  sacrifice,  offered 
swine's  flesh  upon  the  altar,  and  com 
pletely  suspended  the  worship  of  Jeho 
vah,  1  Mac.  1:46,  47,  etc.  Thus  it  con 
tinued  for  three  years,  when  it  was  re 
paired  and  purified  by  Judas  Maccaba3us, 
who  restored  the  divine  worship,  and 
dedicated  it  anew. 

Herod,  having  slain  all  the  Sanhe 
drim,  except  two,  in  the  first  year  of  his 
reign,  B.  c.  37,  resolved  to  atone  for  it 
by  rebuilding  and  beautifying  the  tem 
ple.  This  he  was  the  more  inclined  to 
do,  both  from  the  peace  which  he  en 
joyed,  and  the  decayed  state  of  the  edi 
fice.  After  employing  two  years  in  pre 
paring  the  materials  for  the  work,  the 
temple  of  Zerubbabel  was  pulled  down, 
B.  c.  17,  and  forty-six  years  before  the 
first  Passover  of  Christ's  ministry.  Al 
though  this  temple  was  fit  for  divine 
service  in  nine  years  and  a  half,  yet  a 
great  number  of  laborers  and  artificers 
were  still  employed  in  carrying  on  the 
outbuildings  all  the  time  of  our  Sav 
iour's  abode  on  earth.  His  presence  ful 
filled  the  predictions  in  Hag.  2:9;  Mai. 
3:1.  The  temple  of  Herod  was  consid 
erably  larger  than  that  of  Zerubbabel, 
as  that  of  Zerubbabel  was  larger  than 
Solomon's.  For  whereas  the  second 
temple  was  seventy  cubits  long,  sixty 
broad,  and  sixty  high,  this  was  one  hun 
dred  cubits  long,  seventy  broad,  and  one 
hundred  high.  The  porch  was  raised  to 
the  height  of  one  hundred  cubits,  and 
was  extended  fifteen  cubits  beyond  each 
side  of  the  rest  of  the  building.  All 
the  Jewish  writers  praise  this  temple 
exceedingly  for  its  beauty  and  the  cost 
liness  of  its  workmanship.  It  was  built 
of  white  marble,  exquisitely  wrought, 


and  with  stones  of  large  dimensions, 
some  of  them  twenty-five  cubits  long, 
eight  cubits  high,  and  twelve  cubits 
thick.  To  these  there  is  no  doubt  a  ref 
erence  in  Mark  13 : 1 ;  Luke  21:5:  "  And 
as  he  went  out  of  the  temple,  one  of  his 
disciples  saith  unto  him,  Master,  see 
what  manner  of  stones,  and  what  build 
ings  are  here!"  Luke  says,  "goodly 
stones."  See  a  description  of  the  orna 
ments  of  one  of  its  gates  under  VINE. 

This  splendid  building,  which  rose  like 
a  mount  of  gold  and  of  snow,  and  was 
once  the  admiration  and  envy  of  the 
world,  has  for  ever  passed  away.  Ac 
cording  to  our  blessed  Lord's  prediction, 
that  "  there  should  not  be  left  one  stone 
upon  another  that  should  not  be  thrown 
down,"  Mark  13:2,  the  whole  structure 
above  ground  was  completely  demol 
ished  by  the  Roman  soldiers,  under  Ti 
tus,  A.  D.  70.  The  temple  area  is  now 
occupied  by  two  Turkish  mosques,  into 
which,  until  recently,  neither  Jew  nor 
Christian  was  permitted  to  enter.  Be 
neath  the  vast  area  of  El-Haram  still 
exist  immense  arched  ways  and  vaults 
of  unknown  date  ;  also  a  large  and  deep 
well,  and  other  indications  that  the 
temple  always  possessed  a  copious  and 
perennial  supply  of  water,  derived  per 
haps  in  part  from  Gihon  by  Hezekiah's 
aqueduct,  and  in  part  from  Solomon's 
pools,  and  flowing  off  through  the  foun 
tain  of  the  Virgin  and  the  pool  of  Siloam. 
In  the  outer  walls  of  the  present  area  are 


seen  at  several  places  stones  of  vast  size, 
evidently  belonging  to  the  ancient  walls. 
455 


TEM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TEN 


Near  the  south-west  corner  certain  huge 
stones  mark  the  beginning  of  an  arch,  a 
part  of  the  stately  bridge  which  anciently 
connected  the  temple  area  with  mount 
Zion ;  and  a  little  north  of  this  spot  is 
the  celebrated  wailing-place  of  the  Jews. 
See  WALL. 

In  the  time  of  the  kings,  a  regular 
guard  of  Levites  was  always  on  duty  at 
the  temple,  1  Chr.  26 ;  2  Chr.  23  :  19. 
During  the  supremacy  of  the  Romans 
there  was  a  Roman  garrison  in  the 
strong  tower  of  Antonia,  which,  with  its 
various  courts  and  fortifications,  adjoin 
ed  the  temple  area  on  the  north,  and 
was  connected  with  it  by  passages  both 
above  and  under  ground,  John  18  :  12 ; 
Acts  4:1;  5:26;  21:31-40. 

The  utmost  veneration  and  love  were 
always  cherished  towards  the  temple  by 
pious  Jews,  Psa.  84.  All  the  people  also, 
from  various  motives,  gloried  in  it,  many 
with  a  bigoted  and  idolatrous  regard. 
Hence  the  charge  of  blaspheming  the 
temple,  which  was  found  the  most  effec 
tual  means  of  enraging  the  populace 
against  Christ  and  his  followers,  Matt. 
26  :  61 ;  27  :  40  ;  John  2  :  19,  20  ;  Acts 
6:13;  21:27-30. 

TEMPT,  to  make  trial  of,  Luke  10: 25, 
and  usually  to  present  inducements  to 
sin.  Satan  is  the  great  tempter,  seeking 
thus  most  effectually  to  destroy  men's 
souls,  1  Chr.  21 :  1 ;  Job  1  and  2  ;  Matt. 
4:1 ;  1  Thess.  3:5.  Men  are  also  led  into 
sin  by  their  own  evil  inclinations  and  by 
other  men,  James  1 : 14,  15.  God,  being 
holy  and  desirous  of  men's  holiness,  does 
not  thus  tempt  them,  James  1 : 13  ;  but 
he  makes  trial  of  them,  to  prove,  exer 
cise,  and  establish  their  graces,  Gen. 
22:1 ;  James  1:2,  3.  Christ  stands  ready 
to  support  his  people  under  any  possible 
temptation,  1  Cor.  10  : 13  ;  Heb.  2  :  18  ; 
4:15  ;  2  Pet.  2:19.  Yet  they  are  not  to 
rush  into  temptation  unbidden,  Luke 
11  :  4.  Men  tempt  God  by  presumptu 
ously  experimenting  on  his  providence 
or  his  grace,  or  by  distrusting  him,  Ex. 
17:2,7;  Isa.  7:12;  Matt.  4*7;  Acts 
5:9;  15  : 10.  Sore  afflictions  are  often 
called  temptations  or  trials,  as  they  are 
frequently  the  occasions  of  sin,  Matt. 
6:13  ;  Luke  8  :13 ;  22  :  28  ;  James  1:12  ; 
IPet.  1:6,7. 

Christ,  at  the  outset  of  his  public 
ministry,  was  violently  assailed  by  the 
tempter,  who  thus  displayed  his  effront 
ery  and  his  blindness,  hoping  perhaps 
45G 


that  the  human  soul  of  the  Redeemer 
would  be  left  unaided  by  his  divinity, 
Matt.  4.  The  temptations  are  to  be  un 
derstood  as  real  transactions,  and  not  as 
visions.  The  tempter  was  baffled,  and 
left  him  for  a  season,  to  meet  a  like  re 
buff  on  every  future  assault,  Luke  4:13: 
22  :  53  ;  John  14  :  30.  The  Saviour  tri 
umphed,  and  paradise  was  regained. 


TENT.  Dwelling  in  tents  was  very 
general  in  ancient  times  among  Eastern 
nations,  Gen.  4:20  ;  their  way  of  life  be 
ing  pastoral,  locomotion  became  neces 
sary  for  pasturage,  and  dwellings  adapt 
ed  for  such  a  life  became  indispensable, 
Isa.  38  : 12.  The  patriarchs  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  dwelt  in  tents,  Gen. 
18:1 ;  Heb.  11:9;  and  on  the  exodus  of 
the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  throughout 
their  peregrinations  until  they  obtained 
the  promised  land,  and  to  some  extent 
afterwards,  they  adopted  the  same  kind 
of  habitation.  See  BOOTHS.  Hence  the 
expression,  "Every  man  to  his  tents,  0 
Israel,"  etc.,  Judg.  7  :  8  ;  2  Sam.  20  :  1 ; 
2  Kin.  8:21.  Indeed,  the  people  of  the 
East,  men,  women,  and  children,  lived 
very  much  in  the  open  air,  as  is  obvious 
from  the  New  Testament  narratives. 
And  the  same  is  true  of  them  at  the 
present  day.  The  Midianites,  the  Phi 
listines,  the  Syrians,  the  descendants  of 
Ham,  the  Hagarites,  and  the  Cushanites 
are  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  living  in 
tents.  But  the  people  most  remarkable 
for  this  unsettled  and  wandering  mode 
of  life  are  the  Arabs,  who  from  the  time 
of  Ishmael  to  the  present  have  continued 
the  custom  of  dwelling  in  tents.  Amid 
the  revolutions  which  have  transferred 
kingdoms  from  one  possessor  to  anoth 
er,  these  wandering  tribes  still  dwell  in 
tents,  unsubdued  and  wild  as  was  their 
progenitor.  This  kind  of  dwelling  is 
not,  however,  confined  to  the  Arabs,  but 
is  used  throughout  the  continent  of  Asia. 
The  word  tent  is  formed  from  the  Latin, 


TEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TER 


"  to  stretch  ;"  tents  being  usually  made 
of  canvas  stretched  out,  and  sustained 
by  poles  with  cords  secured  to  pegs  driv 
en  into  the  ground.  The  "nail  of  the 
tent ' '  with  which  Jael  pierced  the  head 
of  Sisera  was  such  a  tent-pin,  Judg.  4:21. 
See  also  Isa.  3:3:20;  40:22;  54:2.  The 
house  of  God,  and  heaven,  are  spoken  of 
in  Scripture  as  the  tent  or  tabernacle  of 
Jehovah,  Psa.  15:1 ;  61  :  4 ;  84:1 ;  Heb. 
8:2;  9  :  11 ;  and  the  body  as  the  taber 
nacle  of  the  soul,  taken  down  by  death, 
2  Cor.  5:1;  2  Pet.  1 : 13.  Says  Lord  Lind 
say,  "There  is  something  very  melan 
choly  in  our  morning  flittings.  The 
tent-pins  are  plucked  up,  and  in  a  few 
minutes  a  dozen  holes,-  a  heap  or  two  of 
ashes,  and  the  marks  of  the  camels' 
knees  in  the  sand,  soon  to  be  obliter 
ated,  are  the  only  traces  left  of  what  has 
been  for  a  while  our  home."  "  Often," 
says  M'Cheyne,  "we  found  ourselves 
shelterless  before  being  fully  dressed. 
What  a  type  of  the  tent  of  our  body! 
Ah,  how  often  is  it  taken  down  before 
the  soul  is  made  meet  for  the  inheritance 
of  the  saints  in  light."  A  tent  is  also 
put  for  its  inmates,  Hab.  3:7;  Zech.  12:7. 

Tents  are  of  various  colors ;  black,  as 
the  tents  of  Kedar,  Psa.  120  :  5 ;  Song 
1:5  ;  red,  as  of  scarlet  cloth  ;  yellow,  as 
of  gold  shining  brilliantly  ;  white,  as  of 
canvas.  They  are  also  of  various  shapes ; 
some  circular,  others  of  an  oblong  figure, 
not  unlike  the  bottom  of  a  ship  turned 
upside  down.  In  Syria,  the  tents  are 
generally  made  of  cloth  of  goats'  hair, 
woven  by  women,  Exod.  35  :  26.  Those 
of  the  Arabs  are  of  black  goats'  hair. 
Some  other  nations  adopt  the  same  kind, 
bat  it  is  not  common.  The  Egyptian 
and  Moorish  inhabitants  of  Askalon  are 
said  to  use  white  tents;  and  D'Arvieux 
mentions  that  the  tent  of  an  Arab  emir 
he  visited  was  distinguished  from  the 
rest  by  its  being  of  white  cloth.  An 
Arab  sheikh  will  have  a  number  of  tents, 
for  himself,  his  family,  servants,  and  vis 
itors  ;  as  in  patriarchal  times  Jacob  had 
separate  tents  for  himself,  for  Leah,  Ra 
chel,  and  their  maids,  Gen.  31:33  ;  Judg. 
4 :  17.  Usually,  however,  one  tent  suf 
fices  for  a  family;  being  divided,  if  large, 
into  several  apartments  by  curtains. 

TENTH-DEAL,  that  is,  tenth  part,  cor 
responding  to  the  Hebrew  assaron,  or  the 
tenth  part  of  an  ephah.  It  may  there 
fore  be  the  same  as  the  omer,  about  five 
pints,  Lev.  23:17. 

20 


TE'RAH,  the  son  of  Nahor,  and  father 
of  Nahor,  Haran,  and  Abraham,  Gen. 
11:24,  begat  Abraham  at  the  age  of  sev 
enty-two  years,  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldeans. 
Upon  Abraham's  first  call  to  remove 
into  the  land  of  promise,  Terah  and  all 
his  family  went  with  him  as  far  as  Ha 
ran,  in  Mesopotamia,  aboiit  u.  c.  1918, 
Gen.  11:31,  32.  He  died  there  the  same 
year,  aged  two  hundred  and  seventy-five 
years.  Scripture  intimates  plainly  that 
Terah  had  fallen  into  idolatry,  or  had 
for  a  time  mingled  some  idolatrous  prac 
tices  with  the  worship  of  the  true  God, 
Josh.  24  :  2,  14 ;  and  some  think  that 
Abraham  himself  at  first  did  the  same 
thing ;  but  that  afterwards  God,  being 
gracious  to  him,  convinced  him  of  the 
vanity  of  this  worship,  and  that  he  un 
deceived  his  father  Terah. 


TERAPHIM,  small  idols  or  supersti 
tious  figures,  from  the  possession,  adora 
tion,  and  consultation  of  which  extraordi 
nary  benefits  were  expected.  See  margin 
2  Kin.  23 :  24 ;  Ezek.  21 :  21.  The  East 
ern  people  are  still  much  addicted  to 
this  superstition  of  talismans.  The  an 
cient  teraphim  appear  to  have  been 
household  gods,  and  their  worship  was 
sometimes  blended  with  that  of  Jeho 
vah,  Judg.  17.  They  seem  in  one  case 
to  have  resembled  the  human  form  in 
shape  and  size,  1  Sam.  19  :  13,  16.  The 
images  of  Rachel,  Gen.  31  :  19,  30,  were 
teraphim.  So  Judg.  17  :  5  ;  18  :  14,  20  ; 
Hos.  3:4. 

TER'EBINTH.     See  OAK. 

TER'TIUS,  a  Christian  whom  Paul 
employed  as  his  amanuensis  in  writing 
the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  Rom.  16:22. 

TER'TULLUS,  a  Roman  orator  or  ad- 
457 


TES 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


THE 


vocate,  whom  the  Jews  employed  to 
bring  forward  their  accusation  against 
Paul,  before  the  Roman  procurator  at 
Cassarea,  probably  because  they  were 
themselves  unacquainted  with  the  modes 
of  proceeding  in  the  Roman  courts,  Acts 
24:1,2. 

TES'TAMENT,  in  Scripture,  usually 
signifies  covenant,  and  not  a  man's  last 
will,  Matt.  26  :  28.  Both  meanings  are 
blended,  however,  in  Heb.  9  :  16,  17. 
Paul  speaks  of  the  new  testament,  or 
covenant,  in  the  blood  of  the  Redeemer ; 
and  calls  the  law  the  old  covenant,  and 
the  gospel  the  new  covenant,  1  Cor. 
11:25;  2  Cor.  3:6,  14;  Heb.  7:22;  10; 
12:24.  See  BIBLE,  and  COVENANT. 

TESTIMONY,  the  whole  revelation 
of  God,  testifying  to  man  what  he  is  to 
believe,  do,  and  hope,  Psa.  19:7;  119:88, 
99 ;  1  Cor.  1:6;  Rev.  1 :  2.  The  two 
stone  tables  of  the  law  were  a  visible 
"testimony"  or  witness  of  God's  cove 
nant  with  his  people ;  and  hence  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  was  called  sometimes 
the  testimony,  or  the  ark  of  the  testi 
mony,  Ex.  25:22;  34:29.  See  ARK. 

TE'TRARCH  is  strictly  the  ruler  of  the 
fourth  part  of  a  state  or  province  ;  but 
in  the  New  Testament  it  is  a  general 
title  applied  to  those  who  governed  any 
part  of  a  kingdom  or  province,  with  an 
authority  subject  only  to  that  of  the  Ro 
man  emperor.  Thus  Herod  the  Great 
and  his  brother  were  at  one  time,  in 
early  life,  constituted  tctrarchs  of  Judea 
by  Antony.  At  the  death  of  Herod  the 
Great,  he  left  half  his  kingdom  to  Arche- 
laus,  with  the  title  of  ethnarch ;  while 
the  other  half  was  divided  between  two 
of  his  other  sons,  Herod  Antipas  and 
Philip,  with  the  title  of  tetrarchs.  See 
HEROD  I.  and  II.  In  the  same  manner 
Lysanias  is  also  said  to  have  been  te- 
trarch  of  Abilene,  Luke  3:1.  It  is  Herod 
Antipas  who  is  called  the  tetrarch  in 
Matt.  14:1 ;  Luke  3:19  ;  9:7  ;  Acts  13:1. 
As  the  authority  of  the  tetrarch  was  sim 
ilar  to  that  of  the  king,  so  the  general 
term  king  is  also  applied  to  Herod,  Matt. 
14:9;  Mark  6: 14. 

THADDE'US,  a  surname  of  the  apostle 
Jude.  See  JUDAS  II. 

THAM'MUZ.     See  TAMMUZ. 

THEBES.     See  AMMON. 

THE'BEZ,  an  Ephraimite  town  near 
Shechem,  at  the  siege  of  which  Abime- ' 
lech  was  killed,  Judg.  9  :  50-55;  2  Sam. 
11:21. 

458 


THEFT,  Ex.  20:15,  Prov.  22  :  22,  tin 
der  the  Mosaic  law,  was  punished  by 
exacting  a  double  or  a  quadruple  resti 
tution,  which  was  secured  if  necessary 
by  the  sale  of  the  goods  or  services  of 
the  thief  to  the  requisite  amount,  Exod. 
22  : 1-8,  23 ;  2  Sam.  12:6;  Prov.  6  :  30, 
31 ;  Luke  19  :  8.  A  night-robber  might 
lawfully  be  slain  in  the  act ;  and  a  man- 
stealer  was  to  be  punished  by  death,  Ex.. 
21:16;  22:2. 

TUWPR'IL'US,  friend  of  God,  an  hon 
orable  person  to  whom  the  evangelist 
Luke  addressed  his  gospel,  and  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  Luke  1:3;  Acts  1:1. 
We  can  only  say  of  him,  in  general,  that 
most  probably  he  was  a  man  of  some 
note,  who  lived  out  of  Palestine,  and 
had  abjured  paganism  in  order  to  em 
brace  Christianity. 

THESSALO'NIANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE,  I. 
and  II.  These  were  the  earliest  of  Paul's 
epistles,,  and  were  written  from  Corinth, 
in  A.  D.  52  and  53.  In  the  first  epistle, 
Paul  rejoices  over  Timothy's  good  report 
of  the  faith  of  Christians  at  Thessaloni- 
ca ;  and  confirms  them  against  the  per 
secutions  and  temptations  they  would 
meet,  by  discussing  the  miraculous  tes 
timony  of  God  to  the  truth  of  the  gos 
pel,  1:5-10;  the  character  of  its  preach 
ers,  2:1  to  3:13  ;  the  holiness  of  its  pre 
cepts,  4  :  1-12;  and  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  and  his  people,  4 : 13  to  5 : 11.  The 
remainder  of  the  epistle  consists  of  prac 
tical  exhortations. 

In  the  second  epistle,  he  corrects  cer 
tain  errors  into  which  they  were  falling, 
particularly  respecting  the  second  com 
ing  of  Christ.  This,  he  shows,  must  be 
preceded  by  the  career  of  "the  man  of 
sin,"  "the  son  of  perdition,"  "whose 
corning  is  after  the  working  of  Satan, 
with  all  power  and  signs  and  lying  won 
ders  ;"  who  usurps  divine  authority  over 
the  church,  and  "opposcth  and  exalteth 
himself  above  all  that  is  called  God." 
The  exact  fulfilment  in  the  Romish 
church  of  these  predictions,  at  first  so 
contrary  to  human  anticipations,  proves 
that  the  apostle  wrote  by  inspiration. 

THESSALONI'CA,  a  city  and  seaport 
of  the  second  part  of  Macedonia,  at  the 
head  of  the  Thermaic  gulf.  When  ^Emil- 
ius  Paulus,  after  his  conquest  of  Macedo 
nia,  divided  the  country  into  four  dis 
tricts,  this  city  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  second  division,  and  was  the  station 
of  a  Roman  governor  and  quester.  It 


THE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


THO 


was  anciently  called  Therma.  It  was 
inhabited  by  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews, 
from  among  whom  the  apostle  Paul  gath 
ered  a  numerous  church.  There  was  a 
large  number  of  Jews  resident  in  this 
city,  where  they  had  a  synagogue,  in 
which  Paul,  A.  D.  52,  preached  to  them 
on  three  successive  Sabbaths.  Some  of 
the  Jews,  and  many  of  the  Gentiles,  em 
braced  the  gospel ;  but  the  rest  of  the 
Jews  determined  to  maltreat  the  apos 
tle,  and  surrounded  the  house  in  which 
they  believed  he  was  lodging.  The 
brethren,  however,  secretly  led  Paul  and 
Silas  out  of  the  city,  towards  Berea,  and 
they  escaped  from  their  enemies,  Acts 
17.  Thessalonica,  now  called  Saloniki, 
is  at  present  a  wretched  town,  but  has  a 
population  of  about  70,000  persons,  one- 
third  of  whom  are  Jews. 

When  Paul  left  Macedonia  for  Athens 
and  Corinth,  he  left  behind  him  Timo 
thy  and  Silas,  at  Thessalonica,  that  they 
might  confirm  those  in  the  faith  who 
had  been  converted  under  his  ministry. 
He  afterwards  wrote  to  the  church  of 
the  Thessalonians  two  epistles.  See 
PAUL. 

THEU'DAS,  an  insurgent  Jew,  men 
tioned  by  Gamaliel,  A.  D.  33,  as  of  the 
preceding  generation,  Acts  5:36,  37,  and 
therefore  not  to  be  confounded  with  a 
Theudas  of  A.  D.  44,  mentioned  by  Jose- 
phus.  The  period  following  the  death 
of  Herod  the  Great  was  full  of  revolts. 
Theudas  was  also  a  common  name,  an 
swering  to  the  Hebrew  Matthew,  under 
which  name  Josephus  speaks  of  an  un 
successful  reformer  who  was  burnt  in  the 
latter  part  of  Herod's  reign. 

THIGH.  The  mode  of  taking  an  oath, 
alluded  to  in  Gen.  24  :  2-9  ;  47  :  29-31, 
was  significant  of  the  swearer's  obliga 
tion  to  obedience.  Jacob's  thigh  was 
disabled  by  the  Angel,  to  show  the  pa 
triarch  that  his  prevalence  was  through 
his  faith  and  prayer,  not  through  force, 
Gen.  32  :  25-31.  Smiting  the  thigh  was 
a  gesture  of  self-condemnation  and  grief, 
Jer.  31:19;  Ezek.  21:12.  Warriors  wore 
their  swords  upon  the  left  thigh,  unless 
left-handed,  in  readiness  for  use,  Judg. 
3  :  15-21 ;  Psa.  45  :  3  ;  Song  3:8  ;  so  too 
they  may  have  borne  their  names  and 
titles,  not  only  on  their  shields,  but  on 
their  swords,  or  on  the  robe  or  mailed 
coat  covering  the  thigh,  Rev.  19  : 16. 
"Hip  and  thigh,"  Judg.  15  :8,  seems  to 
mean  utterly  and  irrecoverably. 


THIS'TLES,.  and  THORNS.  Under 
these  terms,  together  with  brambles, 
briers,  and  nettles,  are  included  numer 
ous  troublesome  plants,  many  of  them 
with  thorns,  well  fitted  to  try  the  hus 
bandman's  patience,  Gen.  3:18.  Plants 
of  this  class  were  a  symbol  of  desolation, 
Prov.  24:31,  and  were  often  used  as  fuel, 
Psa.  58:9 ;  Eccl.  7:6;  Isa.  33:12.  They 
also  served  for  hedges,  Hos.  2:6.  A 
petty  village  on  the  plain  of  Jericho  is 
now  protected  against  Arab  horsemen  by 
a  hedge  of  thorny  Nubk  branches.  Dr. 
Eli  Smith,  visiting  the  plain  where  Gid 
eon  once  threatened  to  tear  the  flesh  of 
the  princes  of  Succoth  with  thorns  and 
briers,  noticed  such  plants  there  of  re 
markable  size,  some  of  the  thistles  ris 
ing  above  his  head  on  horseback,  Judg. 
8:7.  Few  of  the  Hebrew  terms  can 
now  be  affixed  with  certainty  to  particu 
lar  varieties  among  -the  many  found  in 
Syria.  The  plant  of  which  the  thorny 


crown  of  the  Saviour  was  made,  with  the 
design  to  mock  rather  than  to  torture 
him,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  Zizy- 
phus  Spina  Christi,  a  common  tree  with 
dark  and  glossy  leaves,  having  many 
small  and  sharp  spines  on  its  round  and 
pliant  branches,  Matt.  27:29  ;  John  19:2, 
3.  Paul's  "thorn  in  the  flesh,"  2  Cor. 
12:7-10,  may  have  been  some  bodily  in 
firmity,  unfavorable  to  the  success  of  his 
public  ministrations.  Compare  Gal.  4:13, 
14;  2  Cor.  10:10. 

THOM'AS,  the  apostle,  Matt.  10:3, 
called  in  Greek  Didymus,  that  is,  a  twin, 
John  20:24,  was  probably  a  Galilean,  as 
well  as  the  other  apostles  ;  but  the  place 
of  his  birth,  and  the  circumstances  of  his 
calling,  are  unknown,  Luke  6  :  13-15. 
459 


THO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


THR 


He  appears  to  have  been  of  an  impulsive 
character,  sincerely  devoted  to  Christ, 
ready  to  act  upon  his  convictions,  and 
perhaps  slow  to  be  convinced,  as  he  at 
first  doubted  our  Lord's  resurrection, 
John  11:16  ;  14:5, 6  ;  20:19-29.  Several 
of  the  fathers  inform  us  that  he  preached 
in  the  Indies ;  and  others  say  that  he 
preached  in  Cush,  or  Ethiopia,  near  the 
Caspian  sea. 

There  are  nominal  Christians  in  the 
East  Indies,  who  bear  the  name  of  St. 
Thomas,  because  they  report  that  this 
apostle  preached  the  gospel  there.  They 
dwell  in  a  peninsula  of  the  Indus,  on  this 
side  the  gulf. 

THORNS.     See  THISTLES. 

THREE.  The  phrase,  "three  days  and 
three  nights,"  Matt.  12:40,  was  equiva 
lent  in  Hebrew  to  the  English  ' '  three 
days  ;"  the  Jews  employing  the  expres- 
iion  "  a  day  and  a  night"  to  denote  our 
' '  day ' '  of  twenty-four  hours.  Nor  did 
"three  days,"  1  Sam.  30:13,  literally 
"this  third  day,"  according  to  their 
usage,  necessarily  include  the  whole  of 


three  days,  but  a  part  of  three  days,  a 
continuous  period  including  one  whole 
day  of  twenty-four  hours,  and  a  portion 
of  the  day  preceding  it  and  the  day  fol 
lowing  it.  Compare  Gen.  7  :  12,  17  ; 
ISanT.  30:12,  13. 

THRESH'ING  was  anciently  and  is 
still  performed  in  the  East,  sometimes 
with  a  flail,  Ruth  2  : 17  ;  Isa.  28  :  27  ; 
sometimes  by  treading  out  the  grain 
with  unmuzzled  oxen,  Deut.  25 :  4,  but 
more  generally  by  means  of  oxen  drag 
ging  an  uncouth  instrument  over  the 
sheaves  of  grain.  See  CORN.  The  in 
strument  most  used  in  Palestine  at  this 
time  is  simply  two  short  planks  fastened 
side  by  side  and  turned  up  in  front,  like 
our  common  stone-sledge,  having  sharp 
stones  or  irons  projecting  from  the  un 
der  side,  Isa.  28:27  ;  41:15  ;  Amos  1 :  3. 
The  Egyptian  mode  is  thus  described  by 
Niebuhr :  ' '  They  use  oxen,  as  the  an 
cients  did,  to  beat  out  their  corn,  by 
trampling  upon  the  sheaves,  and  drag 
ging  after  them  a  clumsy  machine.  This 
machine  is  not,  as  in  Arabia,  a  stone  cyl 


inder,  nor  a  plank  with  sharp  stones,  as 
in  Syria,  but  a  sort  of  sledge,  consisting 
of  three  rollers  fitted  with  irons,  which 
turn  upon  axles.  A  farmer  chooses  out 
a  level  spot  in  his  fields,  and  has  his  corn 
carried  thither  in  sheaves,  upon  asses  or 
460 


dromedaries.  Two  oxen  are  then  yoked 
in  a  sledge ;  a  driver  gets  upon  it,  and 
drives  them  backward  and  forward  upon 
the  sheaves ;  and  fresh  oxen  succeed  in 
the  yoke  from  time  to  time."  By  this 
operation,  the  straw  is  gradually  chop- 


THR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIB 


ped  fine  and  the  grain  released.  Mean 
while  the  whole  is  repeatedly  turned 
over  by  wooden  pitchforks  with  three  or 
more  prongs,  and  in  due  time  thrown 
into  a  heap  in  the  centre  of  the  floor. 
The  machine  thus  described  is  called  a 
noreg,  and  answers  to  the  Hebrew  rnorag 
mentioned  in  2  Sain.  24  :  22 ;  1  Chron. 
21:23. 

When  the  grain  is  well  loosened  from 
the  straw  by  the  treading  of  oxen,  with 
or  without  one  of  the  instruments  above 
mentioned,  the  whole  heap  is  next 
thrown  with  forks  several  yards  against 
the  wind,  which  blosving  away  the  chaff, 
the  grain  falls  into  a  heap  by  itself,  2  Kin. 
13:7  ;  and  if  necessary,  the  process  is  re 
peated.  For  this  purpose  the  threshing- 
floors  are  in  the  open  air,  Judg.  6  :  37, 
and  often  on  high  ground,  like  that  of 
Araunah  on  mount  Moriah,  1  Chr.  21 : 15, 
that  the  wind  may  aid  more  effectually 
in  winnowing  the  grain,  Jer.  4  : 11,  12, 
which  is  afterwards  sometimes  passed 
through  a  sieve  for  farther  cleansing. 
The  ground  is  prepared  for  use  as  a 
threshing-floor  by  being  smoothed  off, 
and  beaten  down  hard.  While  the  wheat 
was  carefully  garnered,  the  straw  and 
chaff  were  gathered  up  for  fuel ;  a  most 
instructive  illustration  of  the  day  of 
judgment,  Matt.  3:12. 

THRONE,  an  established  emblem  of 
kingly  dignity  and  power,  used  by  sove 
reigns  on  all  state  occasions.  That  of 
Solomon  was  of  ivory,  overlaid  with 
gold  ;  having  six  broad  steps,  every  one 

fuarded  by  a  golden  lion  at  each  end, 
Kin.  10:18-20.  Heaven  is  called  God's 
throne,  and  the  earth  his  footstool,  Isa. 
G6  :  1 .  His  throne  is  also  sublimely  de 
scribed  as  everlasting,  and  as  built  upon 
justice  and  equity,  Psa.  45:6  ;  97:2.  See 
also  Isa.  6  :  2-4 ;  Ezek.  1.  Christ  is  on 
the  throne  for  ever,  as  the  King  of  heav 
en,  Psa.  110:1 ;  Heb.  1:8;  Rev.  3  :  21 ; 
and  his  faithful  disciples  will  partake  of 
his  kingly  glory,  Luke  22:80  ;  Rev.  4:4 ; 
5:10.  He  forbade  men  lightly  to  swear  by 
heaven  or  its  throne,  as  they  were  thus 
irreverent  to  God,  Matt.  5:34  ;  23:22. 

THUM'MIM.     See  URIM. 

THUN'DER  and  lightning  are  signifi 
cant  manifestations  of  the  power  of  God, 
and  emblems  of  his  presence,  Ex.  19: 16  ; 
1  Sam.  2:10;  12:17;  Psa.  18:13.  Thun 
der  is  poetically  called  "the  voice  of  the 
Lord"  in  the  sublime  description  of  a 
thunder-storm  in  Psalm  29  : 


"  The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  upon  the  waters  ; 
The  God  of  glory  thundereth  ; 
The  Lord  is  upon  many  waters. 
The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  powerful ; 
The  voice  of  the  Lord  is  full  of  majesty. 
The  voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the  cedars  ; 
Yea,  the  Lord  .breaketh  the  cedars  of  Leba 
non,"  etc. 

See  also  Job  37:1-5  ;  40 :  9  ;  Jer.  10:13. 
In  illustration  of  Psa.  29:9,  Moffat,  while 
describing  the  thunder-storms  of  South 
Africa,  says  that  the  antelopes  flee  in 
consternation  ;  and  that  he  has  observed 
the  Beclmanas  starting  off  early  on  the 
morning  following  such  a  storm  in  quest 
of  young  antelopes  prematurely  born.  In 
Psa.  78  :  48,  "  hot  thunderbolts ' '  means 
lightning. 

THYATT'RA,  a  city  of  Lydia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  a  Macedonian  colony,  anciently 
called  Pelopia  and  Euhippia,  now  Ak-his- 
sar.  It  was  situated  on  the  confines  of 
Lydia  and  Mysia,  near  the  river  Lycus, 
between  Sardis  and  Pergamos,  It  was 
the  seat  of  one  of  "the  seven  churches," 
Rev.  1  :  11 ;  2  :  18,  24.  The  art  of  dye 
ing  purple  was  particularly  cultivated  at 
Thyatira,  as  appears  from  an  inscription 
recently  found  there ;  and  it  still  sends 
to  Smyrna,  sixty  miles  south-west,  large 
quantities  of  scarlet  cloth,  Acts  16  :  14. 
Ak-hissar  is  a  poor  town,  with  six  thou 
sand  inhabitants,  chiefly  Turks. 

THY'INE-WOOD,  Rev.  18:12,  the 
wood  of  the  Thyia  or  Thuja  Articulata 
of  Linnasus,  an  aromatic  evergreen  tree, 
resembling  the  cedar,  and  found  in  Lib 
ya,  near  mount  Atlas.  The  wood  was 
used  in  burning  incense,  and  under  the 
name  of  citron- wood  was  highly  prized 
by  the  Romans  for  ornatnental  wood 
work.  It  yields  the  sanderach  resin  of 
commerce. 

TIBE'RIAS,  a  city  of  Galilee,  founded 
by  Herod  Antipas,  and  named  by  him  in 
honor  of  the  emperor  Tiberius.  A  more 
ancient  and  greater  city,  perhaps  Chin- 
neroth,  seems  previously  to  have  flour 
ished  and  gone  to  ruin  near  the  same 
site,  on  the  south.  Tiberias  was  situated 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake  of  Gen- 
nesareth,  about  two  hours'  ride  from  the 
place  where  the  Jordan  issues  from  the 
lake.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city  were 
hot  springs,  which  were  much  celebrat 
ed.  The  lake  is  also  sometimes  called, 
from  the  city,  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  John 
6:1,  23;  21:1.  See  SEA  IV.  After  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Tiberias  was 
celebrated  as  the  seat  of  a  flourishing 
461 


TIB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIM 


school  of  Jewish  learning.  The  cru 
saders  held  it  for  a  time,  and  erected  a 
church,  in  which  the  Arabs  have  since 
housed  their  cattle.  Modern  Tubariyeh 
lies  on  a  narrow  undulating  plain  be 
tween  the  high  table-land  and  the  sea. 
It  was  half  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  1837,  and  has  a  population  of  only 
twenty-five  hundred  souls,  nearly  one- 
third  of  whom  are  Jews.  The  walls  are 
little  more  than  heaps  of  ruins,  the  cas 
tle  is  much  shattered,  and  the  place  has 
an  aspect  of  extreme  wretchedness  and 
filth.  As  the  Arabs  say,  "The  king  of 
the  fleas  holds  his  court  at  Tubariyeh." 
South  of  the  town  are  numerous  remains 
of  the  ancient  city  or  cities,  extending 
for  a  mile  and  a  half,  nearly  to  the  hot 
springs.  The  waters  of  these  springs  are 
nauseous  and  salt,  and  too  hot  for  im 
mediate  use,  136°  to  144° ;  but  the  baths 
are  much  resorted  to  for  the  cure  of  rheu 
matic  diseases,  etc. 

TIBE'RIUS,  CLAU'DIUS  DRU'SUS  NE'RO, 
the  second  emperor  of  Rome,  was  the 
son  of  Livia,  and  ste'pson  of  Augustus ; 
and  being  adopted  by  that  emperor,  he 
succeeded  to  his  throne,  A.  ».  14.  He 
was  at  first  moderate  and  just,  but  soon 
became  infamous  for  his  vices  and  crimes, 
and  died  A.  D.  37,  after  a  cruel  reign  of  ] 
twenty-two  and  a  half  years.  It  was  in 
the  fifteenth  year  of  his  reign  that  John 
the  Baptist  commenced  his  ministry; 
and  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  took  place 
in  the  third  or  fourth  year  after,  Luke 
3:1.  This  emperor  is  several  times  cas 
ually  mentioned  under  the  title  of  Cae 
sar,  Luke  20:22-25;  23:2;  John  19:12. 
His  subjects  were  commanded  to  pay 
divine  worship  to  his  images. 

TIB'NI,  an  unsuccessful  competitor 
with  Omri  the  general,  for  the  throne  of 
Israel,  during  three  years  after  the  death 
of  Elah,  IKin.  16:18-23. 

TI'DAL,  apparently  the  chief  of  sev 
eral  allied  tribes,  with  whom  he  joined 
Chedorlaomer  in  the  invasion  of  the  vale 
of  Siddim,  mount  Seir,  etc.,  and  was  de 
feated  by  Abraham,  Gen.  14:1-16. 

TIG'LATH-PILE'SER,  king  of  Assyria, 
was  invited  by  Ahaz  king  of  Judah  to 
aid  him  against  the  kings  of  Syria  and 
Israel,  2  Kin.  16 : 7-10.     This  he  did,  but 
exacted  also  a  heavy  tribute  from  Ahaz, 
so  as  to  distress   him  without  helping 
him,  2  Chr.  28:20,  21.     From  the  king 
dom  of  Israel,  also,  he  carried  off  the  j 
inhabitants  of  many  cities  captive,  and  1 
402 


S laced  them  in  various  parts  of  his  king- 
om,  B.  c.  740,  1  Chr.  5 :  26  ;  2  Kin. 
15  :  29,  thus  fulfilling  unconsciously  the 
predictions  of  Isaiah,  7:17  ;  8:4.  He  is 
supposed  to  be  meant  by  Jareb,  the  plead 
er,  in  Hos.  5:13  ;  10:6.  He  reigned  nine 
teen  years  at  Nineveh,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Shalmaneser. 

TILE,  a  broad  and  thin  brick,  usually 
made  of  fine  clay,  and  hardened  in  the 
fire.  Such  tiles  were  very  common  in 
the  region  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
(see  BABYLON,)  and  offered  to  the  exiled 
prophet  Ezekiel  the  most  natural  and 
obvious  means  of  depicting  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem,  Ezek.  4  : 1.  Great  num 
bers  of  similar  rude  sketches  of  places, 
as  well  as  of  animals  and  men,  are  found 
on  the  tiles  recently  exhumed  from  the 
ancient  mounds  of  Assyria,  interspersed 
among  the  wedge-shaped  inscriptions 
with  which  one  side  of  the  tile  is  usually 
crowded.  At  Nineveh  Layard  found  a 
large  chamber  stored  full  of  such  in 
scribed  tiles,  like  a  collection  of  histor 
ical  archives,  Ezra  6:1.  They  are  usually 
about  a  foot  square,  and  three  inches 
thick. 

TIM'BREL,  an  instrument  of  music, 
early  and  often  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
Gen.  31 : 27  ;  Job  21 :  12.  The  Hebrews 
called  it  toph,  under  which  name  they 
comprehended  all  kinds  of  drums,  ta 
bors,  and  tambourines.  We  do  not  find 
that  the  Hebrews  used  it  in  their  wars, 
but  only  at  their  public  rejoicings,  Ex. 
15:20  ;  Isa.  24:8  ;  and  it  was  commonly 
employed  by  the  women,  Psa.  68:25.  It 
consisted,  and  still  consists,  of  a  small 
circular  rim  or  hoop,  over  which  a  skin 
is  drawn.  The  rim  is  also  hung  with 
small  bells  The  timbrel  is  used  as  an 
accompaniment  to  lively  music,  being 
shaken  and  beaten  with  the  knuckles  in 
time.  After  the  passage  of  the  Red  sea, 
Miriam,  sister  of  Moses,  took  a  timbrel, 
and  began  to  play  and  dance  with  the 
women,  Exod.  15  :  20.  The  daughter  of 
Jcphthah  came  to  meet  her  father  with 
timbrels  and  other  musical  instruments, 
Judg.  11:34.  See  Music. 

TIME.  Besides  the  ordinary  uses  of 
this  word,  the  Bible  sometimes  employs 
it  to  denote  a  year,  as  in  Dan.  4  :  16  ;  or 
a  prophetic  year,  consisting  of  three  hun 
dred  and  sixty  natural  years,  a  day  be 
ing  taken  for  a  year.  Thus  in  Dan.  7 : 25; 
12:7,  the  phrase  "  a  time,  times,  and  the 
dividing  of  a  time ' '  is  supposed  to  mean 


TIM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIR 


three  and  a  half  prophetic  years,  or  1.260 
natural  years.  This  period  is  elsewhere 
paralleled  by  the  expression,  "forty-two 
months,"  each  month  including  thirty 
years,  Rev.  11:2,  3;  12:6,  14;  13:5. 

TIM'NA,  a  secondary  wife  of  Eliphaz 
the  son  of  Esau,  a  name  which  recurs  in 
the  records  of  the  Idumasan  tribes,  Gen. 
36:12,  22,  40;  1  Chr.  1:36,  51. 

TIM'NAH,  TIM'NATH,  and  THIM'- 
NATHAH,  an  ancient  city  of  the  Ca- 
naanites,  Gen.  38:12-14;  on  the  borders 
of  Judah  and  Dan  after  the  conquest, 
Josh.  15  :  10 ;  19:43.  It  was  for  a  long 
time  subject  to  the  Philistines,  and  Sam 
son's  wife  was  a  Timnite,  Judg.  14:1-5  ; 
2  Chr.  28  :  18.  Its  deserted  site,  now 
called  Tibneh,  lies  three  miles  south 
west  of  Zorah. 

TIM'NATH-SE'RAH,  or  TIM'NATH-HE'- 
RES,  Judg.  2 : 9,  a  town  in  Ephraim,  which 
yielded  to  Joshua  a  home,  an  income, 
and  a  burial-place,  Josh.  19:50;  24:30. 
The  site  the  Jewish  leader  is  supposed 
to  have  chosen,  now  called  Tibneh,  lies 
in  a  rough  and  mountainous  region  on 
the  road  from  Gophna  to  Antipatris. 

TIM'OTHY,  a  disciple  of  Paul.  He 
was  of  Derbe  or  Lystra,  both  cities  of 
Lycaonia,  Acts  16:1 ;  14:  6.  His  father 
was  a  Greek,  but  his  mother  a  Jewess, 

2  Tim.  1:5  ;  3:15.    The  instructions  and 
prayers  of  his  pious  mother  and  grand 
mother,  and  the  preaching  of  Paul  dur 
ing  his  first  visit  to  Lystra,  A.  D.  48,  re 
sulted  in  the  conversion  of  Timothy  and 
his  introduction  to  the  ministry  which 
he  so  adorned.     He  had  witnessed  the 
sufferings  of  Paul,  and  loved  him  as  his 
father  in  Christ,   1  Tim.  1:2;    2  Tim. 

3  :  10,  11.     When  the  apostle  returned 
to  Lystra,  about  A.  n.  51,  the  brethren 
spoke  highly  of  the  merit  and  good  dis 
position  of  Timothy;    and  the   apostle 
determined  to  take  him  along  with  him, 
for  which  purpose  he  circumcised  him  at 
Lystra,  Acts  16 : 3.    Timothy  applied  him 
self  to  labor  in,  the  gospel,  and  did  Paul 
very    important   services    through    the 
whole  course   of  his  preaching.     Paul 
calls  him  not  only  his  dearly  beloved 
son,  but  also  his  brother,  the  companion 
of  his  labors,  and  a  man  of  God ;  observ 
ing  that  none  was  more  united  with  him 
in  heart  and  mind  than  Timothy,  Rom. 
16:21;  1  Cor.  4:17;  2  Cor.  1:1;  1  Tim. 
1 :  2,  18.     Indeed,  he  was  selected  by 
Paul   as   his  chosen  companion  in  his 
journeys,  shared  for  a  time  his  impris 


onment  at  Rome,  Heb.  13  :  23,  and  was 
afterwards  left  by  him  at  Ephesus,  to 
continue  and  perfect  the  work  which 
Paul  had  begun  in  that  city,  1  Tim.  1:3 ; 
3  :  14.  He  appears  to  have  possessed  in 
a  very  high  degree  the  confidence  and 
affection  of  Paul,  and  is  therefore  often 
mentioned  by  him  in  terms  of  warm 
commendation,  Acts  16  :  1 ;  17  : 14,  15  ; 
18:5;  19:22;  20:4;  2  Tim.  3:10;  4:5. 

EPISTLES  TO  TIMOTHY.  The  first  of 
these  Paul  seems  to  have  written  sub 
sequently  to  his  first  imprisonment  at 
Rome,  and  while  he  was  in  Macedonia, 
having  left  Timothy  at  Epliesus,  1  Tim. 
1:2,  A.  D.  64.  The  second  appears  to 
have  been  addressed  to  Timothy  in 
north-western  Asia  Minor,  during  Paul's 
second  imprisonment  and  in  anticipation 
of  martyrdom,  A.  D.  67.  This  dying 
charge  of  the  faithful  apostle  to  his  be 
loved  son  in  the  gospel,  the  latest  fruit 
of  his  love  for  him  and  for  the  church, 
we  study  with  deep  emotions.  Both  epis 
tles  are  most  valuable  and  instructive 
documents  for  the  direction  and  admo 
nition  of  every  Christian,  and  more  es 
pecially  of  ministers  of  the  gospel.  With 
the  epistle  to  Titus,  they  form  the  three 
"  pastoral  epistles,"  as  they  are  called. 

TIN,  a  metal  known  and  used  at  an 
early  period,  Num.  31  : 22,  and  bronght 
by  the  Tyrians  from  Tarshish,  Ezek. 
27:  12.  In  Isa.  1  :  25  it  means  the  alloy 
of  lead,  tin,  and  other  base  admixtures 
in  silver  ore,  separated  from  the  pure 
silver  by  smelting. 

TIPH'SAH,  the  ancient  Thapsacus,  an 
important  city  on  the  western  bank  of 
the  Euphrates,  which  constituted  the 
north-eastern  extremity  of  Solomon's 
dominions,  1  Kin.  4  :  24.  The  ford  at 
this  place  being  the  last  one  on  the  Eu 
phrates  towards  the  south,  its  possession 
was  important  to  Solomon  in  his  design 
to  attract  the  trade  of  the  East  to  Pales 
tine.  Hence  the  building  of  Tadmor  on 
the  desert  route.  Perhaps  the  same  city 
is  meant  in  2  Kin.  15 :  16,  though  some 
understand  here  a  city  of  the  same  name 
near  Samaria. 

TI'RAS,  a  son  of  Japheth,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  forefather  of  the  ancient 
Thracians,  Gen.  10:2. 

TIRES,  or  "little  moons,"  are  thought 
to  have  been  ornaments  for  the  neck, 
worn  not  by  women  only,  Isa.  3 : 18,  but 
by  men,  and  even  on  the  necks  of  cam 
els,  Judg.  8  :  21,  26.  Some  suppose  the 
463 


TIR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TIT 


tire,  in  Ezek.  24:17,  was  an  ornamented 
headdress. 


TIRHA'KAH,  king  of  Ethiopia,  or 
Gush,  and  of  Egypt.  This  prince,  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army,  attempted  to 
relieve  Hezekiah,  when  attacked  by  Sen 
nacherib,  2  Kin.  19  :  9,  but  the  Assyrian 
army  was  routed  before  he  came  up,  Isa. 
37:19,  B.  c.  712.  He  is  undoubtedly  the 
Taracus  of  Manetho,  and  the  Tearcho  of 
Strabo,  the  third  and  last  king  of  the 
twenty-fifth  or  Ethiopian  dynasty.  It  is 
supposed  that  he  is  the  Pharaoh  intend 
ed  in  Isa.  30:2  ;  and  that  Isa.  19  depicts 
the  anarchy  which  succeeded  his  reign. 
He  was  a  powerful  monarch,  ruling  both 
Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  and  extending 
his  conquests  far  into  Asia  and  towards 
the  "pillars  of  Hercules"  in  the  west. 
His  name  and  victories  are  recorded  on 
an  ancient  temple  at  Medinet  Abou,  in 
Upper  Egypt ;  whence  also  the  repre 
sentation  above  given  of  his  head  was 
copied  by  Eosselini. 

TIRSHA'THA,  perhaps  meaning  se 
vere  or  august,  a  title  of  honor  borne 
by  Zerubbabel  and  Nehemiah  as  Persian 
governors  of  Judea,  Ezra  2  :  63 ;  Neh. 
7:65. 

464 


TIR'ZAH,  pleasant,  Song  6 : 4,  a  city  of 
the  Canaanites,  Josh.  12  :  24,  and  after 
wards  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  or  Ephra- 
im ;  and  the  royal  seat  of  the  kings  of 
Israel  from  the  time  of  Jeroboam  to  the 
reign  of  Omri,  who  built  the  city -of  Sa 
maria,  which  then  became  the  capital  of 
this  kingdom,  1  Kin.  15  :  21,  33  ;  16  :  6, 
23  ;  2  Kin.  15:14,  16.  Its  exact  location 
is  unknown. 

TISH'BITE,  from  Tishbe  in  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali,  where  Elijah  was  born, 
1  Kin.  17  : 1.  It  is  mentioned  in  one  of 
the  apocryphal  books. 

TISH'RI,  or  TIS'RI,  the  first  month  of 
the  Jewish  civil  year,  and  the  seventh 
of  the  ecclesiastical ;  called,  in  1  Kin. 
8  :  2,  Ethanim,  which  see  ;  and  answer 
ing  nearly  to  our  October.  On  the  first 
day  of  Tishri  the  feast  of  Trumpets  oc 
curred;  on  the  tenth,  the  great  day  of 
Expiation  ;  and  on  the  fifteenth,  the  feast 
of  Tabernacles  commenced. 

TITHE,  a  tenth,  the  proportion  of  a 
man's  income  devoted  to  sacred  purposes 
from  time  immemorial,  Gen.  14  :  20 ; 
28  :  22.  This  was  prescribed  in  the  Mo 
saic  law,  Num.  31 :  31.  A  twofold  tithe 
was  required  of  each  Jewish  citizen.  The 
first  consisted  of  one-tenth  of  the  prod 
uce  of  his  fields, -trees,  flocks,  and  herds, 
to  be  given  to  God  as  the  sovereign  Pro 
prietor  of  all  things  and  as  the  King  of 
the  Jews,  Lev.  27:  30-32 ;  1  Sam.  8  :  15, 
17.  The  proceeds  of  this  tax  were  de 
voted  to  the  maintenance  of  the  Levites 
in  their  respective  cities,  Num.  18  : 21- 
24.  A  person  might  pay  this,  tax  in 
money,  adding  one -fifth  to  its  estimated 
value.  The  Levites  paid  a  tenth  part  of 
what  they  received  to  the  priests,  Num. 
18:26-28.  The  second  tithe  required  of 
each  landholder  was  one-tenth  of  the 
nine  parts  of  his  produce  remaining  after 
the  first  tithe,  to  be  expended  at  the 
tabernacle  or  temple  in  entertaining  the 
Levites,  his  own  family,  etc.,  changing  it 
first  into  money,  if  on  account  of  his  re 
moteness  he  chose  to  do  so,  Deut.  12 : 17- 
19,  22-29  ;  14:22-27.  Every  third  year  a 
special  provision  was  made  for  the  poor, 
either  out  of  this  second  tithe  or  in  addi 
tion  to  it,  Deut.  14:28,  29.  These  tithes 
were  not  burdensome ;  but  the  pious  Is 
raelite  found  himself  the  richer  for  their 
payment,  though  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  enforced  by  any  legal  penal 
ties.  The  system  of  tithes  was  renewed 
both  before  and  after  the  captivity, 


TIT 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TOL 


2Chr.  31:5,  6,  12;  Neh.  10:37;  12:44; 
13  :  5 ;  but  they  were  not  always  regu 
larly  paid,  and  hence  the  divine  blessing 
was  withheld,  Mai.  3  :  8-12.  The  Phar 
isees  were  scrupulously  exemplary  in 
paying  their  tithes,  but  neglected  the 
more  important  duties  of  love  to  God 
and  man,  Matt.  23:23. 

The  principle  of  the  ancient  tithes, 
namely,  that  ministers  of  the  gospel  and 
objects  of  benevolence  should  be  pro 
vided  for  by  the  whole  people  of  God, 
according  to  their  means,  is  fully  recog 
nized  in  Scripture  as  applicable  to  the 
followers  of  Christ.  He  sent  his  servants 
forth,  two  and  two,  without  provisions 
or  purses,  to  receive  their  support  from 
the  people,  since  ' '  the  laborer  is  worthy 
of  his  hire,"  Matt.  10:9-14  ;  Luke  10:4- 
8,  16.  Paul  also  reasons  in  the  same 
way,  1  Cor.  9  :  13,  14  ;  Gal.  6  :  6.  For 
purposes  of  piety  and  beneficence,  he 
directed  the  Corinthians,  and  virtually 
all  Christians,  to  lay  aside  from  their 
income,  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  as 
the  Lord  had  prospered  them,  1  Cor. 
16  :  2.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that 
the  early  Christians  gave  more  freely  of 
their  substance  than  did  the  ancient 
Jews,  Acts  4:34-36  ;  2  Cor.  8:1-4. 

TIT'TLE,  a  very  small  particle  ;  liter 
ally,  a  small  horn ;  the  minute  tip  at 
the  extremity  of  some  Hebrew  letters, 
Matt.  5:18.  In  transcribing  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  the  Jews  exacted  the  utmost 
accuracy.  Every  page  and  every  line 
must  contain  just  so  much ;  and  the 
most  trivial  defect  vitiated  the  whole 
roll,  and  compelled  the  scribe  to  begin 
his  task  anew.  Yet  the  extreme  care 
thus  expressed  for  the  perfect  integrity 
of  the  letter  of  God's  word  is  but  a  feeble 
illustration  of  the  Saviour's  care  for  the 
same  word — every  truth,  every  threaten 
ing,  and  every  promise  has  the  most  per 
fect  guarantee  possible  :  "  It  is  easier  for 
heaven  and  earth  to  pass,  than  one  tittle 
of  the  law  to  fail,"  Luke  16: 17. 

TI'TUS,  a  distinguished  Christian  min 
ister  of  Greek  origin,  Gal.  2:3;  con 
verted  under  the  preaching  of  Paul,  Tit. 
I  :  4,  whose  companion  and  fellow-laborer 
he  became,  2  Cor.  8:23.  He  joined  Paul 
and  Barnabas  in  the  mission  from  Anti- 
och  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  15:2  ;  Gal.  2:1; 
and  subsequently  was  sent  to  Corinth 
and  labored  with  success,  2  Cor.  8:6; 
12:18.  He  did  not  rejoin  the  apostle  at 
Troas,  as  was  expected,  but  at  Philippi, 
20* 


2  Cor.  2:12,  13  ;  7:6;  and  soon  after  re 
sumed  his  labors  at  Corinth  in  connec 
tion  with  a  general  effort  for  the  relief 
of  poor  Christians  in  Judea,  taking  with 
him  Paul's  second  epistle,  2  Cor.  8  :  6, 
16,  17.     Some  eight  or  ten  years  later, 
we  lind  him  left  by  the  apostle  at  Crete, 
to  establish  and  regulate  the  churches  of 
that  island,  Tit.  1 :  5.     Here  he  received 
the  EPISTLE  TO  TITUS  from  Paul,  then  at 
Ephesus,  inviting  him  to  Nicopolis,  Tit. 

3  :  12 ;  whence  he  went  into  the  neigh 
boring  Dalmatia,  before  Paul  was  finally 
imprisoned  at  Rome,  2  Tim.  4:10.     Tra 
dition  makes  him  labor  for  many  years 
in  Crete,  and  die  there  at  an  advanced 
age.     His  character  seems  to  have  been 
marked  by  integrity,  discretion,  and  a 
glowing  zeal.     He  was  trusted  and  be 
loved  by  Paul,  whose  epistle  to  him  is 
similar  in  its  contents  to  the  first  epistle 
to  Timothy,  and  was  probably  written 
not  long  after  it,  A.  D.  05. 

TOB,  a  district  beyond  Jordan,  where 
Jephthah  took  refuge  when  expelled 
from  Gilead,  Judg.  11:3,  5.  Its  location 
is  not  known. 

TOBI'AH,  an  Ammonite  prince,  in 
league  with  Sanballat  and  the  Samari 
tans  against  the  pious  Jews,  who  were 
rebuilding  the  ruined  temple,  Neh.  2: 10; 

4  :  3.      His  threats  and  treachery  were 
employed  in  vain.     During  Nehemiah's 
absence,  Tobiah  was  unlawfully  estab 
lished  by  some  of  the  chief  men  of  Ju- 
dah,  his  relatives,  in  a  fine  apartment  of 
the  new  temple  ;  but  was  ignominiously 
expelled  on  the  governor's  return,  Neh. 
6:17-19;  13:1-9. 

TOGAR'MAH,  a  descendant  of  Ja- 
pheth,  Gen.  10 :  3,  supposed  to  have 
given  his  name  to  the  region  of  Asia 
afterwards  called  Armenia,  Ezek.  38:15, 
16.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  horses  and 
mules ;  and  the  men  of  Togarmah,  like 
the  modern  Armenians,  were  an  indus 
trious,  peaceable,  and  trafficking  people, 
Ezek.  27:14. 

TOI,  king  of  Hamath  in  Syria,  sent 
his  son  to  rejoice  with  David  on  his  vic 
tories  over  Hadadezer  king  of  Zobah, 
2  Sam.  8:9-11;  1  Chr.  18:9. 

TO'LA,  I.,  the  eldest  son  of  Issachar, 
and  head  of  a  family,  Gen.  46: 13  ;  Num. 
26:23. 

II.  Of  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  judge  of 
Israel,  at  Shamir  in  mount  Ephraim,  for 
twenty-three  years  after  the   death  of 
Abimelech,  Judg.  10:1,  2. 
4G5 


TOM 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TRA 


TOMB.     See  SEPULCHRE. 

TO'PAZ,  a  precious  stone  of  wine-yel 
low  color,  with  occasional  pale  tinges  of 
green  or  red.  It  was  one  of  the  twelve 
gems  in  the  high  -  priest' s  breastplate, 
Exod.  28  :  17  ;  39  :  10,  and  was  a  highly 
prized  product  of  Gush,  or  Southern  Ara 
bia,  Job  28:19;  Ezek.  28:13. 

TO'PHET.     See  HINNOM. 

TORMENT'OKS.  The  Greek  word 
usually  denotes  men  who  had  charge  of 
instruments  of  torture,  by  which  unwill 
ing  witnesses  were  compelled  to  testify, 
and  the  agonies  of  execution  in  some 
cases  were  protracted.  The  same  men, 
however,  were  keepers  of  prisons  and 
jails ;  and  it  is  probably  with  reference 
only  to  their  office  as  jailers  that  the 
word  is  used  in  Matt.  18:34. 

TOIl'TOISE,  Lev.  11:29.  The  Hebrew 
word  rather  denotes  a  species  of  lizard, 
so  named  ID.  the  original  for  its  slowness 
of  motion. 


TOWERS  were  erected  not  only  in  the 
outer  walls  and  on  the  heights  within 
cities,  Judg.  9  :  47-49,  Psa.  48:12,  Luke 
13  :  4,  but  along  the  frontiers  of  a  coun 
try,  at  points  where  the  approach  of  an 
enemy  could  be  descried  at  a  distance, 
Judg.  9:17;  Isa.  21:6-9;  Ezek.  33:2-6. 
A  tower  afforded  a  refuge  to  the  sur 
rounding  inhabitants,  in  case  of  inva 
sion  ;  and  often,  when  most  of  a  city 
was  subdued,  the  tower  or  citadel  re 
mained  impregnable.  So  God  is  a  strong 
and  safe  protector  of  his  people,  Psa. 
18  :  2  ;  61  :  8  ;  Prov.  18  :  10.  A  slight 
tower  or  look-out  was  often  erected  for 
the  keeper  of  a  vineyard  or  flock,  2  Chr. 
26:10;  Isa.  5:2;  Mic.  4:8;  Matt.  21:33; 
4G6 


and  travellers  in  Palestine  see  them  in 
use  at  this  day. 

TRACHONI'TIS,  in  the  time  of  Christ, 
was,  as  its  name  imports,  a  rugged  prov 
ince,  lying  on  the  north-east  border  of 
Palestine,  south  of  Damascus,  between 
the  mountains  of  Arabia  Deserta  on  the 
east,  and  Iturea,  Auranitis,  and  Batanea 
on  the  Avest  and  south,  Luke  3:1.  Herod 
the  Great  subdued  the  robbers  that  in 
fested  it ;  and  after  his  death  it  was  gov 
erned  by  Philip  his  son,  and  then  by 
Herod  Agrippa. 

TRADI'TION,  Col.  2  :  8,  Tit.  1  :  14,  a 
doctrine,  sentiment,  or  custom  not  found 
in  the  Bible,  but  transmitted  orally  from 
generation  to  generation  from  some  pre 
sumed  inspired  authority.  In  patriar 
chal  times,  much  that  was  valuable  and 
obligatory  was  thus  preserved.  But  tra 
dition  has  long  been  superseded  by  the 
successive  and  completed  revelations  of 
God's  will  which  form  the  inspired  Scrip 
tures,  the  only  perfect  and  sufficient  rule 
of  belief  and  practice.  With  this,  even 
before  the  time  of  the  Saviour,  Isa.  8 : 20, 
all  traditions  were  to  be  compared,  as 
being  of  no  value  if  they  conflicted  with 
it,  added  to  it,  or  took  from  it,  Rev. 
22:19.  The  Jews  had  numerous  unwrit 
ten  traditions,  which  they  affirmed  to 
have  been  delivered  to  Moses  on  mount 
Sinai,  and  by  him  transmitted  to  Joshua, 
the  judges,  and  the  prophets.  After  their 
wars  with  the  Romans  under  Adrian  and 
Severus,  in  view  of  their  increasing  dis 
persion  over  the  earth,  the  Jews  desired 
to  secure  their  traditions  by  committing 
them  to  writing.  Accordingly  Rabbi 
Judah  "the  Holy,"  composed  the  Mish- 
na,  or  second  law,  the  most  ancient  col 
lection  of  the  Hebrew  traditions,  about 
A.  D.  190-220.  To  this  text  two  com 
mentaries  were  afterwards  added :  the 
Gemara  of  Jerusalem,  probably  about 
A.  D.  370 ;  and  the  Gemara  of  Babylon, 
A.  D.  500 ;  forming,  with  the  Mishna, 
the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem  and  that  of 
Babylon.  The  contents  of  these  volu 
minous  works  poorly  remunerate  the 
student  for  the  laborious  task  of  reading 
them.  Our  Saviour  severely  censured 
the  adherents  of  such  legendary  follies 
in  his  own  day,  and  reproached  them 
with  preferring  the  traditions  of  the 
elders  to  the  law  of  God  itself,  and  su- 
perstitiously  adhering  to  vain  obser 
vances  while  they  neglected  the  most 
important  duties,  Matt.  15  : 1-20 ;  Mark 


TRA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TRE 


7  : 1-13.  The  traditions  of  the  Romish 
church,  with  less  apology  than  the  an 
cient  Jews  had  before  the  New  Testament 
was  written,  are  still  more  in  conflict 
with  the  word  of  God,  and  still  more 
deserving  of  the  Saviour's  condemna 
tion. 

In  2  Thess.  2  :  15  ;  3:6,  "tradition " 
means  inspired  instructions  from  the  lips 
of  those  who  received  them  from  God, 
and  were  authorized  to  dispense  them  in 
his  name.  These  apostolic  sayings  were 
obligatory  only  on  those  who  received 
them  as  inspired  directly  from  the  apos 
tles.  Had  any  of  them  come  down  to 
our  times,  the  only  means  of  endorsing 
them  must  be  by  showing  their  agree 
ment  with  the  word  of  God,  since  inspi 
ration  and  miracles  have  ceased. 

TRANCE,  a  state  of  the  human  sys 
tem  distinguished  from  dreaming  and 
revery ;  it  is  one  in  which  the  bodily 
senses  are  locked  up  and  almost  discon 
nected  from  the  spirit,  which  is  occupied 
either  with  phantasms,  as  in  trances  pro 
duced  by  disease,  or,  as  in  ancient  times, 
with  revelations  from  God.  Numerous 
instances  are  mentioned  in  Scripture  :  as 
that  of  Balaam,  Num.  24:4,  16  ;  those  of 
Peter  and  Paul,  Acts  10: 10;  22:17;  2Cor. 
12  :  1-4.  Compare  also  Gen.  2  :  21-24  ; 
15:12-21;  Job  4: 13-21. 

TRANSFIGURATION,  Matt.  17:1-9; 
2  Pet.  1 : 16-18.  This  remarkable  event 
in  the  life  of  Christ  probably  took  place 
on  Hermon  or  some  other  mountain  not 
far  from  C;csarea  Philippi ;  the  tradition 
which  assigns  it  to  Tabor  not  being  sus 
tained.  See  TABOR.  The  whole  form  and 
raiment  of  the  Saviour  appeared  in  super 
natural  glory.  The  Law  and  the  Prophets, 
in  the  persons  of  Moses  and  Elijah,  did 
homage  to  the  Gospel.  By  communing 
with  Christ  on  the  theme  most  moment 
ous  to  mankind,  his  atoning  death,  they 
evinced  the  harmony  that  exists  between 
the  old  and  new  dispensations,  and  the 
sympathy  between  heaven  and  earth  ; 
while  the  voice  from  heaven  in  their 
hearing  gave  him  honor  and  authority 
over  all.  Besides  its  great  purpose,  the 
attestation  of  Christ's  Messiahship  and 
divinity,  this  scene  demonstrated  the 
continued  existence  of  departed  spirits 
in  an  unseen  world,  furnished  in  the 
Saviour's  person  an  emblem  of  human 
ity  glorified,  and  aided  in  preparing  both 
him  and  his  disciples  for  their  future 
trials. 


TREASURES.  Kings  were  wont  to 
store  their  possessions  and  guard  what 
they  most  valued  in  well-fortified  cities, 
hence  called  treasure-cities,  Ex.  1  :  11 ; 
1  Chr.  27  :  25 ;  Ezra  5  :  17.  "Treasures 
in  the  field,"  Jer.  41:8,  were  provisions, 
etc.,  buried,  as  is  the  custom  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  in  subterranean  pits. 
Numerous  ruined  granaries  of  this  kind 
are  still  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Beth- 
shean.  The  "pilgrim  fathers"  in  like 
manner  found  heaps  of  corn  buried  in 
the  ground  by  the  Indians.  In  conse 
quence  also  of  the  great  insecurity  of 
property  in  the  East,  it  seems  to  have 
been  usual  from  the  earliest  times  to 
hide  in  the  ground  gold  and  jewels; 
and  the  owners  being  killed  or  driven 
away,  or  forgetting  the  place  of  depos 
it,  these  hidden  treasures  remain  till 
chance  or  search  brings  them  to  light. 
They  are  much  sought  for  by  the  Arabs 
at  this  day,  and  are  believed  by  them  to 
be  the  object  travellers  from  the  West 
have  in  view  in  exploring  ancient  ruins, 
Job  3: 21;  Prov.  2:4;  Matt.  13:44.  But 
a  few  years  since,  some  workmen  dig 
ging  in  a  garden  at  Sidon,  discovered 
several  copper  pots,  filled  with  gold  coin 
from  the  mint  of  Philip  of  Macedon  and 
his  son  Alexander,  unmixed  with  any  of 
later  date.  This  lost  treasure,  worth 
many  thousands  of  dollars,  had  remain 
ed  apparently  undisturbed  over  two 
thousand  years. 

TREES  were  frequently  used  as  types 
of  kings,  or  men  of  wealth  and  power, 
Psa.  37:  35  ;  Isa.  2  :  13  ;  Dan.  4  : 10-26  ; 
Zech.  11:1,  2.  The  "tree  of  knowledge 
of  good  and  evil ' '  bore  the  forbidden 
fruit,  by  eating  of  which  Adam  fatally 
increased  his  knowledge — of  good  by  its 
loss,  of  sin  and  woe  by  actual  experi 
ence,  Gen.  2:9,  17.  The  "tree  of  life" 
may  have  been  both  an  assurance  and  a 
means  of  imparting  life,  a  seal  of  eternal 
holiness  and  bliss,  if  man  had  not  sin 
ned.  Compare  Rev.  22:2. 

TRENCH,  a  passage  of  approach  to 
the  walls  of  a  besieged  city,  like  a  deep 
ditch  ;  the  earth  thrown  up  constituting 
a  wall.  The  Redeemer,  weeping  over 
Jerusalem  a  few  days  before  he  was  cru 
cified  under  its  walls,  said,  "The  daya 
shall  come  upon  thee,  that  thine  ene 
mies  shall  cast  a  trench  about  thee,  and 
compass  thee  round,  and  keep  thee  in  on 
every  side,"  Luke  19  :  43.  The  Romans 
fulfilled  this  prediction  by  enclosing  the 
467 


TRE 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TRO 


entire  city  of  Jerusalem  by  a  wall,  that 
the  Jews  might  neither  escape  nor  be 
relieved  from  without.  In  1  Sam.  26 : 5, 
"trench"  appears  to  mean  the  circle 
formed  by  camp  equipage.  See  CAMP. 

TRES'PASS,  an  injury  done  to  an 
other,  with  more  or  less  culpability. 
The  Mosaic  law  required  a  trespasser  not 
only  to  make  satisfaction  to  the  person 
injured,  but  by  an  offering  at  the  altar 
to  reconcile  himself  to  the  divine  Gov 
ernor,  Lev.  5 ;  6:1-7;  Psa.  51:4.  Christ 
repeatedly  declares,  that  in  order  to  be 
forgiven  of  God,  we  must  be  forgiving 
to  men,  Matt.  6 : 14,  15,  and  thut  no 
brother  must  have  aught  against  us, 
Matt.  5:23,  24. 

TRIBE.  Jacob  having  twelve  sons, 
who  were  heads  of  so  many  families, 
which  together  formed  a  great  nation, 
each  of  these  families  was  called  a  tribe. 
But  this  patriarch  on  his  death -bed 
adopted  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the  two 
sons  of  Joseph,  and  would  have  them 
alsp  to  constitute  two  tribes  in  Israel, 
Gen.  48  :  5.  Instead  of  twelve  tribes, 
there  were  now  thirteen,  that  of  Joseph 
being  two.  However,  in  the  distribu 
tion  of  lands  by  Joshua  under  the  order 
of  God,  they  reckoned  but  twelve  tribes 
and  made  but  twelve  lots ;  for  the  tribe 
of  Levi,  being  appointed  to  the  sacred 
service,  had  no  share  in  the  distribution 
of  the  land,  but  received  certain  cities  to 
dwell  in,  with  the  first-fruits,  tithes,  and 
oblations  of  the  people.  Each  tribe  had 
its  own  leaders  and  tribunals ;  and  the 
whole  twelve,  in  their  early  history, 
constituted  a  republic  somewhat  resem 
bling  the  United  States.  In  the  division 
made  by  Joshua  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
Reuben,  Gad,  and  half  of  Manasseh  had 
their  lot  beyond  Jordan,  east ;  all  the 
other  tribes,  and  the  remaining  half  of 
Manasseh  had  their  distribution  on  this 
side  the  river,  west. 

The  twelve  tribes  continued  united  as 
one  state,  one  people,  and  one  mon 
archy,  till  after  the  death  of  Solomon, 
when  ten  of  the  tribes  revolted  from  the 
house  of  David,  and  formed  the  kingdom 
of  Israel.  See  HEBREWS. 

TRIB'UTE.  Every  Jew  throughout 
the  world  was  required  to  pay  an  annual 
tribute  or  capitation-tax  of  half  a  shekel, 
about  twenty-five  cents,  in  acknowledg 
ment  of  God's  sovereignty  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  temple  service,  Ex. 
30:12-15.  It  was  with  reference  to  this 
468 


that  Christ  says,  in  effect,  Matt.  17  :  25, 
26,  "If  this  tribute  be  levied  in  the 
ame  of  TUB  FATHER,  then  I,  THE  SON, 
am  free. ' '  In  other  New  Testament  pas 
sages,  tribute  means  the  tax  levied  by 
the  Romans.  On  the  question  of  paying 
tribute  to  foreigners  and  idolaters,  Matt. 
22:16-22,  Christ  gave  a  reply  which  nei 
ther  party  could  stigmatize  as  rebellious, 
or  as  unpatriotic  and  irreligious.  By 
themselves  using  Cassar's  currency,  both 
parties  acknowledged  the  fact  of  his  su 
premacy.  Christ  warns  them  to  render 
to  all  men  their  dues  ;  and  above  all,  to 
regard  the  claims  of  Him  whose  super 
scription  is  on  every  thing,  1  Cor.  10:81; 
IPet.  2:9,  13. 

TRO'AS,  a  maritime  city  of  Mysia,  in 
the  north-west  part  of  Asia  Minor,  situ 
ated  on  the  ^Egean  coast,  at  some  dis 
tance  south  of  the  supposed  site  of  an 
cient  Troy.  The  adjacent  region,  includ 
ing  all  the  coast  south  of  the  Hellespont, 
is  also  called  Troas,  or  the  Troad.  The 
city  was  a  Macedonian  and  Roman  colo 
ny  of  much  promise,  and  was  called  Al 
exandria  Troas.  The  Turks  call  its  ruins 
Eski  Stamboul,  the  old  Constantinople. 
Its  remains,  in  the  centre  of  a  forest  of 
oaks,  are  still  grand  and  imposing.  The 
apostle  Paul  was  first  at  Troas  for  a  short 
time  in  A.  D.  52,  and  sailed  thence  into 
Macedonia,  Acts  16  :  8-11.  At  his  sec 
ond  visit,  in  A.  D.  57,  he  labored  with 
success,  2  Cor.  2  :  12,  13.  At  his  third 
recorded  visit  he  tarried  but  a  week  ;  at 
the  close  of  which  the  miraculous  rais 
ing  of  Eutychus  to  life  took  place,  Acts 
20:5-14,  A.  D.  58.  See  also  2  Tim.  4:13. 

TROGYL'LIUM,  the  name  of  a  town 
and  promontory  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
between  Ephesus  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Meander,  opposite  to  Samos.  The  prom 
ontory  is  a  spur  of  mount  Mycale,  Acts 
20:15. 

TROOP,  Isa.  65:11.     See  GAD  III. 

TROPH'IMUS,  a  disciple  of  Paul,  a 
Gentile  and  an  Ephesian  by  birth,  came 
to  Corinth  with  the  apostle,  and  accom 
panied  him  in  his  whole  journey  to  Je 
rusalem,  A.  D.  58,  Acts  20:4.  When  the 
apostle  was  in  the  temple  there,  the  Jews 
laid  hold  of  him,  crying  out,  "He  hath 
brought  Greeks  into  the  temple,  and 
hath  polluted  this  holy  place  ;"  because, 
having  seen  him  in  the  city  accompa 
nied  by  Trophimus,  they  imagined  that 
he  had  introduced  him  into  the  temple. 
Some  years  afterwards,  Paul  writes  that 


TRO 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TYP, 


he  had  left  him  sick  at  Miletus,  2  Tim. 
4  :  20.  This  did  not  occur  at  Paul's  for 
mer  visit  to  Miletus,  since  Trophimus 
went  with  him  to  Jerusalem  ;  nor  on 
the  voyage  to  Rome,  for  they  did  not  go 
near  Miletus.  It  is  therefore  one  of  the 
circumstances  which  prove  that  Paul,  was 
released,  and  revisited  Asia  Minor,  Crete, 
Macedonia,  and  perhaps  Spain,  before  his 
second  imprisonment  and  death.  Of 
Trophimus  nothing  farther  is  known. 

TROW,  an  old  word  for  think,  Luke 
17:9. 

TRUM'PET.  The  Lord  commanded 
Moses  to  make  two  trumpets  of  beaten 
silver,  for  the  purpose  of  calling  the 
people  together  when  they  were  to  de 
camp,  Num.  10  :  2.  They  used  these 
trumpets  to  proclaim  the  beginning  of 
the  civil  year,  of  the  sabbatical  year, 
Lev.  23 :  24,  Num.  29  :  1,  and  of  the 
jubilee,  Lev.  25:9,  10.  See  Music. 

The  feast  of  Trumpets  was  kept  on 
the  first  day  of  the  seventh  month  of  the 
sacred  year,  which  was  the  first  of  the 
civil  year,  called  Tishri.  The  beginning 
of  the  year  was  proclaimed  by  sound  of 
trumpet,  Lev.  23  :  24 ;  Num.  29:1 ;  and 
the  day  was  kept  solemn,  all  servile 
business  being  forbidden.  In  addition 
to  the  daily  and  the  monthly  sacrifices, 
Num.  28:11-15,  a  solemn  holocaust  was 
offered  in  the  name  of  the  whole  nation, 
of  a  bullock,  a  ram,  a  kid,  and  seven 
lambs  of  the  same  year,  with  offerings 
of  flour  and  wine,  as  usual  with  these 
sacrifices.  Scripture  does  not  mention 
the  occasion  of  appointing  this  feast. 

TRYPHE'NA,  and  TRYPHO'SA,  fe 
male  disciples  at  Rome,  apparently  sis 
ters,  and  very  useful  in  the  work  of 
evangelization,  Rom.  16:12. 

TU'BAL,  a  son  of  Japheth,  Gen.  10:2  ; 
supposed  to  have  been  the  originator  of 
the  Tybareni,  who  occupied  the  north 
eastern  part  of  Asia  Minor.  They  were 
a  warlike  people,  and  brought  slaves  and 
copper  vessels  to  the  market  of  Tyre, 
Isa.  66:19;  Ezek.  27:13;  32:26;  38:2; 
39:1. 

TU'BAL -CAIN,  son  of  Lamech  and 
Zillah,  inventor  of  the  art  of  forging 
metals,  Gen.  4:22. 

TUR'TLE-DOVE,  or  TURTLE,  the  Co- 
lumba  Turtur ;  a  distinct  bird  from  the 
common  dove  or  pigeon,  smaller  and 
differently  marked,  and  having  a  soft 
and  plaintive  note,  Isa.  59 : 11 ;  Ezek. 
7:16.  It  is  a  bird  of  passage,  Jer.  £  :  7, 


\ 


leaving  Palestine  Tor  a  short  trip  to  the 
south,  and  returning  early  in  spring, 
Song  2  :,  12.  It  is  timid  and  fond  of  se* 
elusion,  and  pines  in  captivity,  Psa.  11:1. 
The  law  allowed  it  as  a  burnt  or  sin- 
offering  by  the  poor,  Lev.  1 :  14  ;  5:7; 
Matt.  21:22,  and  in  several  cases  of  pu 
rification,  etc.,  Lev.  12:6-8;  14:22; 
Num.  6:10  ;  Luke  2:24.  Before  the  giv 
ing  of  the  law,  Abraham  offered  birds, 
which  were  a  turtle  and  a  pigeon ;  and 
when  he  divided  the  other  victims  he 
left  the  birds  entire,  Gen.  15:9. 

TYCH'ICUS,  a  disciple  employed  by 
the  apostle  Paul  to  carry  his  letters  to 
several  churches.  He  was  of  the  prov 
ince  of  Asia,  and  accompanied  Paul  in 
his  journey  from  Corinth  to  Jerusalem, 
Acts  20:4.  He  carried  the  epistle  to  the 
Colossians,  that  to  the  Ephesians,  and  the 
first  to  Timothy.  The  apostle  calls  him 
his  dear  brother,  a  faithful  minister  of 
the  Lord,  and  his  companion  in  the  ser 
vice  of  God,  Eph.  6:21,  22  ;  Col.  4:7,  8  ; 
2  Tim.  4:12,  and  ha'd  intentions  of  send 
ing  him  into  Crete,  in  the  absence  of 
Titus,  Tit.  3:12. 

TYPE,  in  Greek  tupos,  a  word  denot 
ing  some  resemblance,  and  translated 
"figure"  in  Rom.  4:15,  "ensample"  in 
Phil.  3:  17,  "manner"  in  Acts  23.:  25, 
and  "form"  in  Rom.  6:17.  So  also 
Moses  was  to  make  the  tabernacle  ac 
cording  to  the  type  or  model  he  had 
seen  in  the  mount,  Acts  7  :  44.  In  the 
more  general  use  of  the  word,  a  scrip 
tural  type  is  a  prophetic  symbol,  "a 
shadow  of  good  things  to  come,"  Heb. 
469 


TYR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


TYR 


10:1,  "but  the  body  is  Christ,"  Col. 
2  :  17.  The  typical  character  of  the  old 
dispensation  is  its  most  distinguishing 
feature.  For  example,  the  paschal  lamb 
and  all  the  victims  sacrificed  under  the 
law  were  types  of  the  Lamb  of  God,  and 
illustrated  his  great  atonement ;  show 
ing  that  guilt  deserved  death,  and  could 
only  be  atoned  for  by  the  blood  of  an 
acceptable  sacrifice.  But  they  were  also 
intended  to  foretell  the  coining  of  their 
great  Antitype. 

The  Old  Testament  types  include  per 
sons,  officers,  objects,  events,  rites,  and 
places.  Thus  Adam  and  Melchizedek, 
the  prophetic  and  the  priestly  office, 
manna  and  the  brazen  serpent,  the  smit 
ten  rock  and  the  passage  over  Jordan, 
the  Passover  and  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
Canaan  and  the  cities  of  refuge  are  scrip 
tural  types  of  Christ. 

However  striking  the  points  of  resem 
blance  which  an  Old  Testament  event  or 
object  may  present  to  something  in  the 
New  Testament,  it  is  not  properly  a  type 
unless  it  was  so  appointed  by  God,  and 
thus  has  something  of  a  prophetic  char 
acter.  Due  care  should  therefore  be 
taken  to  distinguish  between  an  illus 
tration  and  a  type. 

TYRAN'NUS,  the  name  of  a  person  at 
Ephesus,  in  whose  school  Paul  publicly 
proposed  and  defended  the  doctrines  of 
the  gospel,  Acts  19  :  9.  By  some  he  is 
thought  to  have  been  a  Greek  sophist,  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric  or  philosophy,  con 
verted- to  Christianity ;  while  others  sup 
pose  him  to  have  been  a  Jewish  doctor 
or  rabbi,  who  had  a  public  school. 

TYRE,  or  TY'RUS,  a  rock,  the  celebrated 
emporium  of  Phoenicia,  the  seat  of  im 
mense  wealth  and  power,  situated  on  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  within  the 
limits  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  as  assigned 
by  Joshua,  Josh.  19:29,  though  never  re 
duced  to  subjection.  Tyre  was  a  "daugh 
ter  of  Zidon,"  but  rapidly  gained  an 
ascendency  over  this  and  all  the  other 
cities  of  Phoenicia,  which  it  retained  with 
few  exceptions  to  the  last.  It  is  men 
tioned  by  neither  Moses  nor  Homer ;  but 
from  the  time  of  David  onward,  reference 
is  frequently  made  to  it  in  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament.  There  was  a  close 
alliance  between  David  and  Hiram  king 
of  Tyre,  which  was  afterwards  continued 
in  the  reign  of  Solomon  ;  and  it  was  from 
the  assistance  afforded  by  the  Tynans, 
both  in  artificers  and  materials,  that  the 
470 


house  of  David,  and  afterwards  the  tem 
ple,  were  principally  built,  2  Sam.  5:11; 
1  Kin.  5 ;  1  Chr.  14  ;  2  Chr.  2:3;  9  : 10. 
The  marriage  of  Ahab  king  of  Israel  with 
Jezebel,  a  royal  princess  of  Phoenicia, 
brought  great  guilt  and  endless  misfor 
tunes  on  the  ten  tribes  ;  for  the  Tyrians 
were  gross  idolaters,  worshippers  of  Baal 
and  Ashtoreth,  and  addicted  to  all  the 
vices  of  heathenism.  Secular  history  in 
forms  us  that  Tyre  possessed  the  empire 
of  the  seas,  and  drew  wealth  and  power 
from  numerous  colonies  on  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic.  The  in 
habitants  of  Tyre  are  represented  in  the 
Old  Testament  as  filled  with  pride  and 
luxury,  and  all  the  sins  attendant  on 
prosperity  and  immense  wealth  ;  judg 
ments  are  denounced  against  them  in 
consequence  of  their  idolatry  and  wick 
edness  ;  and  the  destruction  of  their  city 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  is  foretold,  which  is 
also  described  as  accomplished,  Isa.  23:13; 
Ezek.  26:7;  27;  28:1-19;  29:18.  After 
this  destruction,  as  it  would  seem,  the 
great  body  of  the  inhabitants  withdrew 
to  "insular  Tyre,"  on  an  island  opposite 
the  former  city,  about  thirty  stadia  from 
the  main  land.  This  had  been  a  sort  of 
port  or  suburb  of  the  main  city,  but  was 
soon  enlarged  into  a  new  Tyre,  and  be 
came  opulent  and  powerful ;  it  was  for 
tified  with  such  strength,  and  possessed 
resources  so  abundant,  as  to  be  able  to 
withstand  the  utmost  efforts  of  Alexan 
der  the  Great  for  the  space  of  seven 
months."  It  was  at  length  taken  by  him 
in  332  B.  c.,  having  been  first  united  to 
the  mainland  by  an  immense  causeway, 
made  of  the  ruins  of  the  old  city,  the 
site  of  which  was  thus  laid  bare,  in  re 
markable  fulfilment  of  prophecy  :  ' '  And 
they  shall  lay  thy  stones  and  thy  timber 
and  thy  dust  in  the  midst  of  the  water ;" 
"and  thou  shalt  be  no  more;  though 
thou  be  sought  for,  yet  shalt  thou  never 
be  found  again,"  Ezck.  26:12,  21.  The 
ships  of  Tyre  returned  from  long  voyages 
to  find  it  tiot  only  taken  but  ' '  devoured 
with  fire,"  Isa.  23  :  1,  14;  Zech.  9  :  4. 
After  many  subsequent  reverses  of  for 
tune,  and  various  changes  of  masters, 
Tyre  at  last  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Romans,  and  continued  to  enjoy  a 
degree  of  commercial  prosperity,  though 
the  deterioration  of  its  harbor,  and  the 
rise  of  Alexandria  and  other  maritime 
cities,  have  made  it  decline  more  and 
more.  Our  Saviour  once  journeyed  into 


ULA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


UNI 


the  region  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  Matt. 
15:21 ;  and  a  Christian  church  was  here 
established  before  A.  D.  58,  Acts  21:3-7. 
Compare  Matt.  11  :  21,  22.  The  church 
prospered  for  several  centuries,  and  coun 
cils  were  held  here  ;  and  during  this  pe 
riod  Tyre  was  still  a  strong  fortress,  as 
it  was  also  in  the  age  of  the  crusaders, 
by  whom  it  was  only  taken  twenty-live 
years  after  they  had  gained  Jerusalem. 
Since  its  reconquest  by  the  Turks,  it  has 
been  in  a  ruinous  condition,  and  often 
almost  without  inhabitants.  At  present 
it  is  a  poor  town,  called  Sur,  slightly 
defended  by  its  w^alls,  and  having  a  pop 
ulation  of  less  than  three  thousand.  It 
occupies  the  east  side  of  what  \vas  for 
merly  the  island,  one  mile  long  and  half 
a  mile  from  the  shore,  thus  enclosing 
two  so-called  harbors  separated  by  Alex 
ander's  causeway,  which  is  now  a  broad 
isthmus.  The  only  real  harbor  is  on  the 
north ;  but  even  this  is  too  shallow  to 
admit  any  but  the  smallest  class  of  ves 
sels.  It  is  lilled  and  the  north  coast  of 
the  island  lined  Avith  stone  columns, 
whose  size  and  countless  number  evince 
the  former  magnificence  of  this  famous 
city.  But  its  old  glory  is  gone  for  ever, 
and  a  few  fishermen  spread  their  nets 
amid  its  ruins,  in  the  place  of  the  mer 
chant  princes  of  old. 


U. 


U'LAI,  or  EUL/E'US,  a  river  which  ran 
by  the  city  Shushan,  in  Persia,  on  the 
bank  of  which  Daniel  had  a  famous  vis 
ion,  Dan.  8:2, 16.  It  was  the  Choaspes  of 
the  Greeks,  and  is  now  called  the  Kerk- 
hah  ;  but  appears  to  have  had  in  ancient 
times  a  second  channel,  still  traceable, 
nine  hundred  feet  wide  and  twenty  feet 
deep,  and  flowing  along  the  east  side  of 
Shushan.  The  two  channels  emptied 
their  waters  through  the  river  now  call 
ed  the  Karun  into  the  Shat-el-Arab,  the 
united  stream  of  the  Euphrates  and  Ti 
gris,  twenty  miles  below  their  junction 
at  Korna. 

UN'BELIEF  of  the  testimony  of  God 
makes  him  a  liar,  and  is  a  sin  of  the 
greatest  enormity.  It  is  the  work  of  a 
depraved  and  guilty  heart ;  for  no  one 
without  this  bias  could  reject  the  abun 
dant  witness  God  furnishes  of  the  truth 
of  his  word,  Psa.  14 : 1.  Especially  is 


unbelief  towards  an  offered  Saviour  an 
unspeakable  crime,  justly  sealing  the 
condemnation  of  him  who  thus  refuses 
to  be  saved,  John  5:18  ;  1  John  5:10. 

UNCLEAN'.     See  CLEAN. 

UNC'TION,  anointing,  1  John  2:20,  27, 
the  special  communication  of  the  influ 
ence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  Christ  to  be 
lievers,  leading  them  into  all  truth  and 
holiness. 

UNDERGIRD',  passing  a  cable  sev 
eral  times  under  and  around  a  ship  and 
tightening  it  on  deck,  to  prevent  the 
working  and  parting  of  the  timbers  and 
planks  in  a  gale,  Acts  27  :  17.  The  pro 
cess  is  called  frapping,  and  has  been  re 
sorted  to  in  various  instances  in  modern 
times. 

U'NICORN,  one-horned,  corresponding 
to  the  word  Monoceros.  by  which  the 
original  Hebrew  REEM  is  translated  by 
the  Seventy.  The  Hebrew  word  means 
erect,  and  has  no  reference  to  the.  number 
of  horns.  Most  interpreters  now  under 
stand  it  of  the  wild  buffalo  of  the  East 
ern  continents,  the  Bos  Bubalus  of  Lin 
naeus,  resembling  the  American  buffalo, 
but  having  larger  horns  and  no  dewlap. 
This  animal  has  the  appearance  of  un 
common  strength.  The  bulk  of  his 
body,  and  his  prodigious  muscular  limbs, 
denote  his  force  at  the  first  view,  Num. 
23:22.  His  aspect  is  ferocious  and  ma 
lignant,  and  at  the  same  time  stupid. 
His  head  is  of  a  ponderous  size  ;  his  eyes 
diminutive;  and  what  serves  to  render 
his  visage  still  more  savage,  are  the  tufts 
of  frizzled  hair  which  hang  down  from 
his  cheeks  and  the  lower  part  of  his 
mouth,  Job  39  :  9-12  ;  Psa.  22:21. 

Wild  buffaloes  occur  in  many  parts  of 
Africa  and  India,  where  they  live  in 
great  troops  in  the  forests,  and  are  re 
garded  -as  excessively  fierce  and  danger 
ous  animals.  The  hunters  never  venture 
in  any  numbers  to  oppose  these  ferocious 
animals  face  to  face  ;  but  conceal  them 
selves  in  the  thickets  or  in  the  branches 
of  the  trees,  whence  they  attack  the 
buffaloes  as  they  pass  along. 

In  Egypt,  as  also  in  Southern  Europe, 
the  buffalo  has  been  partially  domesti 
cated  in  comparatively  modern  times. 
Travellers  also  find  it  in  parts  of  Syria, 
Persia,  and  India.  It  is  less  docile  than 
the  ox,  retaining  a  remnant  of  ferocity 
and  untractability,  together  with  a  wild 
and  lowering  aspect.  It  is  commonly 
driven  and  guided  by  means  of  a  ring  in 
471 


UPH 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


UZ 


the  nose.  To  the  ancient  Hebrews,  how 
ever,  it  seems  to  have  been  known  only 
in  its  wild  state,  savage,  ferocious,  and 
often  immensely  large. 

UPHAK/SIN,  and  they  are  dividing,  a 
Chaldee  word,  an  active  plural  form 
with  the  conjunction  prefixed :  while 
PERES  or  PHARES,  from  the  same  root,  is 
a  passive  participle,  and  means  divided, 
Dan.  5:25,  28. 

U'PHAZ,  a  region  producing  fine  gold, 
Jer.  10:9  ;  Dan.  10:5.  In  Hebrew  it  dif 
fers  from  Ophir  by  only  one  letter ;  and 
it  is  thought  to  denote  the  same  region. 

UR,  the  country  of  Terah,  and  the 
birthplace  of  Abraham,  Gen.  11:28,  31 ; 
15:  7.  It  is  usually  called  "Ur  of  the 
Chaldees,"  Neh.  9:7;  Acts  7:4 ;  and  is 
located,  with  strong  probability,  in  the 
north-west  part  of  Mesopotamia.  The 
city  of  Orfah,  to  which  the  Jews  make 
pilgrimages  as  the  birthplace  of  Abra 
ham,  is  a  flourishing  town  of  30,000 
inhabitants,  seventy-eight  miles  south 
west  of  Diarbekir.  Some,  however,  place 
Ur  in  Lower  Chaldea,  at  extensive  ruins 
now  called  Warka,  in  latitude  31°  19'  N., 
longitude  45°  40'  E. 

UR'BAN,  a  Roman  disciple,  Paul's 
companion  in  Christian  labors,  Rom. 
16:9. 

URI'AH,  a  Hittite  in  David's  army, 
renowned  for  his  valor.  To  save  Bath- 
sheba  Uriah's  wife  from  death  for  adul 
tery,  and  secure  her  for  himself,  David 
caused  Uriah  to  be  exposed  to  death, 
2  Sam.  11 ;  12:9  ;  23:29  ;  1  Kin.  15:5. 

URI'JAH,  I. ,  a  high-priest  in  the  time 
of  king  Ahaz.  He  is  called  a  faithful 
witness  by  Isaiah,  8:2;  but  erred  in  con 
structing  and  using  at  the  king's  request 
an  altar  unlike  that  prescribed  in  the 
law,  Ex.  27:1-8.;  38:1-7;  2  Kin.  16:9- 
12. 

II.  A  faithful  prophet,  from  Kirjath- 
jearim  in  Judah,  in  the  time  of  Jehoia- 
kim.  He  confirmed  the  predictions  of 
Jeremiah  against  Judah ;  and  having 
fled  to  Egypt  for  refuge  from  the  en 
raged  king,  and  been  sent  back  by  Pha- 
raoh-necho  on  demand,  he  was  wicked 
ly  slain  and  dishonorably  buried,  Jer. 
26:20-23.  Compare  2  Kin.  24:4. 

U'RIM  AND  THUM'MIM,  lights  and 
perfections,  or  light  and  truth  ;  a  divinely 
appointed  means  of  ' '  inquiring  of  the 
Lord,"  its  name  being  expressive  per 
haps  of  the  truth  of  his  revelations.  It 
would  appear,  though  not  certainly,  to 
472 


have  been  made  known  to  the  Jews  ai 
some  time  prior  to  its  first  mention  in 
Scripture,  Ex.  28:30.  It  had  some  con 
nection  with  the  high-priest's  breast" 
plate,  Lev.  8  :  8,  and  perhaps  is  to  be 
understood  as  present  when  the  ephod 
is  mentioned,  being  worn  on  the  outside 
of  it,  Num.  27  :  21 ;  1  Sam.  23  :  9,  11 ; 
2  Sam.  2  :  1.  It  is  spoken  of  in  the  fol 
lowing  additional  passages,  Deut.  33 : 8  ; 
Josh.  7:6,  15 ;  1  Sam.  28:6  ;  and  last  of 
all  in  Ezra  2 : 63  ;  Neh.  7 : 65.  Some  think 
it  was  the  precious  stones  on  the  sacred 
breastplate,  which  made  known  the  di 
vine  will  by  casting  an  extraordinary 
lustre.  Compare  Ex.  39:8-14  ;  Lev.  8:8. 
Others  assert  that  they  were  the  words 
Manifestation  and  Truth,  written  upon 
two  precious  stones,  or  upon  a  plate  of 
gold.  Various  in  fact  are  the  conjec 
tures  upon  this  subject,  and  Moses  has 
nowhere  spoken  of  the  Urirn  and  Thum- 
mim  in  such  terms  as  to  remove  the 
obscurity.  When  this  oracle  was  to  be 
used  in  inquiring  of  the  Lord,  if  at  Jeru 
salem,  the  high-priest  put  on  his  robes, 
and  going  into  the  Holy  Place,  stood 
before  the  curtain  that  separated  the 
Holy  Place  from  the  Most  Holy  Place  ; 
then,  turning  his  face  directly  towards 
the  ark  and  the  mercy-seat,  upon  which 
the  divine  presence  rested,  he  proposed 
the  subject  respecting  which  he  desired 
"  light  and  truth."  See  BREASTPLATE. 

US'URY,  as  employed  in  our  version 
of  the  Bible,  means  only  interest.  When 
our  translation  was  made,  the  word  usury 
had  not  assumed  the  bad  sense  which  it 
now  has.  The  Jews  might  require  inter 
est  of  foreigners,  Deut.  23  :  19,  20,  but 
were  forbidden  to  receive  it  from  each 
other,  Ex.  22  :  25,  Psa.  15  :  5  ;  being  in 
structed  to  lend  money,  etc.,  in  a  spirit 
of  brotherly  kindness,  "hoping  for  noth 
ing  again,"  Deut.  15:7-11 ;  Luke  6:33- 
35.  The  exacting  of  usury  is  often  re 
buked,  Neh.  5:7,  10;  Prov.  28:8;  Ezek. 
22:12-14.  The  Mosaic  code  was  adapted 
to  a  non -commercial  people,  but  its  prin 
ciples  of  equity  and  charity  are  of  per 
petual  and  universal  obligation. 

UZ,  the  land  in  which  Job  dwelt,  Job 
1:1 ;  Jer.  25:20  ;  Lam.  4:21.  The  Sev 
enty  call  it  Ausitis.  It  appears  to  have 
been  a  region  in  Arabia  Deserta,  between 
Palestine,  Idumasa,  and  the  Euphrates, 
and  most  probably  not  far  from  the  bor 
ders  of  Idumasa.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
its  inhabitants  were  descendants  of  Uz 


UZA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VEI 


the  son  of  Aram,  Huz  the  son  of  Nahor, 
or  Uz  the  Horite,  Gen.  10  :  23  ;  22  :  21 ; 
36 : 28.  They  appear  to  have  had  much 
knowledge  of  the  true  God  and  the  prin 
ciples  of  virtue  and  religion. 

U'ZAL,  a  son  of  Joktan,  located  in 
Arabia  Felix,  Gen.  10:27. 

UZ'ZAH,  a  son  of  Abinadab,  who  fell 
dead  while  conducting  the  ark  from  Kir- 
jath-jearim  towards  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  6 ; 
1  Chr.  13.  In  his  person  God  chastised 
the  prevalent  irreverence,  which  was  in 
timated  in  the  rude  jolting  along  of  the 
ark  by  oxen,  exposed  both  to  sight  and 
to  touch,  while  the  law  required  it  to 
be  carefully  covered  by  the  priests,  and 
then  borne  by  staves  on  the  shoulders  of 
the  Levites,  who  were  not  to  look  upon 
or  touch  the  ark  itself  on  pain  of  death, 
Ex.  25:14;  Num.  4  :  5,  15,  19,  20.  Per 
haps  Uzzah  was  not  even  a  Levite.  Com 
pare  1  Chr.  15:2,  13. 

UZZI'AH,  or  AZARIAH,  king  of  Judah. 
See  AZARIAH. 


V. 


VAL'LEY.  With  respect  to  the  gen 
eral  features  of  the  Holy  Land,  see  CA 
NAAN  ;  and  for  descriptions  of  some  of  its 
numerous  valleys,  see  JERUSALEM,  JEZ- 
REEL,  JORDAN,  REPHAIM,  SHECHEM,  and 
SODOM.  "The  valley  of  the  shadow  of 
death,"  is  an  expression  denoting  an 
extremely  perilous  and  cheerless  condi 
tion  of  the  soul,  Psa.  23  :  4,  and  may 
have  been  suggested  by  the  psalmist's 
experience  with  his  flock  in  some  of  the 
deep,  narrow,  and  dark  ravines  of  Syria. 
Thus  the  entrance  to  Petra  is  by  a  long 
winding  defile,  between  rugged  preci 
pices  in  some  spots  not  more  than  twelve 
or  fourteen  feet  apart  and  two  or  three 
hundred  feet  high,  and  almost  excluding 
the  light  of  day.  See  view  in  SELA.  A 
similar  pass  south  of  mount  Carmel  is 
now  known  as  the  "Valley  of  Death- 
shade." 

VAN'ITY  does  not  usually  denote,  in 
Scripture,  self-conceit  or  personal  pride, 
2  Pet.  2  :  18,  but  sometimes  emptiness 
and  fruitlessness,  Job  7:3;  Psa.  144 :  4  ; 
Eccl.  1.  It  often  denotes  wickedness, 
particularly  falsehood,  Deut.  32:21 ;  Psa. 
4:2;  24:4;  119:37,  and  sometimes  idols 
and  idol-worship,  2  Kin.  17  :  15 ;  Jer. 
2:5;  18 : 15  ;  Jonah  2:8.  Compare  Paul' s 
expression,  "they  turned  the  truth  of 


God  into  a  lie,"  Eom.  1:25.  "In  vain," 
in  the  second  commandment,  Ex.  20  :  7, 
is  unnecessarily  and  irreverently.  ' '  Vain 
men,"  2  Sam.  6  :  20  ;  2  Chr.  13  :  7,  are 
dissolute  and  worthless  fellows. 

VASH'TI,  the  queen  of  Persia,  di 
vorced  by  Ahasuerus  or  Xerxes  her  hus 
band  for  refusing  to  appear  unveiled  be 
fore  his  revelling  company,  Esth.  1. 


VEIL,  an  indispensable  part  of  the 
outdoor  dress  of  Eastern  ladies,  who 
live  secluded  from  the  sight  of  all  men 
except  their  own  husbands  and  their 
nearest  relatives.  If  an  Egyptian  lady  is 
surprised  uncovered,  she  quickly  draws 
her  veil  over  her  face,  with  some  excla 
mation  like,  "0  my  misfortune."  To 
lift  or  remove  one's  veil  was  to  insult 
and  degrade  her,  Gen.  24:65;  Song  5:7; 
1  Cor.  11:5,  10.  The  custom  of  wearing 
veils,  however,  has  not  been  prevalent 
at  all  times.  Sarah  the  wife  of  Abra 
ham,  and  Rebekah  and  her  companions 
at  the  well  do  not  appear  to  have  worn 
them,  Gen.  12:14,  15  ;  24:16.  Compare 
also  Gen.  38  : 14,  15 ;  Prov.  7  :  13.  See 
ABIMELECH. 

Veils  were  of  different  kinds.  Those 
now  worn  in  Syria  and  Egypt  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  the  one  large 
and  sometimes  thick,  the  other  small 
and  of  lighter  materials.  The  usual 
indoor  veil  is  of  thin  muslin,  attached 
to  the  headdress,  and  falling  over  the 
back,  sometimes  to  the  feet.  A  similar 
veil  is  added  to  the  front  of  the  head 
dress  on  going  abroad,  partially  cover 
ing  the  face  and  hanging  low.  The 
other  veil,  to  be  worn  in  the  street,  is  a 
473 


YEN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VIN 


large  mantle  or  sheet,  of  black  silk,  lin 
en,  or  some  coarse  material,  so  ample  as 
to  envelope  the  whole  person  and  dress, 
leaving  but  one  of  the  eyes  exposed, 
Song  4:9.  Such  was  the  veil  worn  by 
Ruth,  3 : 15,  translated  ' '  mantle ' '  in  Isa. 
3:22.  Many  women  wear  no  other  veil 
than  this.  The  Greek  word  translated 
"power"  in  1  Cor.  11  :  10,  probably 
means  a  veil,  as  a  token  of  her  hus 
band's  rightful  authority  and  her  own 
subordination.  This  was  to  be  worn  in 
their  Christian  assemblies  "because  of 
the  angels  ;"  that  is,  because  of  the  pres 
ence  either  of  true  angels,  or  of  the  offi 
cers  of  the  church,  who  being  unaccus- 
tpmed  to  see  the  unveiled  faces  of  wom 
en,  might  be  distracted  by  them  in  the 
discharge  of  their  public  duties. 


For  the  "veil  of  the  temple,"  see  TAB 
ERNACLE  and  TEMPLE. 

VEN'GEANCE,  in  Deut.  32  :  35,  Rom. 
12 : 19,  Heb.  10  :  30,  Jude  7,  means  re 
tributive  justice — a  prerogative  of  God, 
with  which  those  interfere  who  seek  to 
avenge  themselves.  So  also  in  Acts 
28  :  4 ;  though  many  suppose  that  the 
islanders  meant  the  goddess  of  justice, 
Dike,  whom  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
regarded  as  a  daughter  of  Jupiter,  and 
feared  as  an  independent,  just,  and  un 
appeasable  deity. 

VERMILION,  a  brilliant  red  color, 
resembling  scarlet,  Jer.  22  :  14 ;  Ezek. 
23 : 14.  The  vermilion  now  used  is  a  sul- 
phuret  of  mercury. 

VETCH'ES.     See  FITCHES. 

VIALS.     See  CENSER. 


VINE.  Of  this  valuable  and  familiar 
plant  there  are  several  varieties,  the  nat 
ural  products  of  warm  climates,  where 
also  it  has  been  cultivated  from  the  ear 
liest  times.  Hence  the  early  and  fre 
quent  mention  of  its  products  in  Scrip 
ture,  Gen.  9  :  20  ;  14  :  18  ;  19  :  22  ;  Job 
1  :  18.  The  grape-vine  grew  plentifully 
in  Palestine,  Deut.  8  :  8,  and  was  partic 
ularly  excellent  in  some  of  the  districts. 
The  Scriptures  celebrate  the  vines  of  Sib- 
mah  and  Eshcol ;  and  profane  authors 
mention  the  excellent  wines  of  Gaza,  Sa- 
repta,  Lebanon,  Sharon,  Ascalon,  and 
Tyre.  See  SOREK.  The  grapes  of  Egypt, 
Gen.  40  :  11,  being  small,  we  may  eas 
ily  conceive  of  the  surprise  which  was 
occasioned  to  the  Israelites  by  witness 
ing  the  bunch  of  grapes  brought  by  the 
spies  to  the  camp,  from  the  valley  of 
Eshcol,  Num.  13  :  23.  The  account  of 
Moses,  however,  is  confirmed  by  the  tes 
timony  of  several  travellers ;  and  even 
474 


in  England  a  bunch  of  Syrian  grapes  has 
been  produced  which  weighed  nineteen 
pounds,  was  twenty -three  inches  in 
length,  and  nineteen  and  a  half  in  its 
greatest  diameter.  At  the  present  day, 
although  the  Mohammedan  religion  does 
not  favor  the  cultivation  of  the  vine, 
there  is  no  want  of  vineyards  in  Pales 
tine.  Besides  the  large  quantities  cf 
grapes  and  raisins  which  are  daily  sent 
to  the  markets  of  Jerusalem  and  other 
neighboring  places,  Hebron  alone,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  an 
nually  sent  three  hundred  camel  loads, 
or  nearly  three  hundred  thousand  pounds 
weight  of  grape  juice,  or  honey  of  raisins, 
to  Egypt. 

In  the  East,  grapes  enter  very  largely 
into  the  provisions  at  an  entertainment, 
and  in  various  forms  contribute  largely 
to  the  sustenance  of  the  people.  See 
GRAPES.  To  show  the  abundance  of 
vines  which  should  fall  to  the  lot  of 


VIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VIN 


Judah  in  the  partition  of  the  promised 
land,  Jacob,  in  his  prophetic  benedic 
tion,  says  of  this  tribe,  he  shall  be  found 

Binding  his  colt  to  the  vine, 

And  to  the  choice  vine  the  foal  of  his  ass  ; 

Washing  his  garments  in  wine, 

His  clothes  in  the  blood  of  the  grape. 

Gen.  49:11. 

In  many  places  the  vines  spread  over  the 
ground  and  rocks  unsupported.  Often, 
however,  they  are  trained  upon  trellis- 
work,  over  walls,  trees,  arbors,  the 
porches  and  walls  of  houses,  and  at 
times  within  the  house  on  the  sides  of 
the  central  court.  Thus  growing,  the 
vine  became  a  beautiful  emblem  of  do 
mestic  love,  peace,  and  plenty,  Psa. 
128:3;  Mic.  4:4. 

The  law  enjoined  that  he  who  planted 
a  vine  should  not  eat  of  the  produce  of 
it  before  the  fifth  year,  Lev.  19 :  23-25. 
Nor  dkl  they  gather  their  grapes  on  the 
sabbatical  year;  the  fruit  was  then  left 
for  the  poor,  the  orphan,  and  the  stran 
ger,  Ex.  23  : 11 ;  Lev.  25  :  4,  5,  11.  See 
also  Lev.  19  : 10  ;  Dent.  24  :  21.  At  any 
time  a  traveller  was  permitted  to  gather 
and  eat  grapes  in  a  vineyard,  as  he  pass 
ed  along,  but  was  not  permitted  to  carry 
any  away,  Dcut.  23  :  24.  Another  gen 
erous  provision  of  the  Mosaic  code  ex 
empted  from  liability  to  serve  in  war  a 
man  who,  after  four  years  of  labor  and 
of  patience,  was  about  to  gather  the  first 
returns  from  his  vineyard,  Deut.  20:6. 

Josephus  describes  a  magnificent  and 
costly  vine  of  pure  gold,  with  precious 
stones  for  grapes,  which  adorned  the 
lofty  eastern  gate  of  the  Holy  Place.  It 
was  perhaps  in  view  of  this  that  our  Sav 
iour  said,  "I  am  the  true  Vine;"  and 
illustrated  the  precious  truth  of  his  one 
ness  with  his  people,  John  15:1-8. 

In  the  expression,  "The  vine  of  Sod 
om,"  Deut.  32  :  32,  there  does  not  seem 
to  be  an  allusion  to  any  then  existing 
degenerate  species  of  vine.  The  writer 
means  rather  to  say  that  their  vine,  that 
is  figuratively  their  corrupt  character, 
instead  of  yielding  good  grapes,  bears 
only  poisonous  fruit,  like  that  for  which 
the  shores  of  the  Dead  sea  have  always 
been  famed— siich  as  ' '  the  apples  of  Sod 
om,"  for  example,  said  to  be  beautiful 
without,  but  nothing  but  shreds  or  ashes 
within. 

For  the  "wild  grapes"  in  Isa.  5:2,  4, 
see  under  GRAPES. 

The    Jews   planted   their   VINEYARDS 


most  commonly  on  the  side  of  a  hill  or 
mountain,  Jer.  31 :  5,  (see  MOUNTAIN,) 
the  stories  being  gathered  out,  and  the 
space  hedged  round  with  thorns,  or  wall 
ed,  Isa.  5:1-6;  Psa.  80 ;  Matt.  21 :  33. 
Vineyards  were  sometimes  rented  for  a 
share  of  their  produce,  Matt.  21 : 33,  34  ; 
and  from  other  passages  we  may  perhaps 
infer  that  a  good  vineyard  consisted  of  a 
thousand  vines,  and  produced  a  rent  of 
a  thousand  silverlings,  or  shekels  of  sil 
ver,  Isa.  7  :  23,  and  that  it  required  two 
hundred  more  to  pay  the  dressers,  Song 
8  :  11,  12.  In  these  vineyards  the  keep 
ers  and  vine-dressers  labored,  digging, 
planting,  propping,  and  pruning  or  purg 
ing  the  vines,  John  15  :  2,  gathering  the 
grapes,  and  making  wine.  They  formed 
a  distinct  class  among  cultivators  of  the 
ground,  and  their  task  was  sometimes 
laborious  and  regarded  as  menial,  2  Kin. 
25  :  12  ;  2  Chr.  26  : 10  ;  Song  1:6;  Isa. 
61:5.  Scripture  alludes  to  the  fragrance 
of  the  "vines  with  the  tender  grapes," 
Song  2:13,  and  draws  from  the  vineyard 
many  illustrations  and  parables,  Judg. 
9:12;  Matt.  20 : 1 ;  21 : 28.  The  vineyard 
of  Naboth,  1  Kin.  21,  has  become  a  per 
petual  emblem  of  whatever  is  violently 
taken  from  the  poor  by  the  rich  or  the 
powerful.  The  deserted  hut  or  tower, 
in  which  a  watchman  kept  guard  during 
the  season  of  ripe  grapes,  Psa.  80:12, 13, 
Song  2  :  15,  becomes,  when  all  are  gath 
ered,  an  apt  image  of  desolation,  Isa. 
1:8.  A  beautiful  allegory  in  Psalm  80 
represents  the  church  as  a  vineyard, 
planted,  defended,  cultivated,  and  wa 
tered  by  God. 

The  VINTAGE  followed  the  wheat  har 
vest  and  the  threshing,  Lev.  26:5 ;  Amos 
9 : 13.  The  ' '  first  ripe  gi-apes ' '  were  gath 
ered  in  June,  or  later  on  elevated  ground, 
Num.  13:20;  and  grapes  continued  to 
be  gathered  for  four  months  afterwards. 
The  general  vintage,  however,  was  in 
September,  when  the  clusters  of  grapes 
were  gathered  with  a  sickle,  and  put 
into  baskets,  Jer.  6:9,  carried  and  thrown 
into  the  wine-vat  or  wine-press,  where 
they  were  probably  first  trodden  by  men, 
and  then  pressed,  Rev.  14:18-20.  It  was 
a  laborious  task,  lightened  with  songs, 
jests,  and  shouts  of  mirth,  Jer.  25  : 80; 
48:33.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  mark  of 
the  great  work  and  power  of  the  Messi 
ah,  that  he  had  trodden  the  figurative 
wine-press  alone,  and  of  the  people  there 
was  none  with  him,  Isa.  63  : 1-3 ;  Rev. 
475 


VIN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


VUL 


19  : 15.  The  vintage  was  a  season  of 
great  mirth,  Isa.  16  :  9,  10,  and  often  of 
excesses  and  idolatry,  Judg.  9:27  ;  while 
the  mourning  and  languishing  of  the 
vine  was  a  symbol  of  general  distress, 
Isa.  24 : 7  ;  Hab.  3  :  17  ;  Mai.  3  : 11.  Of 
the  juice  of  the  squeezed  grapes  were 
formed  wine  and  vinegar.  See  PRESS. 

Grapes  were  also  dried  into  raisins.  A 
part  of  Abigail's  present  to  David  was 
one  hundred  clusters  of  raisins,  1  Sam. 
25  :  18  ;  and  when  Zibah  met  David,  his 
present  contained  the  same  quantity, 
2  Sam.  16  :  1 ;  1  Sam.  30  :  12 ;  1  Chron. 
12  :  40.  Kespecting  other  uses  of  the 
fruits  of  the  vine,  see  GRAPES,  HONEY, 
VINEGAR,  and  WINE. 

VIN'EGAR,  poor  or  sour  wine,  the  prod 
uce  of  the  second  or  acetous  fermenta 
tion  of  vinous  liquors.  The  term  some 
times  designates  a  thin,  sour  wine,  much 
used  by  laborers  and  by  the  Roman  sol 
diers,  Num.  6:3  ;  Ruth 2: 14  ;  2Chr.  2:10; 
John  19:29.  See  GALL.  In  other  places 
it  denotes  the  common  sharp  vinegar, 
which  furnished  the  wise  man  with  two 
significant  illustrations,  Prov.  10  :  26  ; 
25 :  20. 

VINE'YARD.     See  VINE. 

VI'OL,  Isa.  5:12,  Amos  6:5,  a  string 
ed  instrument  of  music,  resembling  the 
psaltery.  See  Music. 


VI' PER,  a  genus  of  serpents  noted  for 
the  virulence  of  their  poison,  which  is 
said  to  be  one  of  the  most  dangerous  in 
the  animal  kingdom.  Hence  the  viper 
is  a  symbol  of  whatever  is  most  evil  and 
destructive,  Job  20  :.16  ;  Isa.  30  :  6.  As 
such  the  term  was  applied  by  Christ  and 
by  John  to  certain  classes  of  the  Jews, 
476 


Matt,  3:7;  12  :  34 ;  23  :  33  ;  Luke  3  :  7. 
Paul's  escape  from  the  bite  of  a  viper  in 
Malta  led  the  people  to  believe  that  he 
was  a  god  in  human  form,  Acts  28 :  3. 
A  species  of  viper  in  Northern  Africa, 
though  little  more  than  a  foot  long,  is 
called  the  most  formidable  serpent  there; 
and  Hasselquist  speaks  of  a  viper  in  Cy 
prus,  whose  bite  produces  a  universal 
gangrene,  and  occasions  death  within  a 
few  hours.  See  SERPENTS. 

VIS'ION,  a  supernatural  presentation 
of  certain  scenery  or  circumstances  to 
the  mind  of  a  person  either  while  awake 
or  asleep,  Isa.  6  ;  Ezek.  1 ;  Dan.  8  ;  Acts 
26:13.  See  DREAM. 

VOW,  a  promise  made  to  God  of  do 
ing  some  good  thing  or  abstaining  from 
some  lawful  enjoyment,  under  the  influ 
ence  of  gratitude  for  divine  goodness,  of 
imminent  danger,  the  apprehension  of 
future  evils,  or  the  desire  of  future  bless 
ings.  To  fulfil  a  vow  binding  one  to  sin, 
was  to  add  sin  to  sin  ;  but  no  considera 
tions  of  inconvenience  or  loss  could  ab 
solve  one  from  a  vow,  Psa.  15  :  4 ;  Mai. 
1  : 14.  Jacob,  going  into  Mesopotamia, 
vowed  the  tenth  of  his  estate,  and  prom 
ised  to  offer  it  at  Beth-el,  to  the  honor 
of  God,  Gen.  28  :  20-22.  Moses  enacted 
several  laws  for  the  regulation  and  exe 
cution  of  vows.  ' '  If  thou  shalt  forbear 
to  vow,  it  shall  be  no  sin  in  thee ;  that 
which  is  gone  out  of  thy  lips  thou  shalt 
keep  and  perform,"  Deut.  23:21,23; 
Eccl.  5:4,  5.  The  vows  of  minors,  etc., 
were  not  binding  without  the  consent  of 
the  head  of  the  family,  Num.  30.  A 
man  might  devote  himself  or  his  chil 
dren  to  the  Lord,  Num.  6:2.  Jephthah 
devoted  his  daughter,  Judg.  11 :  30-40 ; 
and  Samuel  was  vowed  and  consecrated 
to  the  service  of  the  Lord,  1  Sam.  1:11, 
27,  28.  If  men  or  women  vowed  them 
selves  to  the  Lord,  they  were  obliged  to 
adhere  strictly  to  his  service,  according 
to  the  conditions  of  the  vow;  but  in 
some  cases  they  might  be  redeemed, 
Lev.  27.  These  self-imposed  services 
were  more  in  keeping  with  the  ancient 
dispensation,  in  which  outward  sacrifices 
and  observances  had  so  large  a  share, 
than  with  enlightened  Christianity.  See 
COR  BAN,  and  NAZARITES. 

VUL'GATE  is  the  name  of  the  Latin 
version  of  the  Scriptures  used  by  the 
church  of  Rome.  The  Old  Testament 
was  a  very  close  translation  of  the  Greek 
Septuagint,  not  of  the  Hebrew.  It  was 


YUL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAL 


made  at  a  very  early  period  by  an  un 
known  author.  A  part  of  this  version 
was  afterwards  -revised  by  Jerome,  and 
some  of  the  books  retranslated  from  the 
Hebrew. 


-   ; 


VUL'TUKE,  a  large  bird  of  prey,  be 
longing  to  the  genus  hawks,  and  includ 
ing  a  great  many  species.  It  is  pro 
nounced  unclean  by  Moses,  Lev.  11 : 14  ; 
Deut.  14:13.  See' BIRDS.  The  vulture 
has  a  naked  or  downy  head,  a  bare  neck 
and  long  wings,  and  is  disgusting  to 
every  sense,  especially  to  the  smell.  It 
is  a  carrion  bird,  though  not  exclusive 
ly,  and  has  extraordinary  powers  of  vis 
ion.  Scarcely  can  an  exhausted  camel 
fall  on  its  route  and  die,  before  numbers 
of  these  filthy  scavengers  show  them 
selves  in  the  distance,  hastening  to  the 
spot,  Job  28: 7. 


W. 


WA'FER,  a  thin  cake  made  of  fine 
flour,  Exod.  16  :  31,  and  used  in  various 
offerings,  anointed  with  sweet  oil,  Exod. 
29:2,  23;  Lev.  2:4;  7:12;  Num.  6:15. 

WAGES.  The  law  and  the  gospel 
both  require  the  full  and  prompt  pay 
ment  of  a  just  equivalent  for  all  services 
rendered  according  to  agreement,  Lev. 
19  : 13  ;  Jer.  22  :  13  ;  Jas.  5  :  4.  Eternal 
death  is  the  wages  or  just  recompense  of 
sin ;  while  eternal  life  is  not  a  recom 
pense  earned  by  obedience,  but  a  sove 
reign  gift  of  God,  Rom.  6:22,  23. 

WAG'ONS  were  sent  by  Joseph  to  con 


vey  his  father's  family  into  Egypt.  The 
same  vehicle,  translated  ' '  cart "  in  1  Sam. 
6:7,  was  employed  to  transport  some  of 
the  sacred  utensils,  Num.  7:3,  6,  and  in 
one  instance  the  ark  itself.  In  these  lat 
ter  cases  it  was  drawn  by  oxen.  It  was 
probably  of  simple  structure,  with  two 
solid  wheels.  Such  carts  are  sometimes 
used  in  Syria  in  removing  agricultural 
produce,  Amos  2:3  ;  but  vehicles  of  any 
kind  are  little  used,  and  travellers  and 
merchandise  aie  borne  on  the  backs  of 
camels,  horses,  and  mules.  See  CART. 

WALK  is  often  figuratively  used  to 
denote  a  man's  mode  of  life,  or  his  spir 
itual  character,  course,  and  relations, 
Ezek.  11:20.  He  may  walk  as  a  carnal, 
or  as  a  spiritual  man,  Rom.  8:1;  with 
God,  or  in  ignorance  and  sin,  Gen.  5:24; 
1  John  1  :  6,  7  ;  in  the  fire  of  affliction, 
Isa.  43:2,  or  in  the  light,  purity,  and  joy 
of  Christ's  favor  here  and  in  heaven,  Psa. 
89:15;  Rev.  3:4. 


WALLS.  The  walls  of  dwellings  in 
the  East  were  of  very  different  mate 
rials,  from  mere  clay,  or  clay  and  peb 
bles,  to  durable  hewn  stone.  See  the 
latter  part  of  the  article  HOUSE.  As  to 
city  walls,  see  BABYLON,  CITY,  and  JERU- 
477 


WAN 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAN 


SALEM.  The  accompanying  cut  shows  a 
portion  of  the  western  wall  of  the  sacred 
area,  Haram-es-Sherif,  at  Jerusalem. 
The  huge  stones  in  its  lower  part  are 
believed  by  the  Jews,  and  with  good 
reason,  to  have  formed  a  part  of  the 
substructions  of  their  ancient  temple, 
and  to  be  near  the  site  of  the  Holy  of 
Holies.  Hence  they  assemble  here  every 
Friday,  and  more  or  less  on  other  days, 
to  weep  and  wail  with  every  token  of 
the  sorest  grief,  and  to  pray  for  the  com 
ing  of  the  Messiah.  In  former  years  they 
had  to  pay  a  large  price  for  this  melan 
choly  privilege.  A  little  beyond  this 
spot,  towards  the  south,  is  the  fragment 


of  an  immense  arch  of  forty-one  feet 
span,  one  of  five  or  six  which  supported 
a  lofty  causeway,  from  mount  Zion  to 
the  temple  area  at  its  southern  porti 
co,  1  Kin.  10:5  ;  1  Chr.  26:16, 18.  Some 
of  the  stones  in  this  part  of  the  wall  are 
twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  long. 

WAN'DERINGS  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 
See  EXODUS.  The  following  tabular  view 
of  their  various  encampments,  so  far  as 
they  are  recorded  in  Exodus,  Numbers, 
and  Deuteronomy,  is  from  Dr.  Robin 
son's  Biblical  Researches.  The  "great 
and  terrible  wilderness  "  between  mount 
Sinai  and  Palestine  is  still  known  by  the 
Arabs  as  Et-Tyh,  or  the  Wanderings. 


I.  FROM  EGYPT  TO  SINAI. 


EXODUS  XII. -XIX. 

From  Rameses,  12  : 37. 

1.  Succoth,  12:37. 

2.  Etham,  13:20. 

3.  Pihahiroth,  14:2. 

4.  Passage  through  the  Red  sea,  14  :22  ;  and 

three  days'   march  into  the  desert  of 
Shur,  15:22. 

5.  Marah,  15  :23. 

6.  Elim,  15  :27. 

S.  Desert  of  Sin,  16:1. 


11.  Rephidim,  17:1. 

12.  Desert  of  Sinai,  19:1. 


NUMBERS  XXXIII. 

From  Rameses,  verse  3. 
Succoth,  ver.  5. 
Etham,  ver.  6. 
Pi-hahiroth,  ver.  7. 

Passage  through  the  Red  sea,  and  three  days' 
march  iu  the  desert  of  Etham,  ver.  8. 

Marah,  ver.  8. 
Elim,  ver.  9. 
By  the  Red  sea,  ver.  10. 
Desert  of  Sin,  ver.  11. 
Dophka,  ver.  12. 
Alush,  ver.  13. 
Rephidim,  ver.  14. 
Desert  of  Sinai,  ver.  15. 


II.  FROM  SINAI  TO  KADESH  THE  SECOND  TIME 


17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 

23! 
24. 
15. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
81. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 


NUMBERS   X.-XX. 

From  the  desert  of  Sinai,  10  : 12 

Taberah,  11:3;  Deut.  9  :  22. 

Kibroth  hattaavah,  11 :34. 

Hazeroth,ll:35. 

Kadesh,  in  the  desert  of  Paran,  12:16; 
13  :  26  ;  Deut.  1  : 2, 19.  Hence  they  turn 
back  and  wander  for  thirty-eight  years, 
Num.  14  : 25-o6. 


NUMBERS  XXXIII. 


Return  to  Kadesh,  flam.  20  jl. 
478 


From  the  desert  of  Sinai,  ver.  16. 

Kibroth-hattaavah,  ver.  16. 
llazeroth,  ver.  17. 


Rithma,  ver.  18. 
Rimmon  parez,  ver.  19. 
Libnah,  ver.  20. 
Kissah,  ver.  21. 
Kehelathah,  ver.  22. 
Mount  Shapher,  ver.  23. 
Haradah,  ver.  24. 
Makheloth,  ver.  25. 
Tahath,  ver.  26. 
Tarah,  ver.  27. 
Mithcah,  ver.  28. 
Hashmonah,  ver.  29. 
Moseroth,  ver.  30. 
Bene-jaakan,  ver.  31. 
Hor-hagidgad,  ver.  32. 
Jotbathah,  ver.  33: 
Ebronah,  ver.  34. 
Ezion  gaber,  ver.  35. 
Kadesh,  ver.  36. 


WAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAR 


III.  FROM  KADESH  TO  THE  JORDAN. 


NUMBERS  XX.,  XXI ;   DEUT.  I.,  II.,  X. 

From  Kadesh,  Num.  20  : 22. 

36.  Beeroth  Beene-jaakan,  Deut.  10  :6. 

37.  Mount    Hor,  Num.   20:22;    or    Mosera, 

Deut.  10  : 6  ;  where  Aaron  died. 

38.  Gudgodah,  Deut.  10:1. 

39.  Jotbath,  Deut.  10  :7. 

40.  Way  of  the  Red  sea,  Num.  21  :4  ;  by  Elath 

and  Ezion-gaber,  Deut.  2  :8. 
41. 
42. 

43.  Oboth,Num.  21:10. 

44.  Ije  abarim,  Num.  21 :11. 

45.  The    brook   Zered,  Num.   21:12;    Deut. 

2:13,14. 

46.  The  brook  Arnon,  Num.  21:13;  Deut. 

2:24. 
47. 
48. 

49.  Beer  (well)  in  the  desert,  Num.  21 :16,18. 

50.  Mattanah,  21:18. 

51.  Nahaliel,  21:19. 

52.  Bamoth,  21  :19. 

53.  Pisgah,  put  for  the  range  of  Abarim,  of 

which  Pisgah  was  part,  21 : 20. 

54.  By  the  way  of  Bashan  to  the  plains  of 

Moab  by  Jordan,  near  Jericho,  Num. 
21  : 33  ;  22  : 1. 


NUMBERS  XXXIII. 

From  Kadesh,  ver.  37. 
Mount  Hor,  ver.  37. 


Zalmonah,  ver.  41. 

Punon,  ver.  42. 

Oboth,  ver.  43. 

Ije  abarim,  or  lira,  ver.  44,  46. 


Dibon-gad,  ver.  45  ;  now  Dhiban. 
Almon-diblathaim,  ver.  46. 


Mountains  of  Abarim,  near  to  Nebo,  ver.  47. 

Plains  of  Moab  by  Jordan,  near   Jericho, 
ver.  48. 


SIEGE  OF  A  CITY  :    FROM  THE  NIMROUD  PALACE,  NINEVEH. 


WAR,  one  of  the  evil  fruits  of  the 
fall,  and  an  appalling  manifestation  of 
the  depravity  of  mankind,  Gen.  6  :  11- 
13  ;  Isa.  9:5;  Jas.  4:1,  2,  often  rendered 
apparently  inevitable  by  the  assaults  of 
enemies,  or  commanded  by  God  for  their 
punishment.  See  AMALEKITES  and  CA 
NAAN.  By  this  scourge,  subsequently  to 
the  conquest  of  Canaan,  God  chastised 
both  his  own  rebellious  people  and  the 
corrupt  and  oppressive  idolaters  around 
them.  In  many  cases,  moreover,  the 
issue  was  distinctly  made  between  the 
true  God  and  idols ;  as  with  the  Philis 
tines,  1  Sam.  17  :  43-47  ;  the  Syrians, 
1  Kin.  20 :  23-30  ;  the  Assyrians,  2  Kin. 
19 : 10-19,  35 ;  and  the  Ammonites,  2  Ohr. 


20 : 1-30.  Hence  God  often  raised  up 
champions  for  his  people,  gave  them 
counsel  in  war  by  TJrim  and  by  proph 
ets,  and  miraculously  aided  them  in 
battle. 

Before  the  period  of  the  kings,  there 
seems  to  have  been  scarcely  any  regular 
army  among  the  Jews ;  but  all  who 
were  able  to  bear  arms  were  liable  to  be 
summoned  to  the  field,  1  Sam.  11  :  7. 
The  vast  armies  of  the  kings  of  Judah 
and  Israel  usually  fought  on  foot,  armed 
with  spears,  swords,  and  shields  ?  having 
large  bodies  of  archers  and  slingers,  and 
comparatively  few  chariots  and  horse 
men.  See  ARMS.  The  forces  were  ar 
ranged  in  suitable  divisions,  with  officers 
479 


WAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAR 


Sf  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  etc. ,  Judg. 
20:10  ;  1  Chr.  13:1 ;  2  Chr.  25  :  5.  The 
Jews  were  fully  equal  to  the  nations 
around  them  in  bravery  and  the  arts  of 
war ;  but  were  restrained  from  wars  of 
conquest,  and  when  invaders  had  been 
repelled  the  people  dispersed  to  their 
homes.  A  campaign  usually  commenced 
in  spring,  and  was  terminated  before  win 
ter,  2  Sam.  11:1 ;  1  Kin.  20:22.  As  the 
Jewish  host  approached  a  hostile  army, 
the  priests  cheered  them  hy  addresses, 
Deut.  20  :  2  ;  1  Sam.  7 :  9,  13,  and  by  in 
spiring  songs,  2  Chr.  20:21.  The  sacred 
trumpets  gave  the  signal  for  battle,  Num. 


10 : 9,  10 ;  2  Chr.  13  : 12-15 ;  the  archers 
and  slingers  advanced  first,  but  at  length 
made  way  for  the  charge  of  the  heavy*, 
armed  spearmen,  etc.,  who  sought  to  ter 
rify  the  enemy,  ere  they  reached  them, 
by  their  aspect  and  war-cries,  Judg.  7 : 18- 
20;  1  Sam.  17:52;  Job 39: 25;  Isa.  17:12, 
13.  The  combatants  were  soon  engaged 
hand  to  hand  ;  the  battle  became  a  series 
of  duels ;  and  the  victory  was  gained  by 
the  obstinate  bravery,  the  skill,  strength, 
and  swiftness  of  individual  warriors, 
1  Chr.  12:8  ;  Psa.  18:32-37.  See  Paul's 
exhortations  to  Christian  firmness,  tmder 
the  assaults  of  spiritual  foes,  ICor.  16:13 ; 


THE  CATAPULT,  A  MACHINg  FOR  THROWING  HEAVY  DARTS. 


Eph.  6  : 11-14 ;  1  Thess.  3:8.  The  bat 
tles  of  the  ancients  were  exceedingly  san 
guinary,  2  Chr.  28  :  6  ;  few  were  spared 
except  those  reserved  to  grace  the  tri 
umph  or  be  sold  as  slaves.  A  victorious 
army  of  Jews  on  returning  was  welcom 
ed  by  the  whole  population  with  every 
demonstration  of  joy,  1  Sam.  18  :  6,  7. 
The  spoils  were  divided  after  reserving 
an  oblation  for  the  Lord,  Num.  31  :  50; 
Judg.  5  :  30  ;  trophies  were  suspended  in 
public  places ;  eulogies  were  pronounced 
in  honor  of  the  most  distinguished  war 
riors,  and  lamentations  over  the  dead. 

In  besieging  a  walled  city,  numerous 
towers  were  usually  erected  around  it 
for  throwing  missiles;  catapults  were 
prepared  for  hurling  large  darts  and 
stones.  *'  Large  towers  were  also  con 
structed  and  mounds  near  to  the  city 
walls,  and  raised  if  possible  to  an  equal 
or  greater  height,  that  by  casting  a  mov 
able  bridge  across  access  to  the  city  might 
480 


be  gained.  The  battering-ram  was  also 
employed  to  effect  a  breach  in  the  wall ; 
and  the  crow,  a  long  spar  with  iron  claws 


WAR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WAT 


at  one  end  and  ropes  at  the  other,  to  pull 
down  stones  or  men  from  the  top  of  the 
wall.  These  and  similar  modes  of  as 
sault  the  besieged  resisted  by  throwing 
down  darts,  stones,  heavy  rocks,  and 
sometimes  boiling  oil;  by  hanging  sacks 
of  chaff  between  the  battering-ram  and 
the  wall;  by  strong  and  sudden  sallies, 
capturing  and  burning  the  towers  and 
enginery  of  the  assailants,  and  quickly 
retreating  into  the  city,  2  Chr.  26: 14, 15. 
The  modern  inventions  of  gunpowder, 
rifles,  bombs,  and  heavy  artillery  have 
changed  all  this.  See  BATTERING-RAM. 

As  the  influence  of  Christianity  dif 
fuses  itself  in  the  world,  war  is  becom 
ing  less  excusable  and  less  practicable ; 
and  a  great  advance  may  be  observed 
from  the  customs  and  spirit  of  ancient 
barbarism  towards  the  promised  univer 
sal  supremacy  of  the  Prince  of  peace, 
Psa.  46:9;  Isa.  2:4;  Mic.  4:3. 

' '  Wars  of  the  Lord ' '  was  probably  the 
name  of  an  uninspired  book,  long  since 
lost,  containing  details  of  the  events 
alluded  to  in  Num.  21:14,  15. 

WARD,  or  GUARD.  To  put ' '  in  ward ' ' 
was  to  place  under  guard,  or  in  confine 
ment,  Gen.  40  :  3  ;  Lev.  24  :  12.  Ward 
also  seems  to  mean  a  guard-room,  Neh. 
12  :  25,  Isa.  21:8,  and  the  guards  them 
selves,  Acts  12  :  10,  or  any  small  baud, 
IChr.  25:8;  26:16. 

WASH'ING.  Various  ceremonial  wash 
ings  were  enjoined  in  the  Mosaic  law, 
both  upon  priests,  Exod.  30  :  19-21,  and 
upon  others.  Lev.  12-15  ;  Heb.  9 : 10. 
These  were  significant  of  spiritual  purifi 
cation  through  the  Saviour's  blood,  Tit. 
3  :  5,  Rev.  1 :  5,  as  well  as  of  that  holi 
ness  without  which  none  can  see  God. 
To  these  the  Jews  added  other  tradi 
tional  ablutions,  Mark  7  :  2-4 ;  and  re 
garded  it  as  an  act  of  impiety  to  neglect 
them,  as  Christ  frequently  did,  Luke 
11  :  38.  The  washing  of  the  hands  be 
fore  and  after  meals,  Matt.  15  :  2,  called 
for  by  their  custom  of  feeding  themselves 
with  their  fingers,  is  still  practised  in 
Syria.  See  cut  in  BED.  Where  there  is 
a  servant  in  attendance,  he  pours  water 
from  a  pitcher  over  his  master's  hands, 
holding  also  a  broad  vessel  underneath 
them,  2  Kin.  3:11 ;  Psa.  60:8.  See  FOOT 
and  SANDALS.  ' '  Washing  the  hands ' ' 
was  a  protestation  of  innocence,  Deut. 
21  :  6  ;  Matt.  27  :  24  ;  and  has  given  rise 
to  the  proverbial  saying  common  among 
us,  "I  wash  my  hands  of  that." 
21 


WATCH,  a  division  of  the  night.  See 
HOURS. 

WATCH'ER,  Dan.  4:13, 17,  23,  a  figu 
rative  designation  of  heavenly  beings,, 
apparently  angels,  as  seen  by  Nebuchad 
nezzar  in  his  dream. 

WATCH'MEN  are  of  as  early  a  date  as 
cities,  robbers,  and  wars,  Exod.  14  :  24 ; 
Judg.  7: 19.  Jerusalem  and  other  cities 
had  regular  guards  night  and  day,  Song 
3:1-3  ;  5:7,  to  whose  hourly  cries  Isaiah 
refers  in  illustration  of  the  vigilance  re 
quired  by  God  in  his  ministers,  Isa.  21:8, 
11,  12 ;  62  :  6.  At  this  day  the  watch 
men  of  Jerusalem  "keep  not  silence," 
nor  do  they  ' '  hold  their  peace  day  nor 
night;"  especially  at  night  and  when 
danger  is  apprehended,  they  are  reqiiir- 
ed  to  call  to  each  other  every  few  min 
utes,  and  the  cry  passes  from  one  to 
another  entirely  around  the  city  walls. 
Those  of  Sidon  also  do  the  same.  Watch 
men  always  had  a  station  at  the  gate  of 
a  city  and  in  the  adjacent  tower,  2  Sam. 
18:24-27 ;  2  Kin.  9:27  ;  also  on  hill-tops 
overlooking  a  large  circuit  of  terraced 
vineyards,  whence  they  could  "  see  eye 
to  eye,"  and  ' '  lift  up  the  voice ' '  of  warn 
ing  or  of  cheer,  Isa.  52  :  7,  8  ;  and  their 
responsible  office,  requiring  so  much  vig 
ilance  and  fidelity,  illustrates  that  of 
prophets  and  ministers,  Jer.  6:17;  Ezek. 
33:1-9;  Heb.  13:17. 

WATER.  See  CISTERNS,  and  WELLS. 
In  Isaiah  35 : 7,  the  Hebrew  word  for 
"parched  ground"  that  shall  become  a 

rl  of  water,  is  the  same  with  the  Ara- 
term  for  the  mirage,  a  peculiar  opti 
cal  illusion  by  which  travellers  in  hot 
and  dry  deserts  think  they  see  broad 
lakes  and  flowing  waters ;  they  seem  to 
discern  the  very  ripple  of  the  waves,  and 
the  swaying  of  tall  trees  on  the  mar 
gin  in  the  cool  breeze ;  green  hills  and 
houses  and  city  ramparts  rise  before  the 
astonished  sight,  recede  as  the  traveller 
advances,  and  at  length  melt  away  in 
the  hot  haze.  Not  so  the  blessings  of 
the  gospel ;  they  are  no  alluring  mock 
ery,  but  real  waters  of  everlasting  life, 
Isa.  55 : 1 ;  John  4 : 14  ;  Rev.  22 : 1.  Com 
pare  Isa.  29:8;  Jer.  15:18. 

WATER-SPOUTS  are  well-known  phe 
nomena  in  the  Levant,  and  are  supposed 
to  be  produced  by  whirlwinds.  A  dense, 
black,  funnel-shaped  cloud  is  seen  de 
pending  from  the  sky,  and  sometimes 
moving  rapidly  over  the  sea,  from  which 
at  times  a  similar  cone  ascends  to  meet 
481 


WAX 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WEL 


the  upper  one.  Where  they  unite,  the 
column  may  be  three  or  four  feet  thick  ; 
and  when  they  break,  torrents  of  water 
descend.  The  word  occurs  in  Psa.  42:7, 
where,  however,  the  psalmist  probably 
alludes  to  cataracts  of  water. 

WAX,  to  grow  or  become,  Ex.  22:24; 
Isa.  50:9;  Luke  13:19. 

WEA'SEL,  one  of  the  unclean  ani 
mals,  Lev.  11  :  29.  Several  varieties  of 
weasels  are  found  in  and  around  Pales 
tine  ;  but  in  the  verse  above  probably 
the  common  mole  is  intended. 

WEAV'ING,  an  art  very  early  prac 
tised  by  all  nations,  and  exhibited  on 
the  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt,  Gen. 
41  :  42.  See  FLAX.  It  is  usually  per 
formed  by  women,  2  Kin.  23  :  7  ;  Prov. 
31:13,  19.  The  distaff,  the  shuttle,  and 
the  weaver's  beam  and  pin  are  men 
tioned,  Judg.  ^  :  14  ;  1  Sam.  17:7  ;  Job 
7:6;  Prov.  31 :  19.  The  Jews  say  that 
the  high-priest's  tunic  was  made  with 
out  a  needle,  being  "woven  from  the 
top  throughout ;"  thus  also  "the  High- 
priest  of  our  profession"  was  clothed, 
John  19:23. 

WED'DING.     See  MARRIAGE. 

WED'DING -GAR'HENT.  See  GAR 
MENTS. 

WEEKS,  or  successive  periods  of  seven 
days  each,  were  known  from  the  earliest 
times  among  nations  remote  from  each 
other  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  Gen. 
29:27.  See  SABBATH.  The  Hebrews  had 
only  numeral  names  for  the  days  of  the 
week,  excepting  the  Sabbath  ;  the  names 
now  current  among  us  being  borrowed 
from  Saxon  mythology.  The  Jews  called 
Sunday  "one  of  the  Sabbath,"  that  is, 
the  first  day  of  the  week.  Monday  was 
"two  of  the  Sabbath."  A  prophetic 
week  and  a  week  of  years  were  each 
seven  years ;  and  a  week  of  sabbatical 
years,  or  forty-nine  years,  brought  round 
the  year  of  jubilee.  In  John  20:26,  the 
disciples  are  said  to  have  met  again  after 
' '  eight  days, ' '  that  is,  evidently  after  a 
week,  on  the  eighth  day  after  our  Lord's 
resurrection.  See  THREE. 

For  the  ' '  Feast  of  Weeks, ' '  see  PENTE 
COST. 

WEEPING.  -See  FUNERAL. 

WEIGHTS.  The  Hebrews  weighed  all 
the  gold  and  silver  they  used  in  trade. 
The  shekel,  the  half  shekel,  the  maneh, 
the  talent,  are  not  only  denominations 
of  money,  of  certain  values  in  gold  and 
silver,  but  also  of  certain  weights.  The 
482 


weight  "of  the  sanctuary,"  or  weight 
of  the  temple,  Ex.  30:13,  24 ;  Lev.  5:5; 
Num.  3  :  50  ;  7 : 19  ;  18  : 16,  was  perhaps 
the  standard  weight,  preserved  in  some 
apartment  of  the  temple,  and  not  a  dif 
ferent  weight  from  the  common  shekel ; 
for  though  Moses  appointed  that  all 
things  valued  by  their  price  in  silver 
should  be  rated  by  the  weight  of  the 
sanctuary,  Lev.  27 :  25,  he  makes  no  dif 
ference  between  this  shekel  of  twenty 
gerahs  and  the  common  shekel.  Eze- 
kiel,  45 ;  12,  speaking  of  the  ordinary 
weights  and  measures  used  in  traffic 
among  the  Jews,  Bays  that  the  shekel 
weighed  twenty  gerahs:  it  was  there 
fore  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  sanctu 
ary.  See  the  TABLES  OP  WEIGHTS  AND 
MEASURES  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

WELLS  and  SPRINGS.  By  those  liv 
ing  in  a  temperate  climate,  where  the 
well  or  the  aqueduct  furnishes  to  every 
house  a  supply  of  water  practically  inex 
haustible,  no  idea  can  be  formed  of  the 
extreme  distress  caused  by  thirst,  and  of 
the  luxury  of  relieving  it  by  drinking 
pure  water — a  luxury  which  is  said  to 
excel  all  other  pleasures  of  sense.  One 
must  reside  or  travel  in  a  Syrian  climate 
to  realize  the  beauty  and  force  of  the 
allusions  of  Scripture  to  "water  out  of 
the  wells  of  salvation,"  "cold  water  to 
a  thirsty  soul,"  "  the  fountain  of  living 
waters,"  and  many  others.  The  digging 
of  a  permanent  well  or  the  discovery  of 
a  spring  was  a  public  benefaction,  and 
its  possession  was  a  matter  of  great  im 
portance.  Its  existence  at  a  given  spot 
decided  the  nightly  resting-place  of  car 
avans,  the  encampment  of  armies,  and 
the  location  of  towns,  1  Sam.  29  : 1 ; 
2  Sam.  2  : 13.  Hence  BEER,  the  Hebrew 
name  for  a  well  or  spring,  forms  a  part 
of  many  names  of  places,  as  Beeroth, 
Beer-sheba.  See  also  EN.  So  valuable 
was  a  supply  of  water,  that  a  field  con 
taining  a  spring  was  a  princely  dowry, 
Judg.  1  : 13-15,  and  a  well  was  a  matter 
of  strife  and  negotiation  between  differ 
ent  tribes.  Thus  we  read  that  Abraham, 
in  making  a  treaty  with  king  Abimelech, 
' '  reproved  him  because  of  a  well  of  wa 
ter  which  Abimelech' s  servants  had  vio 
lently  taken  away,"  and  the  ownership 
of  the  well  was  sealed  to  Abraham  by  a 
special  oath  and  covenant,  Gen.  21  :  25- 
31.  A  similar  transaction  occurred  dur 
ing  the  life  of  Isaac,  Gen.  26 : 14-33.  In 
negotiating  with  the  king  of  Edom  for  a 


WEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WEL 


THE  WELL  OR  FOUNTAIN  AT  NAZARETH. 


passage  through  his  territory,  the  Israel 
ites  said,  "We  will  go  by  the  highway  ; 
and  if  I  and  my  cattle  drink  of  thy  wa 
ter,  then  I  will  pay  for  it,"  Num.  20:17- 
19.  Still  stronger  is  the  expression  in 
Lam.  5:4:  "We  have  drunk  our  own 
water  for  money  ;"  that  is,  we  bought  it 
of  our  foreign  rulers,  though  we  are  the 
natural  proprietors  of  the  wells  that  fur 
nished  it.  The  custom  of  demanding 
pay  for  water  of  the  traveller  is  still 
found  in  some  parts  of  the  feast ;  while 
in  many  other  towns  a  place  is  provided 
where  cold  water  and  sometimes  bread 
are  offered  gratuitously  to  the  stranger, 
at  the  expense  of  the  village,  or  as  an 
act  of  charity  by  the  benevolent,  Mark 
9  :  41.  In  case  of  a  hostile  invasion, 
nothing  could  more  effectually  harass 
an  advancing  army  or  the  besiegers  of  a 
city,  than  to  fill  with  stones  the  wells  on 
which  they  relied,  2  Kin.  3  :  25 ;  2  Chr. 
32:3. 

Wells  are  sometimes  found  in  Pales 
tine  furnished  with  a  well-sweep  and 
bucket,  or  a  windlass ;  and  in  some  cases 
there  were  steps  leading  down  to  the 
water,  Gen.  24:15,  16;  but  usually  the 
water  is  drawn  with  pitchers  and  ropes ; 
and  the  stone  curbs  of  ancient  wells  bear 
the  marks  of  long  use.  They  were  often 
covered  with  a  large  flat  stone,  to  ex 


clude  the  flying  sand  and  secure  the  wa 
ter  to  its  owners,  and  also  for  the  secu 
rity  of  strangers,  who  were  liable  to  fall 
into  them  unawares — a  mischance  which 
very  often  occurs  in  modern  Syria,  and 
against  which  the  beneficent  law  of  Mo 
ses  made  provision,  Ex.  21:33,  34.  This 
stone  was  removed  about  sunset,  when 
the  females  of  the  vicinity  drew  th^ir 
supply  of  water  for  domestic  use,  and 
the  flocks  and  herds  drank  from  the 
stone  troughs  which  are  still  found  be 
side  almost  every  well.  At  this  hour, 
the  well  was  a  favorite  place  of  resort, 
and  presented  a  scene  of  life  and  gayety 
greatly  in  contrast  with  its  ordinary 
loneliness,  Gen.  24:11-28;  29:1-10;  Ex. 
2  : 16-19  ;  1  Sam.  9  : 11.  Wells,  howev 
er,  were  sometimes  infested  by  robbers, 
Judg.  5  :  11 ;  and  Dr.  Shaw  mentions  a 
beautiful  spring  in  Barbary,  the  Arabic 
name  of  which  means,  "Drink,  and 
away !"  a  motto  which  may  well  be  in 
scribed  over  even  the  best  springs  of 
earthly  delight.  See  CISTERN. 

The  cut  above  given  presents  a  view  of 
"The  Fountain  of  the  Virgin  "  at  Naza 
reth,  so  called  from  the  strong  probabil- 
ity  that  the  mother  of  our  Lord  was 
wont  to  draw  water  from  it,  as  the  wom 
en  of  Nazareth  do  at  this  day.  It  is  a 
copious  spring,  just  out  of  the  village  ; 
483 


WHA 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


WHE 


and  the  path  that  leads  to  it  is  well 
worn,  as  by  the  feet  of  many  genera 
tions.  All  travellers  in  Palestine  men 
tion  the  throngs  of  females  that  resort 
to  it,  with  their  pitchers  or  goat-skins 
on  the  shoulder  or  head,  and  loitering 
to  gossip  or  gaily  returning  in  compa 
nies  of  two  or  three.  Every  day  wit 
nesses  there  what  might  almost  be  de 
scribed  in  the  very  words  of  Gen.  24:11 : 
' '  And  he  made  his  camels  to  kneel  down 
without  the  city,  by  a  well  of  water,  at 
the  time  of  the  evening,  even  the  time 
that  women  go  out  to  draw  water.  And 
behold,  Kebekah  came  out,  with  her 
pitcher  tfpon  her  shoulder ;  and  she 
went  down  to  the  well,  and  filled  her 
pitcher,  and  came  up."  It  is  an  un 
common  sight  to  see  ' '  a  man  bearing  a 
pitcher  of  water,"  Mark  14:13. 

Jacob's  well,  at  the  eastern  entrance 
of  the  charming  valley  of  Shechem,  is 
still  in  existence,  though  now  little  used 
and  often  nearly  dry.  It  is  covered  by 
a  vaulted  roof,  with  a  narrow  entrance 
closed  by  a  heavy  rock.  Around  it  is  a 
platform,  and  the  remains  of  a  church 
built  over  the  spot  by  the  empress  Hele 
na.  Close  at  hand  is  mount  Gerizim, 
which  the  woman  of  Sychar  no  doubt 
glanced  at  as  she  said,  "Our  fathers 
worshipped  in  this  mountain."  On  the 
west  is  the  broad  and  fertile  plain  of 
Mukhiia,  where  the  fields  were  "white 
already  to  the  harvest."  The  woman 
intimated  that  the  well  was  "deep," 
aifd  had  no  steps.  Actual  measurement 
shows  it  to  be  seventy-five  feet  deep,  and 
about  nine  feet  in  diameter.  Dr.  Wil 
son,  in  1842,  sent  down  with  ropes  a  Jew 
named  Jacob,  to  explore  the  well  and 
recover  a  Bible  dropped  into  it  by  Rev. 
Mr.  Bonar  three  years  before.  This  was 
found,  almost  destroyed  by  lying  in  wa 
ter.  As  the  traveller  stands  by  this  ven 
erated  well  and  thinks  of  the  long  series 
of  men  of  a  hundred  nations  and  gen 
erations  who  have  drunk  of  its  waters, 
thirsted  again,  and  died,  he  is  most  for 
cibly  affected  by  the  truth  of  Christ's 
words  to  the  Samaritan  woman,  and 
made  to  feel  his  own  perishing  need  of 
the  water  "  springing  up  into  everlast 
ing  life,"  John  4. 

WHALE,  the  largest  known  inhabit 
ant  of  the  sea,  Job  7  :  12,  put  by  our 
translators  for  a  Hebrew  word  including 
all  the  huge  marine  monsters,  as  in  Gen. 
1 : 21.  In  Ezek.  32 : 2,  referring  to  Egypt 
484 


and  the  Nile,  it  doubtless  means  the 
crocodile  ;  as  also  in  Psa.  74  :  13  ;  Isa. 
27  :  1 ;  51  :  9  ;  Ezek.  29  :  3,  where  it  is 
translated  ' '  dragon . ' '  The  ' '  great  fish ' ' 
that  swallowed  Jonah  cannot  be  named 
with  certainty.  The  Greek  word  in 
Matt.  12  :  40  being  also  indeterminate. 
Whales,  however,  were  anciently  found 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  sharks  of  the 
largest  size. 


JTRITICUM  COMPOSITFM. 

WHEAT  is  the  principal  and  most 
valuable  kind  of  grain  for  the  service  of 
man,  and  is  produced  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  world,  Gen.  30  :  14 ;  Deut. 
8:8;  Judg.  6:11;  Matt.  13  : 25  ;  1  Cor. 
15  :  37.  It  is  often  intended  where  the 
word  corn  is  used.  See  CORN.  The 
Egyptian  wheat,  Triticum  Compositum, 
has  six  or  seven  ears  on  one  head ;  so 
that  it  presented  its  usual  appearance  in 
this  respect  in  Pharaoh's  dream,  Gen. 
41  :  5-7.  The  "  meat-offerings"  of  the 
Mosaic  service,  Lev.  2,  were  all  made  of 
wheaten  flour. 

WHEEL,  Psa.  83:13,  translated  "roll 
ing  thing"  in  Isa.  17  : 13.  Mr.  Thom 
son,  for  many  years  a  missionary  in 
Syria,  thinks  the  wild  artichoke  may 
here  be  referred  to.  This  plant  sends  out 
numerous  stalks  or  branches  of  equal 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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length  in  fill  directions,  forming  a  globe 
a  foot  in  diameter.  These  globes  become 
rigid  and  light  as  a  feather  in  autumn, 
and  thousands  of  them  fly  rolling  and 
bounding  over  the  plains,  the  sport  of 
every  wind.  This  "rolling  thing"  fur 
nishes  the  modern  Arabs  with  a  current 
proverb  and  a  curse. 

WHIRL' WINDS  were  very  frequent  in 
the  deserts  of  Arabia,  Job  87  :  9  ;  38  :  1 ; 
Nah.  1:3,  and  travellers  in  the  East  have 
encountered  many.  Most  of  them  are 
not  formidable,  Isa.  17 : 13  ;  but  one  now 
and  then  occurs,  sudden,  swift,  and  aw 
ful  in  its  devastating  course  ;  houses  and 
trees  are  110  obstruction  in  its  way,  and 
the  traveller  is  buried  alive  .under  the 
pillar  of  sand  it  raises  and  bears  along, 
like  a  water-spout  at  sea,  Job  1:19;  Isa. 
21  :  1.  The  sudden  and  resistless  judg 
ments  of  God  are  well  compared  to 
whirlwinds,  Psa.  58:9;  Prov.  1:27;  Isa. 
66  :  15.  One  of  the  Hebrew  words  thus 
translated  sometimes  denotes  only  a  pow 
erful  and  tempestuous  gust  of  wind,  Jer. 
23:19;  30:23;  Zech.  9:14.  See  WINDS. 

WID'OW.  A  custom  was  prevalent 
in  patriarchal  times,  Gen.  38,  and  was 
afterwards  confirmed  by  the  Mosaic  law, 
Deut.  25  :  5-10,  that  a  widow  without 
children,  in  order  to  preserve  the  family 
name  and  inheritance,  should  marry  the 
brother  of  her  deceased  husband  ;  or,  he 
failing,  his  nearest  kinsman,  Ruth  3:12, 
13  ;  4:1-11 ;  Matt.  22:23-30.  The  high- 
priest  was  forbidden  to  marry  a  widow, 
Lev.  21 :  14.  The  humanity  and  justice 
of  true  religion  are  shown  in  the  Bible, 
as  might  be  expected,  by  numerous  indi 
cations  that  God  and  the  friends  of  God 
sympathize  with  the  sorrows,  supply 
the  wants,  and  defend  the  rights  of  the 
widow,  Exod.  22  :  22-24  ;  Deut.  16  :  11 ; 
24:17,19;  Psa.  68:5;  Isa.  1:17;  10:2; 
Jer.  22  :  3  ;  Matt.  23  : 14.  The  apostolic 
church  was  not  negligent  in  providing 
for  widows,  Acts  6  :  1-3  ;  1  Tim.  5  :  16  ; 
and  James  makes  this  duty  an  essential 
part  of  true  piety,  Jas.  1 :  27.  Heathen 
ism,  on  the  contrary,  makes  those  who 
have  been  slaves  to  a  husband's  caprices 
during  his  life,  either  victims  upon  the 
funeral  pile  at  his  death,  or  forlorn  and 
hopeless  sufferers  under  destitution  and 
contempt.  The  duties  of  Christian  wid 
ows  are  specified  in  1  Tim.  5:3-16. 

WILDERNESS.     See  DESERT. 

WILLOW,  a  very  common  tree,  which 
grows  in  marshy  places,  Job  40  :  22,  Isa. 


44  :  4,  with  a  leaf  much  like  that  of  the 
olive.  God  commanded  the  Hebrews  to 
take  branches  of  the  handsomest  trees, 
particularly  of  the  willows  of  the  brook, 
and  to  bear  them  in  their  hands  before 
the  Lord,  as  a  token  of  rejoicing,  at  the 
feast  of  Tabernacles,  Lev.  23  :  40.  The 
"weeping  willow,"  memorable  in  con 
nection  with  the  mourning  Hebrew  cap~ 
tives,  Psa.  137  :  2,  is  a  native  of  Babylo 
nia,  and  hence  is  named  Salix  Babylonk 
ca.  The  "brook  of  the  willows,"  Isa. 
15  :  7,  on  the  southern  border  of  Moab, 
flows  into  the  south-east  extremity  of 
the  Dead  sea. 

WIM'PLE,  a  veil  or  hood;  but  the 
Hebrew  signifies,  properly,  a  broad  and 
large  mantle  or  shawl.  See  VEIL.  Thus, 
in  Ruth  3 : 15,  Boaz  gives  Ruth  six  meas 
ures  of  barley,  which  she  carries  away 
in  her  mantle,  rather  than  veil,  as  in  the 
English  translation.  So  in  Isa.  3:22. 

WINDS,  Matt.  24:31.  The  winds 
which  most  commonly  prevail  in  Pales 
tine  are  from  the  western  quarter,  more 
usually  perhaps  from  the  south-west, 
Luke  12:54.  Not  unfrequently  a  north 
wind  arises,  Job  37  :  9,  which,  as  in  an 
cient  days,  is  still  the  sure  harbinger  of 
fair  weather ;  illustrating  the  truth  of 
the  observation  in  Prov.  25:23,  "The 
north  wind  driveth  away  rain."  For  the 
tempestuous  wind  called  EUROCLYDOX, 
see  that  article. 

But  the  wind  most  frequently  men 
tioned  in  the  Bible  is  the  ' '  east  wind, ' ' 
which  is  represented  as  blasting  and 
drying  up  the  fruits,  Gen.  41  :  6  ;  Ezek. 
17:10  ;  19  : 12,  and  also  as  blowing  with 
great  violence,  Psa.  48:7  ;  Ezek.  27:26; 
Jonah  4:8.  It  is  also  the  "horrible  tem 
pest,"  literally  the  glow-wind,  of  Psa. 
11 :  6.  This  is  a  sultry  and  oppressive 
wind  blowing  from  the  south-east,  and 
prevailing  only  in  the  hot  and  dry 
months  of  summer.  Coming  thus  from 
the  vast  Arabian  desert,  it  seems  to  in 
crease  the  heat  and  drought  of  the  sea 
son,  and  produces  universal  languor 
and  debility.  Rev.  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  who 
experienced  its  effects  during  the  sum 
mer,  at  Beyrout,  describes  it  as  possess 
ing  the  same  qualities  and  characteris 
tics  as  the  Sirocco,  which  he  had  felt  at 
Malta,  and  which  also  prevails  in  Sicily 
and  Italy ;  except  that  the  Sirocco,  in 
passing  over  the  sea,  acquires  great  damp 
ness.  This  wind  is  called  by  the  Arabs 
the  Simoom,  by  the  Turks  the  Samiel, 
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and  by  the  Egyptians  the  Camsin ;  and 
has  long  been  regarded  as  a  pestilen 
tial  wind,  suddenly  overtaking  travellers 
and  caravans  in  the  deserts,  and  almost 
instantly  destroying  them  by  its  poison 
ous  and  suffocating  breath.  But  late 
and  judicious  travellers  find  no  evidence 
that  this  wind  is  laden  with  any  poison 
ous  influence.  It  is  indeed  oppressively 
hot  and  dry,  rapidly  evaporating  the 
water  in  the  ordinary  skin  bottles,  stop 
ping  the  perspiration  of  travellers,  dry 
ing  up  the  palate  and  the  air  passages, 
and  producing  great  restlessness  and  ex 
haustion.  As  it  often  blows  with  a  ter 
rible  roaring  and  violence,  it  carries  dust 
and  fine  sand  high  up  into  the  air,  so 
that  the  wrhole  atmosphere  is  lurid,  and 
seems  in  a  state  of  combustion,  and  the 
sun  is  shorn  of  his  beams,  and  looks  like 
a  globe  of  dull  smouldering  fire.  Both 
men  and  animals  are  greatly  annoyed  by 
the  dust,  and  seek  any  practicable  shel 
ter  or  covering.  The  camels  turn  their 
backs,  and  hide  their  heads  from  it  in 
the  ground.  It  is  often  accompanied  by 
local  whirlwinds,  which  form  pillars  of 
sand  and  dust,  rising  high  above  the 
ground  and  moving  with  swiftness  over 
the  plain.  Such  a  tempest  may  have 
suggested  some  features  in  the  prophetic 
descriptions  of  the  day  of  God's  power : 
' '  wonders  in  the  heavens  and  in  the  earth, 
blood  and  fire  and  pillars  of  smoke :  the 
sun  shall  be  turned  into  darkness,  and 
the  moon  into  blood,"  Joel  2 :  80,  31 ; 
Acts  2: 19,  20. 

Dr.  Thomson  describes  another  vari 
ety  of  hot  winds  or  siroccos,  often  more 
overwhelming  than  those  just  mention 
ed.  The  sky  is  covered  with  clouds,  and 
pale  lightnings  play  through  the  air  ;  but 
there  is  no  rain,  thunder,  or  wind.  The 
heat,  however,  is  intolerable  ;  every  trav 
eller  seeks  a  refuge,  the  birds  hide  them 
selves  in  the  thickest  shades,  the  fowls 
pant  under  the  walls  with  open  mouths, 
and  no  living  thing  is  in  motion. 

WINE.  The  vine  being  natural  .to 
the  soil  of  Canaan  and  its  vicinity,  wine 
was  much  used  as  a  beverage,  especially 
at  festivals,  Esth.  1:7  ;  5:6;  Dan.  5  : 1- 
4  ;  John  2:3.  As  one  of  the  staple  prod 
ucts  of  the  Holy  Land,  it  was  employed 
for  drink-offerings  in  the  temple  service, 
Ex.  29  :  40 ;  Num.  15  :  4-10  ;  it  was  in 
cluded  among  the  "first-fruits,"  Deut. 
18 : 4,  and  was  used  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Passover,  and  subsequently  of  the 
486 


Lord's  supper,  Matt.  26:27-29.  Togeth 
er  with  corn  and  oil  it  denoted  all  tem 
poral  supplies,  Psa.  4:7;  Hos.  2:8;  Joel 
2:19. 

The  word  "wine"  in  our  Bible  is  the 
translation  of  as  many  as  ten  different 
Hebrew  words  and  two  Greek  words, 
most  of  which  occur  in  but  a  few  in 
stances.  The  two  most  frequently  used, 
Yayin  and  its  Greek  equivalent  Oinos, 
are  general  terms  for  all  sorts  of  wine, 
Neh.  5  : 18.  Without  minute  details  on 
this  subject,  we  may  observe  that ' '  wine ' ' 
in  Scripture  denotes, 

1.  The  pure  juice  of  the  grape,  fer 
mented,  and  therefore  more  or  less  in 
toxicating,  but  free  from  drugs  of  any 
kind,  and  not  strengthened  by  distilled 
liquors. 

2.  Must,  the  fresh  juice  of  the  grape, 
unfermented  or  in  process  of  fermenta 
tion.     For  this  the  Hebrew  employs  the 
word  firosh,  English  version,  new  wine. 
Wine,  as  a  product  of  agriculture,  is  com 
monly  mentioned  by  this  name  along 
with  corn  and  oil,  Gen.  40  :  11 ;  Exod. 
22:29;  Deut.  32:14;  Luke  5:37,  38. 

3.  Honey  of  wine,   made  by  boiling 
down  must  to  one-fourth  of  its  bulk. 
This  commonly  goes,  in  the  Old  Testa 
ment,  by  the  name  debhash,  honey;  and 
only  the  context  can  enable  us  to  deter< 
mine  whether  honey  of  grapes  or  of  bees 
is  to  be  understood,  Num.  18:12;  Prov. 
9:2,  5. 

4.  Spiced  wine,   made  stronger  and 
more  inviting  to  the  taste  by  the  ad 
mixture  of  spices  and  other  drugs,  Song 
8:2. 

5.  Strong  drink,  Hebrew  shechar.    This 
word    sometimes   denotes    pure,  strong 
wine,  as  Num.  28  :  7  ;  or  drugged  wine, 
as  Isa.  5  :  22  ;  but  more  commonly  wine 
made  from  dates,  honey,  etc.,  and  gen 
erally  made  more  inebriating  by  being 
mingled  with  drugs. 

See  also,  in  connection  with  this  arti 
cle,  FLAGON,  MYRRH,  and  VINEGAR. 

The  "wine  of  Helbon"  was  made  in 
the  vicinity  of  Damascus,  and  sent  from 
that  city  to  Tyre,  Ezek.  27  :  19.  It  re 
sembled  the  "wine  of  Lebanon,"  famous 
for  its  excellence  and  fragrance,  Hosea 
14:7.  See  HELBON. 

Great  efforts  have  been  made  to  dis- 
•  tinguish  the  harmless  from  the  intoxi 
cating  wines  of  Scripture,  and  to  show 
that  inspiration  has  in  all  cases  approved 
the  former  alone,  and  condemned  the 


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BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


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iatter,  directly  or  indirectly.  It  is  not 
necessary,  however,  to  do  this  in  order 
to  demonstrate  that  so  far  as  the  use  of 
wine  leads  to  inebriation  it  is  pointedly 
condemned  by  the  word  of  God.  Sin 
and  shame  are  connected  with  the  first 
mention  of  wine  in  the  Bible,  and  with 
many  subsequent  cases,  Gen.  9  :  20; 
19  :  31-36  ;  1  Sam.  25  :  36,  37  ;  2  Sam. 
13:28;  1  Kin.  20:12-21;  Esth.  1:10,11; 
Dan.  5:23  ;  Kev.  17:  2.  It  is  character 
ized  as  a  deceitful  mocker,  Prov.  21 : 1  ; 
as  fruitful  in  miseries,  Prov.  23  :  29-35  ; 
in  woes,  Isa.  5 : 22  ;  in  errors,  Isa.  28 : 1- 
7  ;  and  in  impious  folly,  Isa.  5  :  11,  12  ; 
56  :  12 ;  Hos.  4  :  11.  The  use  of  it  is  in 
some  cases  expressly  forbidden,  Lev. 
10:9;  Num.  6:3;  and  in  other  cases  is 
alluded  to  as  characteristic  of  the  wick 
ed,  Joel  3:3;  Amos  6  :  6.  Numerous 
cautions  to  beware  of  it  are  given,  1  Sam. 
1:14;  Prov.  23:31;  31:4,  5;  1  Tim.  3:3; 
and  to  tempt  others  to  use  it  is  in  one 
passage  made  the  occasion  of  a  bitter 
curse,  Hab.  2  :  15.  On  the  other  hand, 
whatever  approval  was  given  in  Pales 
tine  to  the  moderate  use  of  wine,  can 
hardly  apply  to  a  country  where  wine 
is  an  imported  or  manufactured  article, 
often  containing  not  a  drop  of  the  juice 
of  the  grape  ;  or  if  genuine  and  not  com 
pounded  with  drugs,  still  enforced  with 
distilled  spirits.  The  whole  state  of  the 
case,  moreover,  is  greatly  modified  by 
the  discovery  of  the  process  of  distilling 
alcohol,  and  by  the  prevalence  of  appall 
ing  evils  now  inseparable  from  the  gen 
eral  use  of  any  intoxicating  drinks.  Dan 
iel  and  the  Rechabites  saw  good  reason 
for  total  abstinence  from  wine,  Jer. 
35 : 14  ;  Dan.  1:8;  and  the  sentiment  of 
Paul,  on  a  matter  involving  the  same 
principles,  is  divinely  commended  to 
universal  adoption,  Rom.  14  : 21 ;  1  Cor. 
8:13. 

For  "wine -press,"  see  PRESS,  and 
VINE. 

WIN'NOW.  See  FAN,  and  THRESH 
ING. 

WINTER.     See  CANAAN. 

WISE  MEN  FROM  THE  EAST.       See  MAGI, 

and  STAR. 

WIST,  knew ;  the  past  tense,  from  an 
obsolete  present  wis,  Ex.  16  :  15.  Wot 
and  wotteth,  meaning  know  and  know- 
eth,  Gen.  21  :  26 ;  39  :  8,  and  to  wit, 
meaning  to  know,  Gen.  24  :  21,  are  also 
from  the  same  Saxon  root.  "Do  you 
to  wit,"  2  Cor.  8:1,  means,  make  you 


to  know,  or  inform  you.  "To  wit,"  iu 
2  Cor.  5:19,  means,  that  is  to  say. 

WIT.    See  WIST. 

WITCH  and  WIZ'ARD.  Our  best  ex 
position  of  these  terms  as  found  in  the 
Bible  is  in  the  narrative  of  the  witch  of 
Endor.  She  was  widely  known  as  "  one 
that  had  a  familiar  spirit "  or  an  attend 
ant  demon,  and  was  thereby  professedly 
able  to  summon  departed  souls  from  the 
spirit  world  and  converse  with  them. 
From  this  it  appears  that  the  essential 
character  of  witchcraft  was  a  pretended 
commerce  ivith  demons  and  the  spirits  of  the 
departed.  In  this  respect  it  is  identical 
with  modern  witchcraft  and  with  spirit 
ualism  ;  and  all  the  condemnation  pro 
nounced  against  witchcraft  in  the  Bible 
falls  equally  on  these  and  every  similar 
system  of  professed  commerce  with  ghosts 
and  demons. 

To  this  practice  the  ancient  witches 
and  wizards  joined  the  arts  of  fortune- 
telling  and  divining,  and  a  professed 
knowledge  and  control  of  the  secret 
powers  of  the  elements,  heavenly  bodies, 
etc.  In  order  to  give  color  and  conceal" 
ment  to  their  pretended  commerce  with 
spirits,  they  made  use  of  drugs,  fumiga 
tions,  chemical  arts,  incantations,  and 
every  mysterious  device  to  awe  and  im 
pose  upon  a  superstitious  people.  Their 
unlawful  arts  were  near  akin  to  the  oth 
ers  forbidden  in  Dent.  18 : 10, 11 :  "  There 
shall  not  be  found  among  you  any  one 
that  makcth  his  son  or  his  daughter  to 
pass  through  the  fire,  or  that  useth  divi 
nation,  or  an  observer  of  times,  or  an 
enchanter,  or  a  witch,  or  a  charmer,  or 
a  consulter  with  familiar  spirits,  or  a 
wizard,  or  a  necromancer."  It  would 
appear  from  this  catalogue  that  all  forms 
of  superstition  were  as  prevalent  in  the 
East  in  the  days  of  Moses  as  they  now 
are.  Those  familiar  with  the  Syria  and 
Arabia  of  our  days  inform  us  that  old 
and  young  of  all  sects  universally  be 
lieve  in  the  potency  of  "the  evil  eye," 
of  incantations,  charms,  amulets,  ser« 
pent-charming,  and  exorcism  ;  and  that 
these  superstitions  exert  a  prodigious 
influence  on  oriental  life.  Even  modern 
mesmerism  has  its  counterpart  among 
the  pretended  magic  arts  of  the  East, 
practised,  like  many  other  existing  su 
perstitions,  from  time  immemorial. 

Such  follies  and  knaveries  are  all 
strictly  forbidden  in  the  Bible,  and  many 
of  them  in  the  Jewish  dispensation  were 
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punishable  with  death.  They  are  all 
idolatrous — ignoring  the  only  true  God, 
and  seeking  help  from  foreign  sources. 
They  are  sure  to  prevail  in  proportion  as 
men  lose  a  calm  trust  in  the  Almighty, 
and  an  intelligent  loving  obedience  to 
his  will.  He  that  fears  God  needs  fear 
nothing  else ;  while  he  that,  like  king 
Saul,  departs  from  God,  finds  help  and 
comfort  nowhere.  See  ENDOR,  and  SOR 
CERER. 

WITHE,  Judg.  10:7,  a  band  made  by 
plaiting  together  willow  or  some  other 
pliable  twigs  or  stalks. 

WITNESS,  one  who  testifies  to  any 
fact  from  his  own  personal  knowledge. 
Under  the  Mosaic  law,  two  witnesses 
under  oath  were  necessary  to  convict  a 
person  charged  with  a  capital  crime, 
Num.  35  :  30 ;  and  if  the  criminal  was 
stoned,  the  witnesses  were  bound  to  cast 
the  first  stones,  Deut.  17  :  6,  7  ;  Acts 
7  :  58.  The  Greek  word  for  witness  is 
MARTYR,  which  see.  The  apostles  were 
witnesses,  in  proclaiming  to  the  world 
the  facts  of  the  gospel,  Acts  1  :  8,  22 ; 
2:32;  2  Pet.  1:12,  16-18;  and  Christ  is 
a  "faithful  witness,"  in  testifying  to 
men  of  heavenly  things,  John  3  :  12 ; 
Rev  1:5.  The  heroes  of  the  ancient 
church  are  "witnesses"  to  the  power  of 
true  faith,  Heb.  12:1. 

WOE  is  sometimes  used  in  our  Bibles 
where  a  softer  expression  would  be  at 
least  equally  proper:  "Woe  to  such  a 
one !"  is  in  our  language  a  threat  or  im 
precation  of  some  calamity,  natural  or 
judicial,  to  befall  a  person ;  but  this  is 
not  always  the  meaning  of  the  word  in 
Scripture.  We  find  the  expression,  "Woe 
is  me !"  that  is,  Alas  for  my  sufferings ! 
and,  "Woe  to  the  women  with  child,  and 
those  who  give  suck !"  that  is,  Alas  for 
their  redoubled  sufferings  in  times  of 
distress !  If  in  the  denunciatory  lan 
guage  of  Christ,  we  should  read,  "Alas 
for  thee,  Chorazin  !  Alas  for  thee,  Beth- 
saida!"  we  should  do  no  injustice  to  the 
general  sentiments  of  the  passage. 

Yet  in  many  cases  the  word  woe  is 
used  in  a  fuller  and  more  awful  sense, 
expressing  an  inspired  denunciation  and 
foreshadowing  of  God's  wrath  upon  sin 
ners  ;  as  when  we  read,  ' '  Woe  to  those 
who  build  houses  by  unrighteousness,  and 
cities  by  blood;"  woe  to  those  who  are 
"rebellious  against  God,"  etc.,  in  numer 
ous  passages,  especially  of  the  Old  Testa 
ment,  Hab.  2:6,  9, 12,  15, 19  ;  Zeph.  3:1. 
488 


WOLF,  a  ferocious  wild  animal,  the 
Canis  Lupus  of  Linn;cus,  belonging  to 
the  dog  genus.  Indeed,  it  closely  resem 
bles  the  dog ;  and  it  is  only  by  a  few 
slight  differences  of  shape  that  they  are 
distinguished.  Wolves  never  bark,  but 
only  howl.  They  are  cruel,  but  cow 
ardly  animals;  they  fly  from  man,  ex 
cept  when  impelled  by  hunger ;  in  which 
case  they  prowl  by  night  in  great  droves 
through- villages,  and  destroy  any  per 
sons  they  meet,  Jer.  5:6;  Ezek.  22:27  ; 
Hab.  1:8.  They  are  swift  of  foot,  strong 
enough  to  carry  off  a  sheep  at  full  speed, 
and  an  overmatch  for  ordinary  dogs.  In 
severe  winters,  wolves  assemble  in  large 
troops,  join  in  dreadful  bowlings,  and 
make  terrible  devastations.  They  are 
the  peculiar  object  of  terror  to  shep 
herds,  as  the  defencelessness  and  timid 
ity  of  the  sheep  render  it  an  easy  prey 
to  wolves,  Luke  10  :  3  ;  John  10  :  12. 
So  persecutors  and  false  teachers  have 
been  "grievous  wolves"  to  the  flock  of 
Christ,  Matt.  10  :  16 ;  Acts  20  :  29.  The 
wolf  inhabits  the  continents  of  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  Driven  in 
general  from  the  populous  parts  of  the 
country,  he  is  yet  everywhere  found  in 
large  forests  and  mountainous  regions. 

WOMAN  is  spoken  of  in  Scripture 
as  the  beloved  and  honored  companion 
and  helpmeet,  not  the  servant,  of  man, 
Gen.  2:23,  24,  created  as  the  neces 
sary  completion  of  man,  Gen.  2  : 18 ; 
and  though  subordinate  in  sphere,  Gen. 
3  :  16  ;  1  Cor.  11  :  3,  8,  9  ;  14  :  34,  35  ; 
1  Tim.  2  :  11-14,  yet  specially  qualified 
for  that  sphere,  and  as  necessary  in  it  as 
man  in  his.  Man  and  woman  are  indeed 
essentially  one,  the  natural  qualities  of 
each  so  responding  to  those  of  the  other 
as  to  lay  the  foundation  of  the  most  ten 
der  and  abiding  unity.  The  Bible  thus 


WOR 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


wop 


raised  the  Jewish  woman  high  above  the 
women  of  heathenism  ;  and  the  Old  Tes 
tament  contains  some  of  the  finest  por 
traitures  of  female  character.  But  still 
greater  is  the  contrast  between  the  wom 
en  of  heathenism  and  those  of  Christian 
ity  :  the  former  with  mind  and  soul  un 
developed,  secluded,  degraded,  the  mere 
toys  and  slaves  of  their  husbands ;  the 
latter  educated,  refined,  ennobled,  cheer 
ing  and  blessing  the  world.  Christianity 
forbids  a  man  to  have  more  than  one 
wife,  or  to  divorce  her  for  any  cause  but 
one,  Matt.  5  :  32  ;  19:3-9  ;  declares  that 
bond  and  free,  male  and  female,  are  all 
one  in  Christ,  Gal.  3 :  28 ;  and  that  in 
heaven  they  are  no  more  given  in  mar 
riage,  but  are  as  the  angels  of  God,  Matt. 
22  :  33.  If  woman  was  first  in  the  Fall, 
she  was  honored  in  the  exclusive  par 
entage  of  the  Saviour  of  mankind  ;  and 
women  were  the  truest  friends  of  Christ 
while  on  earth.  The  primal  curse  falls 
•with  heaviest  weight  on  woman ;  but 
the  larger  proportion  of  women  in  our 
churches  may  indicate  that  it  was  the 
purpose  of  God  to  make  his  grace  to 
man  "yet  more  abound"  to  her  who 
\vas  the  first  in  sinning  and  suffering. 

In  the  East,  women  have  always  lived 
in  comparative  seclusion,  not  appearing 
in  public  unless  closely  veiled,  not  min 
gling  in  general  society,  nor  seeing  the 
men  who  visit  their  husbands  and  broth 
ers,  nor  even  taking  their  meals  with  the 
men  of  their  own  family.  Their  seclu 
sion  was  less  in  the  rural  districts  than 
in  towns,  and  among  the  Jews  than 
among  most  other  nations.  They  were 
chiefly  engaged  in  domestic  duties,  Prov. 
31 ;  among  which  were  grinding  flour, 
baking  bread,  making  cloth,  needlework, 
etc.  The  poor  gleaned  the  remnants  of 
the  harvest ;  the  daughters  of  the  patri 
archs  joined  in  tending  their  fathers' 
flocks,  Gen.  29  :  9  ;  Ex.  2  : 16  ;  and  fe 
males  of  all  classes  were  accustomed  to 
draw  water  for  family  use,  bearing  it  in 
earthen  pitchers  on  their  shoulders  often 
for  a  considerable  distance,  Gen.  24  : 15- 
20;  John  7: 28. 

WORD,  one  of  the  titles  of  the  second 
person  of  the  Trinity,  indicating  perhaps 
that  by  his  acts  and  teachings  God  is  re 
vealed,  somewhat  as  thought  is  by  words, 
1  John  1:1;  6:7;  Rev.  19  : 13.  "  The 
word  of  the  Lord ' '  was  a  common  phrase 
in  the  Old  Testament,  always  denoting 
gome  revelation  of  Jehovah.  Long  be- 
21* 


fore  the  coming  of  Christ,  the  Jewish  par- 
aphrasts  of  the  Bible  used  "THE  WORD" 
in  the  passages  where  JEHOVAH  occurred 
in  the  original ;  and  the  term  was  famil 
iar  to  Jewish  writers  as  the  name  of  a 
divine  being,  the  Son  of  God.  To  show 
its  true  meaning  and  "its  application  to 
our  Saviour,  was  of  great  importance  to 
John,  the  last  of  the  inspired  writers,  in 
whose  later  years  certain  errors  as  to  the 
person  of  Christ,  borrowed  from  Eastern 
philosophy,  had  begun  to  creep  into  the 
Christian  church.  He  describes  "THE 
WORD  "  as  a  personal  and  divine  Being, 
self-existent,  and  coexistent  from  eter 
nity  with  the  Father,  yet  distinguished 
from  him  as  THE  SON,  the  creator  of  all 
created  things,  the  source  of  all  life  and 
light  to  men,  and  in  the  fulness  of  time 
incarnate  among  men,  John  1  : 1-3,  14. 
John's  gospel  is  full  and  clear  respecting 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  John  20:31. 

WORLD,  the  earth  on  which  we  dwell, 
1  Sam.  2:8;  its  inhabitants,  John  3:16, 
or  a  large  number  of  them,  John  12  : 19. 
In  several  places  it  is  equivalent  to 
"land,"  meaning  the  Roman  empire,  or 
Judea  and  its  vicinity,  Luke  2:1;  4:3; 
Acts  11  :  28.  It  also  denotes  the  objects 
and  interests  of  time  and  sense,  Gal.  6 : 14 ; 
1  John  2: 15. 

WORM' WOOD,  Lam.  3:15,  an  intense 
ly  bitter  and  poisonous  plant,  a  symbol 
for  whatever  is  nauseous  and  destructive, 
Deut.  29  :  18  ;  Jer.  9  :  15.  The  fruits  of 
vicious  indulgence  are  ' '  bitter  as  worm 
wood,"  Prov.  5:3;  and  injustice  and 
oppression  are  like  wormwood  and  gall, 
Amos  5:7;  6  :  12.  The  Chaldee  para 
phrase  calls  it "  the  wormwood  of  death.' ' 
In  Rev.  8  : 10,  11,  the  star  called  Worm 
wood  seems  to  denote  a  mighty  prince, 
or  power  of  the  air,  the  instrument,  in 
its  fall,  of  sore  judgments  on  large  num 
bers  of  the  wicked.  Compare  Dan.  10:20, 
21;  Isa.  14:12. 

WOR'SHIP  or  GOD,  both  spiritual  and 
visible,  private  and  public,  by  individ 
uals,  families,  and  communities,  is  not 
only  a  self-evident  duty  for  all  who  be 
lieve  in  God,  but  is  abundantly  com 
manded  in  his  word.  See  PRAYER.  The 
stated  assembling  of  all  people  for  united 
worship  on  the  Sabbath,  in  continuance 
of  the  temple  and  synagogue  services 
enjoined  by  God  and  practised  by  Christ, 
is  a  most  manifest  duty.  The  very  name 
church,  meaning  assembly,  implies  it; 
and  the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  the 
489 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZAA 


great  means  for  promoting  Christianity, 
requires  it.  The  directions  of  Paul,  not 
to  forsake  the  "assembling  of  ourselves 
together,"  to  read  his  epistles  "in  all 
the  churches,"  and  to  join  in  "psalms 
and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs,"  and  his 
rules  for  securing  the  highest  spiritual 
edification  of  all  when  they  came  to 
gether  in  the  church,  all  indicate  the 
established  law  of  Christianity. 

"Worship"  is  sometimes  used  of  the 
form  of  homage  paid  by  subjects  to 
kings,  or  of  honor  to  one  held  entitled 
to  it,  Dan.  2  :  46  ;  Luke  14  :  10.  In  the 
East,  this  is  still  often  rendered  by  pros 
trating  the  body  and  touching  the  fore 
head  to  the  ground,  Gen.  33  :  3  ;  Matt. 
18:26. 

"  Will- worship,"  Col.  2  :  23,  is  a  term 
descriptive  of  such  forms  of  adoration 
and  service  as  are  not  prescribed  in  God's 
word,  but  are  offensive  in  his  sight. 
Such  are  the  masses  and  penances  of 
Popery. 

WRIT'ING.     See  BOOK. 


Y. 

YEAR.  The  Hebrews  always  had 
years  of  twelve  months.  But  at  the 
beginning,  as  some  suppose,  they  were 
solar  years  of  twelve  months,  each 
month  having  thirty  days,  excepting 
the  twelfth,  which  had  thirty-five  days. 
We  see,  by  the  enumeration  of  the  days 
of  the  deluge,  Gen.  7  and  8,  that  the 
original  year  consisted  of  three  hundred 
and  sixty-five  days.  It  is  supposed  that 
they  had  an  intercalary  month  at  the 
end  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  years, 
tit  which  time  the  beginning  of  their 
year  would  be  out  of  its  place  full  thir 
ty  days.  Subsequently,  however,  and 
throughout  the  history  of  the  Jews,  the 
year  was  wholly  lunar,  having  alter 
nately  a  full  month  of  thirty  days,  and 
a  defective  month  of  twenty-nine  days, 
thus  completing  their  year  in  three  hun 
dred  and  fifty-four  days.  To  accommo 
date  this  lunar  year  to  the  solar  year, 
{365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  and  47.7 
seconds,)  or  the  period  of  the  revolution 
of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  and  to  the 
return  of  the  seasons,  they  added  a  whole 
month  after  Adar,  usually  once  in  three 
years.  This  intercalary  month  they  call 
Ve-adar.  See  MONTH. 
490 


The  ancient  Hebrews  appear  to  have 
had  no  formal  and  established  era,  but 
to  have  dated  from  the  most  memorable 
events  in  their  history  ;  as  from  the  ex 
odus  out  of  Egypt,  Exod.  19  :  1 ;  Num. 
33 : 38 ;  1  Kin.  6:1;  from  the  erection  of 
Solomon's  temple,  1  Kin.  8:1;  9  :  10 ; 
arid  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  Ezek. 
33:21 ;  40:1.  See  SABBATICAL  YEAR,  and 
JUBILEE. 

The  phrase,  "from  two  years  old  and 
under,"  Matt.  2:  16,  that  is,  "from  a 
child  of  two  years  and  under, ' '  is  thought 
by  some  to  include  all  the  male  children 
who  had  not  entered  their  second  year ; 
and  by  others,  all  who  were  near  the 
beginning  of  their  second  year,  within  a 
few  months  before  or  after.  The  cardi 
nal  and  ordinal  numbers  are  often  used 
indiscriminately.  Thus  in  Gen.  7:6,  11, 
Noah  is  six  hundred  years  old,  and  soon 
after  in  his  six  hundredth  year ;  Christ 
rose  from  the  dead  "three  days  after," 
Matt.  27  :  63,  and  "on  the  third  day," 
Matt.  16  :  21 ;  circumcision  took  place 
when  the  child  was  "eight  days  old," 
Gen.  17  : 11,  and  "on  the  eighth  day," 
Lev.  12:3.  Compare  Luke  1  :  59  ;  2:21. 
Many  slight  discrepances  in  chronology 
may  be  thus  accounted  for. 

YES'TERDAY  and  TO-DAY,  in  Heb. 
13  :  8,  are  used  in  a  general  sense  for 
time  past  and  present.  Christ  is  eter 
nally  the  same.  The  life  and  knowledge 
of  man  are  comparatively  only  ' '  of  yes 
terday,"  Job  8:9. 

YOKE,  a  symbol  of  subjection  and 
servitude,  1  Kin.  12:4;  an  iron  yoke, 
of  severe  oppression,  Deut.  28:48.  The 
ceremonial  law  was  a  yoke,  a  burden 
some  restriction,  Acts  15  :  10  ;  Gal.  5:1. 
The  withdrawing  or  breaking  of  a  yoke 
denoted  a  temporary  or  an  unlimited 
emancipation  from  bondage,  Isa.  58  :  6, 
Jer.  2:20,  and  sometimes  the  disowning 
of  rightful  authority,  Jer.  5  :  5.  The 
iron  yoke  imposed  by  our  sins,  none  but 
God  can  remove,  Lam.  1  :  14 ;  but  the 
yoke  of  Christ's  service  is  easy  and  light, 
Matt.  11:29,  30. 

Z. 

Z  A  AN  AN,  Mic.  1  : 11,  supposed  to  be 
the  same  as  Zenan,  Josh.  15  :  37,  a  town 
in  the  plain  country  of  Judah. 

ZAANAN'NIM,  Josh.  19  :  33,  a  town 
in  the  north  of  Naphtali,  near  Kedesh 


ZAB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


2A.Il 


and  the  foot  of  Anti- Lebanon,  Judg. 
4:11. 

ZA'BAD,  the  name  of  four  persons, 
IChr.  2:36;  7:21;  2  Chr.  24:26;  Ezra 
10 : 27. 

ZA'BUD,  a  son  of  Nathan  the  prophet, 
the  confidential  friend  and  adviser  of 
king  Solomon,  probably  having  shared 
with  him  the  instructions  of  the  vener 
able  prophet,  1  Kin.  4:5. 

ZACCHE'US,  just,  from  the  Hebrew 
Zaccai,  Neh.  7 : 14,  a  worthy  tax-gatherer 
at  Jericho,  who  in  order  to  see  Christ 
took  a  position  in  a  sycamore-tree,  by 
which  He  was  about  to  pass.  The  Sav 
iour  drawing  near  and  knowing  his 
heart,  called  him  to  come  down,  and 
proposed  to  become  his  guest.  As  he 
held  office  under  the  llomans,  he  was 
called  ' '  a  sinner ' '  by  the  Jews,  Luke 
19  :  1-10.  He  showed  sincere  penitence 
and  faith  in  the  Saviour,  who  in  turn 
promised  him  salvation  as  a  child  of 
Abraham  by  faith,  Gal.  3  :  7,  as  he  also 
seems  to  have  been  by  birth.  The 
"house  of  Zaccheus"  now  shown  on 
tho  plain  of  Jericho  is  probably  the 
remnant  of  a  fort  built  in  the  tenth  cen 
tury,  or  even  more  recently. 

ZACHAPJ'AH  king  of  Israel  succeeded 
his  father  Jeroboam  II.,  773  B.  c.,  and 
reigned  six  months.  He  did  evil  in  the 
sight  of  the  Lord,  and  Shallum  son  of 
Jabesh  conspired  tigainst  him,  killed  him 
in  public,  and  reigned  in  his  stead.  Thus 
was  fulfilled  what  the  Lord  had  foretold 
to  Jehu,  that  his  children  should  sit  on 
the  throne  of  Israel  to  the  fourth  gen 
eration,  2  Kin.  14:i9;  15:8-11. 

ZACHARI'AS,  I.,  a  person  mentioned 
in  Matt.  23  : 35,  Luke  11  :  51,  and  most 
probably  designating  the  son  of  the  high- 
priest  Jehoida,  or  Barachias,  who  was 
stoned  to  death  by  order  of  king  Joash 
for  publicly  rebuking  the  king,  his  court, 
and  the  people  for  then,  growing  corrup 
tions,  2  Chr.  24  :  20-22.  Some  suppose 
the  prophet  Zechariah  to  be  intended ; 
but  history  gives  no  account  of  his  death. 
Others  refer  it  to  a  Zacharias  the  son  of 
Baruch,  who  was  put  to  death  just  be 
fore  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  but 
it  seems  unnatural  and  unnecessary  to 
suppose  that  Christ  here  spoke  prophet 
ically. 

II.  A  priest  belonging  to  the  eighth 
course  or  class,  called  that  of  Abia,  1  Chr. 
24,  the  husband  of  Elisabeth,  and  father 
of  John  the  Baptist.  His  residence,  when 


not  on  duty,  was  in  the  hill -country 
south  of  Jerusalem.  He  is  known  to  us 
by  his  pious  and  blameless  life  ;  his  vis 
ion  of  Gabriel  in  the  temple,  promising 
him  a  son  in  his  old  age  ;  his  hesitancy 
in  believing,  for  which  he  was  visited  by 
a  temporary  dumbness ;  his  miraculous 
restoration  at  the  circumcision  of  his 
son ;  and  his  noble  and  prophetic  song 
of  praise,  Luke  1:5-25,  57-79. 

ZA'DOK,  the  son  of  Ahitub,  and  father 
of  Ahimaaz,  high-priest  of  the  Jews  in 
the  reigns  of  Saul  and  David.  See  ABIA- 

THAR. 

Others  of  this  name  are  mentioned  in 
2  Kin.  15  :  33  ;  1  Chr.  G  :  12  ;  Ezra  7:2; 
Neh.  3:4;  13:13. 

ZAL'MON,  or  SALMON,  Hebrew  Tzal- 
mon,  a  height  in  Samaria  near  Shechem, 
Judg.  9  :  48,  perhaps  a  part  of  mount 
Ebal ;  apparently  the  same  that  in  Psa. 
68:14  is  spoken  of  as  covered  with  new- 
fallen  snow. 

ZALMUN'NA  and  ZE'BAII,  Midiariit- 
ish  kings,  defeated  and  slain  by  Gideon, 
Judg.  8:5. 

ZAMZUM'MIM,  a  race  of  giants  east 
of  the  Jordan,  defeated  by  Chedorlao- 
mer,  Gen.  14 : 5,  and  exterminated  by 
the  Ammonites,  who  possessed  their  ter 
ritory  until  themselves  subdued  by  Mo 
ses,  Deut.  2:20,  21.  See  AMMONITES,  and 
ZUZIM. 

ZANO'AH,  the  name  of  two  towns  in 
Judah,  Josh.  15  :  34,  56.  The  inhabit 
ants  of  one  of  them  aided  in  rebuilding 
Jerusalem,  Neh.  3:13;  11:30. 

ZAPH'NATH-PAANE'AH,  saviour  of 
the  world,  an  Egyptian  name  given  by 
Pharaoh  to  Joseph,  in  commemoration 
of  the  salvation  wrought  through  him, 
Gen.  41:45. 

ZA'RED.     See  ZERED. 

ZAR'EPHATH,  Obad.  20,  a  Phoenician 
seaport  on  the  Mediterranean  between 
Tyre  and  Zidon,  usually  subject  to  Tyre. 
During  a  famine  in  Israel,  the  prophet 
Elijah  resided  here,  with  a  widow  whose 
cruse  of  oil  and  barrel  of  flour  were  sup 
plied  and  whose  child  was  restored  to 
life  by  miracle.  Her  noble  faith  in  God 
is  worthy  of  everlasting  remembrance ; 
and  her  generous  self-forgetfulncss,  of 
universal  imitation,  1  Kings  17  :  9-24. 
The  place  was  afterwards  called  by  the 
Greeks  Sarepta,  Luke  4  :  26,  and  is  now 
known  as  Sarafend,  a  large  village  on 
the  hills  adjoining1  the  seacoast. 

ZAR'ETAN,  called  also  Zartanah  and 
491 


ZEB 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZED 


Zarthan,  1  Kin.  4  : 12  ;  7:  46  ;  a  town  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Jordan,  near  Betli- 
shean  and  north  of  Succoth.  The  reflux 
of  the  Jordan  at  the  crossing  of  the  Is 
raelites  was  marked  as  far  north  as  Zare- 
tan,  Josh.  3:16.  See  ZEIIEDA. 

ZEB'EDEE,  the  husband  of  Salome, 
and  father  of  James  and  John  the  apos 
tles.  He  was  a  fisherman  in  comfortable 
circumstances,  on  the  Avest  shore  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee,  and  readily  spared  his  two 
sons  at  the  call  of  the  Saviour,  Mark 
1:19,  20.  His  wife  also  attended  Christ, 
and  ministered  to  him  of  her  substance. 
See  SALOME.  His  son  John  was  person 
ally  known  to  the  high-priest,  and  was 
charged  by  the  dying  Saviour  with  the 
care  of  His  mother,  John  18  :  15,  16 ; 
19  :  26. 

ZEBO'IM,  I.,  one  of  the  four  royal  cit 
ies  in  the  vale  of  Siddim,  destroyed  by 
fire  from  heaven.  See  SODOM.  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  mention  a  town  by  this  name 
in  their  day,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
Dead  sea. 

II.  A  valley  and  town  of  the  Benja- 
mites,  east  of  Michmash,  1  Sam.  13  : 18  ; 
Neh.  11:34.  ' 

ZE'BUL,.  a  governor  of  the  city  of 
Shechem,  who  labored  adroitly  to  pre 
serve  the  city  for  Abimelech  his  master, 
the  son  of  Gideon,  Judg.  9. 

ZEB'ULUN,  I.,  or  ZABULON,  Eev.  7:8, 
the  sixth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  born  in 
Mesopotamia,  Gen.  30  :  20.  Moses  gives 
us  few  particulars  respecting  him.  His 
tribe  was  respectable  for  numbers,  Num. 
1  :  30 ;  26  :  26  ;  and  its  portion  in  the 
Holy  Land  accorded  with  the  prediction 
of  Jacob,  Gen.  49  :  13,  extending  from 
the  Mediterranean  sea  at  Carmel  to  the 
sea  of  Gennesaret,  between  Issachar  on 
the  south,  and  Naphtali  and  Asher  on 
the  north  and  north-west,  Josh.  19  : 10. 
His  posterity  are  often  mentioned  in  con 
nection  with  Issachar,  his  nearest  broth 
er,  Deut.  33  :  18.  They  were  entangled 
with  the  Phoenicians  on  the  west,  Judg. 
1:30,  Isa.  8  :  23,  and  took  part  with  Ba 
rak  and  Gideon  in  the  defence  of  the 
country  against  its  oppressors,  Judg. 
4  :  10  ;  5  : 18  ;  6  :  35.  Elon,  one  of  the 

1'udges  of  Israel,  was  a  Zebulunite,  Judg. 
2: 11, 12.  The  inhabitants  of  this  region 
in  the  time  of  Christ  were  highly  favored 
by  his  instructions — Nazareth  and  Cana, 
Capernaum,  Magdala,  and  Tiberias  being 
all  in  these  limits. 

II.  A  city  in  the  border  of  Asher,  but 
492 


probably  belonging  to  Zebulun,  Josh= 
19:27. 

ZECHARIAH,  I.,  son  of  Berechiah, 
and  grandson  of  Iddo  the  priest ;  called 
the  son  of  Iddo  in  Ezra  5:1;  6  : 14,  and 
his  successor  in  the  priesthood,  Neh. 
12:4,  16,  perhaps  because  Berechiah  was 
then  dead. ?  Zechariah  is  the  eleventh  of 
the  minor  prophets.  He  returned  from 
Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  and  began  to 
prophesy  while  yet  yoimg,  Zech.  2:4,  in 
the  second  year  of  Darius  son  of  Hystas- 
pes,  B.  c.  520,  in  the  eighth  month  of 
the  holy  year,  and  two  months  after 
Haggai.  These  two  prophets,  with  unit 
ed  zeal,  encouraged  the  people  to  resume 
the  work  of  the  temple,  which  had  been 
discontinued  for  some  years,  Ezra  5:1. 

Zechariah' s  prophecies  concerning  the 
Messiah  are  more  particular  and  ex 
press  than  those  of  most  other  prophets, 
and  many  of  them,  like  those  of  Dan 
iel,  are  couched  in  symbols.  The  book 
opens  with  a  brief  introduction ;  after 
which  six  chapters  contain  a  series  of 
visions,  setting  forth  the  fitness  of  that 
time  for  the  promised  restoration  of  Is 
rael,  the  destruction  of  the  enemies  of 
God's  people,  the  conversion  of  heathen 
nations,  the  advent  of  Messiah  the 
Branch,  the  outpouring  and  blessed  in 
fluences  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  im 
portance  and  safety  of  faithfully  adher 
ing  to  the  service  of  their  covenant  God. 
Chapter  7  relates  to  commemorative  ob 
servances.  Chapters  9-11  predict  the 
prosperity  of  Judah  during  the  times  of 
the  Maccabees,  together  with  the  fate  of 
Persia  and  other  adjacent  kingdoms. 
The  remaining  three  chapters  describe 
the  future  destiny  of  the  Jews,  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem,  the  triumphs  of  Messiah, 
and  the  glories  of  the  latter  day  when 
' '  Holiness  to  the  Lord ' '  shall  be  inscrib 
ed  on  all  things. 

II.  A  wise  and  faithful  prophetic  coun 
sellor  of  king  Uzziah,  whose  death  was 
the  beginning  of  calamities  to  Judah, 
2  Chr.  26  :  5,  16,  perhaps  the  same  who 
was  the  father-in-law  of  Ahaz,  2  Chr. 
28:27;  29:1. 

III.  A  son  of  Jeberechiah,  associated 
with  Urijah  the  high-priest  by  Isaiah  as 
a  "faithful  witness,"  Isa.  8:1;  2  Chr. 
29:13. 

.   IV.  A  son  of  Jehoiada.      See  ZACIIA- 

RIAS  I. 

ZEDEKIAH,  I.,  the  twentieth  and 
last  king  of  Judah,  son  of  Josiah  and 


ZEL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZEP 


Hamutal,  and  uncle  to  Jeconiah  his 
predecessor,  2  Kin.  24:17, 19  ;  Jer.  52:1. 
When  Nebuchadnezzar  took  Jerusalem, 
he  carried  Jeconiah  to  Babylon,  with  his 
wives,  children,  officers,  and  the  best 
artificers  in  Judea,  and  put  in  his  place 
his  uncle  Mattaniah,  whose  name  he 
changed  to  Zedekiah,  and  made  him 
promise  with  an  oath  that  he  would 
maintain  fidelity  to  him.  He  was  twen 
ty-one  years  old  when  he  began  to  reign 
at  Jerusalem,  and  he  reigned  there  elev 
en  years.  He  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord,  committing  the  same  crimes  as 
Jehoiakim,  2  Kin.  24  : 18-20  ;  2  Chron. 
36 : 11-13.  Compare  Jer.  29 : 16-19  ;  34 ; 
38:5;  Ezck.  17:12,  14,  18.  In  the  ninth 
year  of  his  reign,  he  revolted  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  trusting  to  the  support 
of  Pharaoh-hophra  king  of  Egypt,  which 
proved  ineffectual,  and  despising  the 
faithful  remonstrances  of  Jeremiah,  Jer. 
37  :  2,  5,  7-10.  In  consequence  of  this 
the  Assyrian  marched  his  army  into  Ju 
dea,  and  took  all  the  fortified  places.  In 
the  eleventh  year  of  his  reign,  on  the 
ninth  day  of  the  fourth  month,  (July,) 
Jerusalem  was  taken,  588  B.  c.  The  king 
and  his  people  endeavored  to  escape  by 
favor  of  the  night;  but  the  Chaldean 
troops  pursuing  them,  they  were  over 
taken  in  the  plain  of  Jericho.  Zedekiah 
was  taken  and  carried  to  Nebuchadnez 
zar,  then  at  Riblah,  in  Syria,  who  re 
proached  him  with  his  perfidy,  caused 
his  children  to  be  slain  before  his  face, 
and  his  own  eyes  to  be  put  out ;  and 
then  loading  him  with  chains  of  brass, 
he  ordered  him  to  be  sent  to  Babylon, 
2  Kin.  25  ;  Jer.  39  ;  52  ;  Ezek.  19.  All 
these  events  remarkably  fulfilled  the 
predictions  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  in 
the  chapters  previously  referred  to. 
Compare  also,  with  respect  to  Zedeki 
ah 's  blindness,  Jer.  34:3;  Ezek.  12:13. 

II.  A  false  prophet,  exposed  by  Mica- 
iah  when  urging  Ahab  to  fight  with  the 
Syrians,  1  Kin.  22  :  11-37.      His  fate  is 
foreshadowed  in  ver.  25. 

III.  Another  false  prophet,  denounced 
by  Jeremiah,  Jer.  29:21,  22. 

ZELOPH'EHAD,  a  descendant  of  Jo 
seph,  whose  death  in  the  wilderness, 
leaving  five  daughters  and  no  sons,  led 
to  the  establishment  of  a  law  that  in 
such  cases  daughters  should  inherit  the 
patrimony  of  their  father  ;  but  they  were 
not  to  marry  out  of  their  tribe,  Num. 
26:33;  27:1-11;  Josh.  17:3,4. 


ZELO'TES,  a  zealot;  in  general,  one 
passionately  and  fanatically  ardent  in 
any  cause.  After  the  time  of  Christ, 
the  name  Zelota?  was  commonly  applied 
to  an  association  of  private  individuals 
who  without  authority  or  law  sought  to 
enforce  their  own  views  of  the  law.  In 
their  opinion  it  was  a  high  crime  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  Romans,  and  rebellion  was 
the  duty  of  every  patriotic  Jew.  Begin 
ning  with  moderation,  they  became  more 
and  more  violent ;  and  during  the  Roman 
war  and  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus, 
their  excesses  and  crimes  under  the  pre 
text  of  zeal  for  the  Lord  are  described  by 
Josephus  as  truly  appalling ;  so  that  they 
acquired  the  appropriate  name  of  Sicarii, 
or  assassins.  As  the  germ  of  this  body 
seems  to  have  existed  in  our  Lord's  day, 
some  suppose  that  the  apostle  Simon  Ze- 
lotes  was  so  called  from  his  having  once 
belonged  to  it.  The  name  Canaanite,  or 
more  properly  Cananite,  from  the  He 
brew  kana,  has  the  same  meaning  with 
Zelotes,  Matt.  10:4;  Mark  3:18.  Little 
moi'e  is  known  respecting  Simon. 

ZE'NAS,  a  pious  lawyer,  and  a  friend 
of  Paul,  who,  writing  from  Nicopolis 
during  the  last  year  of  his  life,  com 
mends  him  and  Apollos,  then  at  Crete 
on  a  journey,  to  the  kind  offices  of  Titus, 
Tit.  3 :  13.  His  name  is  Greek,  and  his 
profession  may  have  been  Greek  civil 
law,  rather  than  Jewish  law. 

ZEPHANI'AH,  I.,  a  Kohathite,  in  the 
seventh  generation  from  Levi,  1  Chron. 
6:36. 

II.  A  priest,  high  in  the  sacred  order, 
during  the  troublous  times  of  king  Zed 
ekiah,   who  often  communicated  with 
Jeremiah  by  his  agency.   He  was  among 
the  captives  slain  by  the  king  of  Babylon 
at  Riblah,  2  Kin.  25  :  18-21 ;  Jer.  21  :  1 ; 
29:25,  29;  37:3;  52:24-27. 

III.  The  ninth  in  order  of  the  minor 
prophets,  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon.      He 
prophesied  in  the  early  part  of  king  Jo- 
siah's  reign,  before  the  reforms  of  that 
good  king  were  instituted,  2  Chr.  34  :  3 ; 
Zeph.  1  :  4,  5.     This  would  fix  his  date 
about  630  B.  c.,  and  the  destruction  of 
Nineveh,  foretold  in  Zeph.  2: 13,  occur 
red  in  625  B.  c.     His  prophecy  contains 
two  oracles,  in  three  chapters,  directed 
against  idolaters  in  Judah,  against  sur 
rounding  idolatrous  nations,  and  against 
wicked  rulers,  priests,  and  prophets.     It 
closes  with  cheering  promises  of  gospel 
blessings.      His  style  and  manner  are 

493 


ZEP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZIK 


like  those  of  Jeremiah,  during  whose 
early  years  they  were  contemporary.  His 
subsequent  history  is  unknown. 

ZEPHATH,  a  Canaanitish  city  after 
wards  called  Hormah,  one  of  the  "utter 
most  cities  of  Judah  southwards,"  after 
wards  assigned  to  Simeon,  Josh.  12  :  14  ; 
15:30 ;  19  :  4.  The  name  is  supposed  to 
be  traceable  in  Sufah,  a  long  and  rough 
pass  leading  from  the  south  up  into  the 
mountains  of  Judah.  It  was  at  Zephath 
that  the  Israelites  were  repulsed  in  at 
tempting  to  ascend  from  Kadcsh,  Num. 
14  :  40-45  ;  21 :  3  ;  Deut.  1  :  44  ;  Judg. 
1:17. 

ZEPHATHAH,  a  valley  near  Mare- 
shah,  south-west  of  Jerusalem,  where 
Asa  defeated  Zerah  the  Cushite,  2  Chr. 
14 : 10. 

ZE'RAH,  I.,  the  son  of  Reuel,  and 
grandson  of  Esau,  Geu.  30:13,  17. 

II.  Son  of  Judah   and  Tamar,   Gen. 
38:30  ;  called  Zara  in  Matt.  1:3. 

III.  Son  of  Simeon,  and  founder  of  the 
Zarhites,  Num.  26  :  13 ;  called  Zohar  in 
Gen.  40:10. 

IV.  A  Cushite  king  who  invaded  Ju 
dah  with  an  immense  army  in  the  reign 
of  Asa,  2  Chr.  14:0-13.    It  is  not  agreed 
by  interpreters  whether  he  came  from 
Southern   Arabia    or    from    Egypt   and 
Ethiopia.    Many,  however,  follow  Cham- 
pollion,  who  identifies  him  with  Osor- 
chon  and  Osoroth  of  the  Egyptian  monu 
ments  and  history,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Shishak. 

ZE'IIED,  or  ZARED,  a  brook,  or  the  val 
ley  through  which  it  flows  into  the  south 
east  part  of  the  Dead  sea,  probably  by 
Kir  Moab,  now  Kerak,  Num.  21 :  12 ; 
Deut.  2:13,  14. 

ZEIIE'DA,  or  ZERED'ATIIAII,  a  city  of 
Manasseh,  near  Beth-shean,  1  Kings 
11:26  ;  2  Chr.  4:17  ;  supposed  to  be  the 
same  with  Zere'rath,  Judg.  7  :  22,  and 
perhaps  ZARETA.N. 

ZE'llESH,  the  wife  of  Haman,  haughty 
and  revengeful  like  him,  and  destined  to 
see  him  and  her  ten  sons  hanging  on  the 
gallows  she  had  designed  for  Mordecai 
the  servant  of  God,  Esth.  5: 10-14 ;  6:13 ; 
7:10;  9:13. 

ZERUB'BABEL,  or  ZOROB'ABEL,  son  of 
Salathiel,  of  the  royal  race  of  David, 
called  "  Sheshbazzar  the  prince  of  Ju 
dah"  in  Ezra  1  :  8.  Zerubbabel,  as  his 
name  imports,  was  born  in  Babylon,  and 
was  the  leader  of  the  first  colony  of  Jews 
which  returned  from  the  Babylonish  cap- 
494 


tivity,  536  B.  c.  Cyrus  committed  to  his 
care  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple, 
with  which  he  returned  to  Jerusalem, 
Ezra  1  :  11.  He  is  always  named  first, 
as  being  chief  of  the  Jews  that  returned 
to  their  own  country,  Ezra  2:2;  3:8; 
5:2;  Hag.  1:1;  2:1-9,  21-23.  He  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  temple,  Ezra  3 : 8, 
9,  Zech.  4  :  9,  and  restored  the  worship 
of  the  Lord,  and  the  usual  sacrifices. 
When  the  Samaritans  offered  to  assist  in 
rebuilding  the  temple,  Zerubbabel  and 
the  principal  men  of  Judah  refused  them 
this  honor,  since  Cyrus  had  granted  his 
commission  to  the  Jews  only,  Ezra  4  :  2, 
3.  They  procured  from  the  Persian  court 
an  order  that  the  work  should  cease ; 
and  it  was  not  resumed  until  the  second 
year  of  Darius  son  of  Hystaspes,  521  B.  c. 
We  know  nothing  further  of  his  history, 
except  that  from  him  both  Joseph  and 
Mary  descended,  Matt.  1 : 13  ;  Luke  3 : 27- 

ZERUI'AH,  sister  of  David,  and  moth 
er  of  his  famous  generals,  Joab,  Abishai, 
and  Asahel,  1  Chr.  2  :  16.  Her  husband, 
is  unknown. 

ZI'BA,  a  rich  steward  of  Saul,  whom 
David  charged  with  similar  duties  tow 
ards  Mephibosheth,  son  of  Jonathan, 
2  Sam.  9  :  2-10.  By  a  false  representa 
tion  David  was  induced  to  transfer  to 
Ziba  the  lands  he  had  given  to  Mephib 
osheth,  but  afterwards  divided  them  be 
tween  the  two,  being  convinced  that  he 
had  acted  hastily,  and  unable  to  decide 
with  certainty  for  either,  2  Sani.  16:1-4; 
19:24-30. 

ZICH'RI,  a  valiant  Ephraimite  prince, 
general  of  Pekah  king  of  Israel  in  the 
war  with  Ahaz,  2  Chr.  28:7.  He  is  per 
haps  the  man  called  "  Tabeal's  son,"  Isa. 
8:6,  whom  Ilezin  and  Pekah  proposed  to 
make  king  of  Judah. 

ZI'DON.  See  SIDON.  The  word  Zido- 
nians  often  includes  all  the  Phoenicians, 
as  well  as  the  inhabitants  of  Zidon. 

ZIF,  the  second  month  of  the  Hebrew 
year,  also  called  lyar,  and  nearly  corre 
sponding  to  our  May,  1  Kin.  6:1. 

ZIK'LAG,  a  city  of  Judah  and  Simeon, 
on  the  borders  of  the  Philistines,  Josh. 
15:31 ;  19:5,  who  held  it  until  the  time 
of  Saul,  when  Achish  king  of  Gath  gave 
it  to  David.  Hither  many  other  refu 
gees  from  Judah  resorted,  and  David 
was  thus  enabled  to  aid  Achish,  and  to 
chastise  the  Amalekites  who  had  sacked 
Ziklag  during  his  absence,  1  Sam.  27 : 1- 
6;  30;  Neh.  11:28. 


ZIL 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZIO 


ZIL'LAH,  Gen.  4:19.     See  LAMECII. 

ZIL'PAH,  the  maid  of  Leah,  who  be 
came  the  secondary  wife  of  Jacob,  and 
the  mother  of  Gad  and  Asher,  Gen. 
29:24;  30:9-13. 

ZIM'EI,  I.,  a  prince  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon,  slain  by  Phinehas  for  his  heav 
en-daring  crime  on  the  plains  of  Moab, 
Num:  25:14. 

II.  A  general  of  half  the  cavalry  of 
Elah  king  of  Israel.  He  rebelled  against 
his  master,  killed  him,  and  usurped  his 
kingdom.  He  cut  off  the  whole  fam 
ily,  not  sparing  any  of  his  relations  or 
friends ;  whereby  was  fulfilled  the  word 
of  the  Lord  denounced  to  Baasha  the  fa 
ther  of  Elah,  by  the  prophet  Jehu.  Zim- 
ri  reigned  but  seven  days  ;  for  the  army 
of  Israel,  then  besieging  Gibbethon,  a 


city  of  the  Philistines,  made  their  gen 
eral,  Omri,  king,  and  came  and  besieged 
Zimri  in  the  city  of  Tirzah.  Zimri,  see 
ing  the  city  on  the  point  of  being  taken, 
burned  himself  in  the  palace  with  all  its 
riches,  1  Kin.  16:1-20;  2  Kin.  9:31. 

III.  Others  of  this  name  are  mentioned 
inlChr.  2:6;  8:33-36. 

ZIN,  a  desert  on  the  south  border  of 
Canaan,  and  the  west  of  Edom,  Num. 
34 : 1-4.  It  formed  part  of  the  great  wil 
derness  of  Paran,  Num.  13  :  26  ;  and  in 
its  north-east  corner  was  Kadesh-barnea, 
memorable  for  the  death  of  Miriam,  the 
mission  of  the  twelve  spies  into  Canaan, 
the  murmuring  of  the  Israelites,  the  rock 
flowing  with  water,  and  the  unholy  pas 
sion  of  Moses,  Num.  13  :  21 ;  20 : 1-13  ; 
27:14. 


MOUNT    ZION;    WITH   THE    MOSQUE    OF    DAVID,    PART    OF    THE    SOUTH   WALL    OF    THE    CITY,    AND   THE 

VALLEY  OF  HINNOM. 


ZI'ON,  or  SIGN  in  the  New  Testament, 
the  highest  and  southernmost  mount  of 
Jerusalem,  rising  about  twenty-live  hun 
dred  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  and 
from  two  to  three  hundred  feet  above 
the  valleys  at  its  base.  It  was  separated 
from  Akra  on  the  north  and  Moriah  on 
the  north-west  by  the  valley  Tyropoeon  ; 
and  had  the  valley  of  Gihoii  on  the  west, 
495 


that  of  Hinnom  on  the  south,  and  that 
of  the  Kidron  on  the  south-east.  It  was 
a  fortified  town  of  the  Jebusites  till  sub 
dued  by  David,  and  thenceforward  was 
often  called  "the  city  of  David,"  2  Sam. 
5:7;  1  Kin.  8:1.  He  seems  to  have 
greatly  delighted  in  its  beauty  and 
strength,  and  to  have  loved  it  as  a  type 
of  the  church  of  the  Messiah  :  "  Beauti- 


ZIP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZOH 


ful  for  situation,  the  joy  of  the  whole 
earth,  is  mount  Zion,  on  the  sides  of 
the  north,  the  city  of  the  great  King." 
"Walk  about  Zion,  and  go  round  about 
her ;  tell  the  towers  thereof ;  mark  ye 
well  her  bulwarks  ;  consider  her  palaces, 
that  ye  may  tell  it  to  the  generation  fol 
lowing  : "  "  The  kings  were  assembled, 
they  passed  by  together ;  they  saw  it, 
and  so  they  marvelled ;  they  were  troub 
led,  and  hasted  away,"  Psa.  48:2, 12, 13. 
A  mosque  near  its  southern  brow  now 
covers  the  "tomb  of  David"  so  called, 
most  jealously  guarded  by  the  Moham 
medans,  1  Kin.  2  :  10 ;  1 1  :  43  ;  22  :  50. 
This  mount,  together  with  Moriah  and 
Ophel,  was  enclosed  by  the  first  wall, 
and  fortified  by  citadels,  1  Chr.  11  :  5. 
Upon  it  were  erected  the  magnificent 
palaces  of  Solomon  and  long  afterwards 
of  Herod.  It  was  finely  adapted  for  the 
purposes  of  military  defence,  and  so 
strongly  was  it  fortified  at  the  time  of 
its  capture  by  the  Eomans,  that  the  em 
peror  exclaimed,  "  Surely  we  have  had 
God  for  our  aid  in  the  war ;  for  what 
could  human  hands  or  machines  do. 
against  these  towers?"  Great  changes 
have  occurred  on  its  surface,  and  a  con 
siderable  portion  of  it  lies  outside  of  the 
modern  wall  on  the  south,  and  is  occu 
pied  by  cemeteries,  or  "ploughed  as  a 
field,"  according  to  Jer.  26  :  18  ;  Micah 
3  : 12.  Two  rabbis,  we  are  told,  ap 
proaching  Jerusalem,  observed  a  fox 
running  upon  the  hill  of  Zion,  and  Rab- 
bi  Joshua  wept,  but  Rabbi  Eliczer  laugh 
ed.  "  Wherefore  dost  thou  laugh  ?"  said 
he  who  wept.  ' '  Nay,  wherefore  dost 
thou  weep?"  demanded  Eliezer.  "I 
weep,"  replied  the  Rabbi  Joshua,  "be 
cause  I  see  what  is  written  in  the  Lam 
entations  fulfilled  ;  because  of  the  mount 
of  Zion,  which  is  desolate,  the  foxes  walk 
upon  it."  "And  therefore,"  said  Rabbi 
Eliezer,  "do  I  laugh;  for  when  I  see 
with  my  own  eyes  that  God  has  fulfilled 
his  threatenings  to  the  very  letter,  I  have 
thereby  a  pledge  that  not  one  of  his 
promises  shall  fail ;  for  He  is  ever  more 
ready  to  show  mercy  than  judgment." 

"Zion,"  and  "the  daughter  of  Zion," 
are  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  whole 
city,  including  especially  Moriah  and  the 
temple,  Psa.  2:6;  9:11;  74:2;  Isa.  1:8; 
Joel  2  : 23,  and  sometimes  figuratively 
for  the  seat  of  the  true  church  on  earth 
and  in  heaven,  Jer.  8  : 19  ;  Heb.  12  : 22 ; 
Rev.  14:1.  See  JERUSALEM. 
496 


ZIPH,  a  city  of  Judah,  four  miles 
south-east  of  Hebron  ;  near  it  \vere  wild 
fastnesses  in  which  David  for  a  long  time 
lay  hid,  1  Sam.  23:14,  15. 

ZIPPORAH,  daughter  of  Jethro,  wife 
of  Moses,  and  mother  of  Eliezer  and  Ger- 
shom.  When  Moses  fled  from  Egypt  into 
Midian,  and  there  stood  up  in  defence  of 
the  daughters  of  Jethro,  priest  or  prince 
of  Midian,  against  shepherds  who  would 
have  hindered  them  from  watering  their 
flocks,  Jethro  took  him  into  his  house, 
and  gave  him  his  daughter  Zipporah  in 
marriage,  Ex.  2:15-22;  4:25;  18:2-4. 

ZIZ,  THE  CLIFF  OF,  the  pass  near  Enge- 
di,  by  which  the  Moabites  and  Ammon 
ites  ascended  from  the  shore  of  the  Dead 
sea,  having  followed  the  southern  and 
western  coast  to  this  point,  2  Chr.  20:16. 
The  same  route  is  still  traversed  by  the 
Arabs. 

ZO'AN,  a  very  ancient  city  of  Lower 
Egypt,  Num.  13  :  22,  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Tanitic  arm  of  the  Nile,  and  called 
by  the  Greeks  Tanis,  now  San.  It  was 
a  royal  city,  Isa.  19  :  11,  13  ;  30  :  4,  and 
gave  its  name  to  the  level  country 
around  it,  in  wrhich  were  wrought  the 
first  mighty  works  of  God  by  Moses,  Psa. 
78: 12,  43.  Vast  heaps  of  ruined  temples, 
obelisks,  sphinxes,  etc.,  attest  the  an 
cient  grandeur  of  this  city,  and  its  ruin 
according  to  prophecy,  Ezek.  30:14. 

ZOAR,  a  city  on  the  south-east  side 
of  the  Dead  sea,  was  destined,  with  the 
other  four  cities,  to  be  consumed  by  fire 
from  heaven ;  but  at  the  intercession  of 
Lot  it  was  preserved,  Gen.  14:2;  19:20- 
23,  30.  It  was  originally  called  Bela ; 
but  after  Lot  entreated  the  angel's  per 
mission  to  take  refuge  in  it,  and  insisted 
on  the  smallness  of  this  city,  it  had  the 
name  Zoar,  which  signifies  small. 

ZO'BAH,  a  country  of  Syria,  whose 
king  carried  on  war  with  Saul  and  Da 
vid,  1  Sam.  14  :  47  ;  2  Sam.  8:3;  10  : 6. 
It  seems  to  have  lain  near  Damascus, 
and  to  have  included  the  city  Hamath 
conquered  by  Solomon,  2  Chr.  8  :  3,  but 
also  to  have  extended  towards  the  Eu 
phrates,  2  Sam.  8:3. 

ZO'HAR,  a  Hittite,  Gen.  23  :  8.  Also 
a  son  of  Simeon,  Gen.  38  :  30,  and  a  de 
scendant  of  Judah,  1  Chr.  4:7. 

ZO'HELETH,  a  large  rock  near  the 
well  En-rogel,  in  the  valley  adjoining 
Jerusalem  on  the  south-east,  where  the 
adherents  of  Adonijah  assembled  in  re 
bellion,  IKin.  1:9. 


ZOP 


BIBLE  DICTIONARY. 


ZUZ 


ZO'PHAR,  one  of  Job's  three  friends, 
a  native  of  some  unknown  place  called 
Naamah.  He  appears  but  twice  in  the 
dialogue,  once  less  than  his  two  associ 
ates,  whose  general  sentiments  he  shares, 
with  perhaps  more  severity  of  judgment 
against  Job,  Job  2:11 ;  11 ;  20. 

ZO'RAH,  a  city  of  Danites  within  the 
limits  of  Judah,  2  Chr.  11 : 12,  called  also 
Zoreah,  Josh.  15  :  33  ;  19  :  40.  Samson, 
was  a  Zorite,  or  Zorathite,  Judg.  13  :  2, 
25 ;  1  Chr.  2:54  ;  4:2.  It  is  now  recog 
nized  in  a  secluded  mountain  village 
called  Surah,  on  the  edge  of  the  hills 
north  of  Beth-shemesh.  The  road  fol 
lowed  by  Samson  in  going  to  Timnath 
leads  down  through  rocky  gorges,  very 
likely  to  be  haunted  by  wild  beasts.  It 
was  here  that  he  slew  the  lion,  without 
the  help  of  any  weapon,  Judg.  14:5-7. 


ZOROB'ABEL.     See  ZERTJBBABEL. 

ZUPH,  plur.  ZOPHIM,  an  Ephrathite, 
ancestor  of  Samuel,  and  the  region  in 
mount  Ephraim  which  he  inhabited, 
1  Sam.  1:1;  9:5;  1  Chr.  6  :  35.  See 
under  RAMAII  II. 

ZUR,  a  Midianitish  prince,  whose 
daughter  was  slain  by  Phinehas,  Num. 
25  : 15-18,  and  who  was  himself  subse 
quently  slain  in  war  with  the  Israelites, 
Josh.  13:21. 

ZU'ZIM,  taken  by  the  Chaldee  and 
Septuagint  version  as  an  appellative  for 
stout  and  valiant  men.  They  dwelt  east 
of  the  Jordan  in  the  time  of  Abraham, 
when  they  were  subdued  by  Chedorlao- 
mer  and  his  allies,  Gen.  14  :  5,  and  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  same  race  of 
giants  called  Zamzummim  in  Deut. 
2:20. 

497 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE, 


COMPILED  BY  JOSEPH  ANGUS,  D.D. 


PERIOD  I 

FROM  THE  CREATION,  B.  C.  4004,  TO  THE  DEATH    OF  NOAH, 
2006   YEARS. 


DATE  AND  PLACE. 

EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 

BIBLE   REFERENCE. 

B.    C. 

4004. 

4004. 
Eden. 

Eden. 

40AQ   9 

Gen.  1;  2:4-7. 
Gen.  2:1-3. 

Gen.  2:8-25. 
Gen.  3:1-13 
Rom.  5:14. 
1  Cor.  15. 
Gen.  3:14-24. 
Gen.  4:1,  2. 

Gen.  4:3-7. 
Gen.  4:8-15. 

Gen.  4:16-24. 
Gen.  4:25,  26. 

Gen.  5. 
Gen.  5  :  5. 

Gen.  6. 

Gen.  6:18. 
Gen.  7. 
Gen.  8. 
O  pn    Q  •  1    17 

Institution  of  the  Sibbith   

Creation  of  Adam  and  Eve,  briefly  described  in 

Connection  of  the  first  sin  with  man's  subsequent  j 
st'\te        -  1 

First  promise  of  a  Saviour  ;  expulsion  from  Eden 

Near  Eden. 
3875. 
3875. 
3875-3504, 
Nod. 
3874, 
Near  Eden. 
3769. 

3074. 

2408. 

2468. 

2348. 
2347, 
Armenia,  or  Ar- 
arat,  Gen.  8:4. 
Togarmah, 
Ezek.  27:14. 
2247,  A.  M. 
1757. 
B.  c.  2233. 

Shinar,  or  Irak 
Ardbi. 
1998. 

Cain  builds  Enoch;   his  descendants;    Lamech'b 

Birth  of  Seth  and  of  Enos  ;  world  and  church  dis- 

Genealogy  from  Adam  to  Noah  ;  the  line  of  the 

Wickedness  of  the  world  ;  God  determines  to  de 
stroy  it  after   a    respite    of  120   years  ;    Noah 
Tvrp<irhp«    (9  Ppf    9  •  ^  ^ 

Covenant  renewed  with  him  ;  he  builds  an  ark  as 

Noah  enters  the  ark  ;  the  Deluge,  A.  M.  1656,  

Noah   and  his   sons  ;    his  prediction   concerning 

Gen.  9:18-27. 

Gpn    11-1    Q 

Genealogies  of  Noah's  sons  ;    Nimrod  founds  the 

Gen.  10. 

Gen.  11:10-28. 

Gen.  9:28,  29. 

Genealogy  from  Shem  to  Terah  ;  the  line  of  the 

499 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD  II. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  NOAH  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  MOSES 
417  YEARS. 


DATE   AND   PLACE 


EVENT   OR   NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE   REFERENCE. 


B.  c.  I.  JOB. 

Uz,    in  Eastern  The  exact  date  of  Job  is  not  known.     There  is 

Idunuca.  good  reason,  however,  for  placing  his  history 

before  that  of  Abraham.     Chapters  19:25-27  ; 

32  :  23-28,  are  direct  references  to  the  work  of 

the  Messiah, Job  1-42. 

II.  ABRAHAM. 
1996,  Birth  of  Abraham  ;  marries  Sarai ;  leaves  Ur  and 

Ur,  Orfa  his  idolatrous  kindred,  (Josh.  24 : 2,) - Gen.  11 : 27-32. 

1922,  Terah,  Lot,  and  Sarai ;  death  of  Terah,  - -  See  Acts  7 : 2-4. 

Haran,  Charrce, 

Harran. 
1921,  Canaan.    Leaves  Huran  at  God's  command  with  Sarai  and 

Lot,--- - Gen.  12:1-9. 

{Gen.  12:1-9. 
RomA4tS8:25' 
Gal.  3:16. 

1920.  Visits  Egypt ;  dissimulates, -     -  Gen.  12 : 10-20. 

1918.  Returns  to  Canaan  ;  Lot  in  Sodom, -  Gen.  13 : 1-13. 

1917,  Hebron.    Promises  renewed  ;  goes  to  Mamre, Gen.  13 : 1-4-18. 

1913,  Siddim,    Chedorlaomer  ;  Lot  taken  and  rescued, Gen.  14. 

El  Ghor. 

Melchizedek  blesses  Abram, Gen.  14. 

1912,  Hebron.    Covenant  of  God  with  Abram, Gen.  15. 

1910.  Hagar;  Ishmael  born, Gen.  16. 

1897.  Covenant  renewed;  names  changed;   circumcis-  Gen.  17. 

ion, 

Abraham  entertains  angels,  one  of  whom  is  the  (   Gen.  18;  19:1- 
Angel  of  the  covenant ;  Sodom  ;  Lot's  wife  ;  1        36  ;   19:4-11 

Lot's  incest,- - (       30-36. 

1896,  Gerar.     Abraham  leaves  Hebron ;  dissembles  with  Abime- 

lech, Gen.  20. 

Land  of  Moab.    Moab  and  Ben-ammi  born, - Gen.  19:37,  38. 

Isaac  born ;  Ishmael  sent  away  ;  covenant  with 

Abimelech, Gen.  21:1-34. 

Moriah,  (site  of  Trial  of  Abraham's  faith, -  Gen.  22:1-19 

the  temple.) 

Machpelah,near  Death  and  burial  of  Sarah, Gen.  23. 

Hebron.         Account  of  Nahor '  s  family, - -  Gen.  22 : 20-24. 

1856,  Abraham  sends  his  servant  to  Haran  ;  Laban  re- 

Beersheba.  ceives  him ;  marriage  of  Isaac, -  Gen.  24. 

1850.  Abraham  marries  Keturah  ;  children  by  her, Gen.  25:1-6. 

1836,  Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob  ;  .their  character, Gen.  25: 19-28. 

Lahai-roi. 

1821,  Abraham  dies ;  Isaac  and  Ishmael  bury  him  in 

Beersheba.          the  cave  of  Machpelah, 1  Gen.  25 : 7-11. 

500 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 
PERIOD  II.  — CONTINUED. 


PATH   AND   PLACE. 


EVENT  OU  KAXRATIVR 


BIBLE   REFERENCE. 


B.  C. 


III.  ISAAC  AND  JACOB. 


1804,  Esau  sells  Jacob  his  birthright ;  Isaac  leaves  Ca- 

Lahai-roi.  naan,- - Gen.  25:29-35. 

1804.  Covenant  confirmed  to  Isaac  at  Gerar, Gen.  2G :  1-5. 

1804,  Isaac  dissembles ;  covenant  with  Abimelcch, Gen.  26:6-33. 

Beersheba. 

1796.  Esau  marries  two  Hittitc  women, - Gen.  26:34,  5. 

1773.  Death  of  Ishmael ;  descendants, - -  Gen.  25 : 12-18. 

17GO,  Jacob  obtains  his  father's  blessing,  and  flees  from 

Beersheba.  Esau, --  Gen. 27;  28 : 1-5. 

1760,  Jacob's  vision  at  Luz  ;  the  promises  continued  j    Gen.  28:10-22  ; 

Padan-aram.         to  him  ;  stays  with  Laban  his  uncle, --  {        29:1-14. 

1760,  Arabia.     Esau  marries  a  daughter  of  Ishmael, Gen.  28 : 6-9. 

1753.  Jacob  marries  Leah  and  Rachel, --  Gen.  29 : 15-30. 

1752-1745,       Jacob's  children:  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  and 
Fadan-aram,         Judah,  by  Leah  ;  Dan  and  Naphtali,  by  Bil- 
Al  Jezirah.  hah,  Rachel's  maid  ;  Gad  and  Asher,  by  Zil- 

pah,   Leah's  maid;   Issachar,   Zebulun,  and  j 

Dinah,  by  Leah  ;  Joseph,  by  Rachel, j 

1745.  Jacob's  bargain  with  Laban  ;  he  becomes  rich, --  Gen.  30:25-43. 

1739,  Galeed.     Jacob,  returning  to  Canaan,  is  pursued  by  Laban  ; 

1739,  their  covenant, — Gen.  31. 

Succoth.        Sec  Jacob' s  vision  at  Mahanaim  ;  wrestles  with  an )    r       oo     oo    i 
Josh.  13:27.         angel  at  Penuel ;  reconciled  to  Esau  ;  settles  >        ^J  *•*»  °6  :  L~~ 

at  Succoth,  - ) 

1736,  Shechem.  Jacob  removes  to  Shalem,  Gen.  33  :  18-20  ;  birth 

of  sons  of  Judah, - - Gen.  88:1-5. 

1732  Dinah  defiled  by  Shechem  ;  slaughter  of  Shechem- 

ites  by  Simeon  and  Levi, Gen.  34. 

thel,  Luz,      Jacob  removes ;  purges  his  household  of  idols ; 
Beit-in.  the  promises  renewed  to  him  ;  his  name  changed 

to  Israel, Gen.  35:1-15. 

Rachel  dies  on  the  birth  of  Benjamin, Gen.  35: 16-2C 

1729,  Hebron.    Sin  of  Reuben ;  Jacob  abides  with  Isaac, Gen.  35 : 21-27. 

1729.  Esau's  descendants, Gen.  36. 

IV.  JOSEPH,  ETC. 
1728,  Dothan.    Joseph's  two  dreams  ;  envy  of  his  brethren  ;  sold 

to  the  Ishmaelites  and  to  Potiphar  in  Egypt,  -  -  Gen.  37. 
1726,  Timnath.  Er  and  Onan  slain  by  God ;  incest  of  Judah  and 

Tamar ;  Pharez,  a  progenitor  of  Messiah,  born,  Gen.  38:6-30. 
1719,  Egypt.     Joseph  advanced,  tempted,  falsely  accused,  and 

imprisoned, Gen.  39. 

1718.  Pharaoh's  butler  and  baker  imprisoned ;  Joseph 

interprets  their  dreams,  - Gen.  40 

1716.  Death  of  Isaac  at  Mamre, - Gen.  35:28,  20. 

1715.            Joseph  interprets  Pharaoh's  dreams;  his  eleva 
tion,  --  Gen.  41:1-49. 

1712,  1711.       Birth  of  Joseph's  two  sons,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim,  Gen.  41:50-52. 

1708.  Commencement  of  the  seven  years'  famine, Gen.  41:53-57. 

1707.  Joseph's  ten  brethren  come  to  buy  corn  ;  Simeon 

a  pledge, Gen.  42. 

601 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD    II.  —  CONTINUED 


DATE  AND  PLACE. 

EVENT  OK   NARRATIVE. 

BIBIJE  REFERENCE. 

B     C. 

1706. 
1706. 
1704-1701, 

1689,  Egypt. 
1689. 

Machpelah. 
1689. 
1635,  Egypt. 

1577,  Egypt. 
1573. 

They  come  again  to  buy  corn  ;  Joseph  makes  him 
self  known  to  them  ;  sends  for  his  father,  
Jacob  and  his  family  arrive  ;  settle  in  Goshen  ;  j 

Gen.  43-45. 
Gen.  46:8-25; 
47:1-12. 

Gen.  47:13-26. 
Gen.  47:27-31; 

48. 

Gen.  49. 

(lpn     r:n.i    1  q 

Joseph,    by  giving  corn  to  the  Egyptians,  in- 

Jacob's  predictions  concerning  his  sons  and  Ju- 

ftpn     ^0-14.   ^1 

Joseph  predicts  the  return  to  Canaan  ;   charges 
them  to  carry  up  his  bones  there  ;  his  death,  -  - 
The  Israelites  multiply  ;  a  new  king  oppresses  j 

tViPin                                                                                                   ~\ 

Gen.  50:22-26. 
Eyod.  1:1-21; 
L5-21. 

Exod.  1:22. 

Pharaoh  orders  the  male  children  to  be  cast  into 

PERIOD  III. 

FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  MOSES,  B.  C.  1571,  TO  HIS  DEATH,  120  YEARS. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 

EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 

BIBLE  REFERENCE. 

B.  C. 

1571-1532. 
1531,  Midian. 

1531,  Egypt. 

1491,  Horeb, 
(Acts  7:30.) 

I.  TO  THE  EXODE. 
Birth,  exposure,  rescue,  and  early  life  of  Moses,  - 
Moses,  having  killed  an  Egyptian,  flees  ;  marries 
Zipporah,  daughter  of  Jethro  ;  Gershom  born,  - 

The  Israelites  groan  for  their  bondage,  -1 

God  appears  to  Moses  in  a  burning  bush  ;   ap 
points  him  and  Aaron  to  bring  the  Israelites 

Ex.  2:1-10. 

Ex.  2:11-22. 
Ex.  2:23  25; 
Psa.  88. 

1491,  Egypt, 
(4.cts  7  '31  ) 

Moses  leaves  Midian  ;  meets  Aaron  ;  they  deliver 

HjX.  o  ;  4:1—  i/. 
FV  4-m  3i 

Moses  and  Aaron  demand  the  release  of  the  Is- 

TTv    ^ 

1491. 
1491. 

1491. 

1491. 
1491 

God  renews  his  promise  by  his  name  Jehovah,  — 
Descendants  of  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  of  Levi,  from 
whom  came  Moses  arid  Aaron,  -  —  -  - 
Moses  and  Aaron  again  sent  ;  confirm  their  mes 
sage  by  a  miracle  ;  magicians  imitate  them,  - 

Pharaoh  refuses  to  let  Israel  go  ;  eight  plagues,  • 

Ex.  6:1-13. 

Ex.  6:14-27. 
Ex.  6:28-30; 
7:1-13. 
Ex.  7:14-25;  8; 
9;  10:1-20. 

-pi          19-1      OA 

1491 

Ex  10  <91  27 

1491. 

Israelites  bidden  to  ask  gold  of  the  Egyptians  ;  ( 
Pharaoh  threatened  with  the  death  of  the  -| 
firstborn     -                     -.-_«                                         _  / 

Ex.  11:1-8; 
10:28,  29; 
n.q    in 

5i 

)2 

CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 
PERIOD  III.— CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 

491. 


1491,  Barneses. 


The  Passover  eaten,  the  same  day  of  the  same 
month  on  which  Christ  our  Passover  was  sacri 
ficed  for  us ;  the  firstborn  slain,  — 

The  exodus  of  Israel  fVom  Egypt,  A.  M.  2513,--  •] 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


II.  JOURNEYS  OF  THE  ISRAELITES. 


1491,  Succoth,    First  journey.    Passover  reinforced.    Firstborn  [  Ex;3_r \  \  3-/3  3-?l 
Eccl.  year  1.         commanded  to  be  set  apart.     Joseph's  bones  1 

removed,-;--  ^  Num!  33:1-5. 

1  mon.,  1  day.    Second  journey.     Israel  guided  by  a  pillar  of  I  Ex.  13:20-22; 

Etham.  cloud  and  lire, Num.  33 : 6. 

1491,    Pihahi-    Third  journey.     Pharaoh  pursues, 

Fourth  journey.     Passage  of  the  Red  sea.     See  f    E 
l  Cor.  10  :  1,   2.      Destruction  of  Pharaoh's!         i'r  or 
army.     Song  of  Moses.      The  bitter  waters  ]    vr 
sweetened, 

Elim,  Wady     Fifth  journey, § 

Ghurundcl. 
Red  sea.         Sixth  journey, - - Num.  33:10. 

2  mon.,  15  day.  Seventh  journey.     People  murmur  for  bread.  j    -^      16 '1-86 
Desert  of  Sin.  Quails  and  manna.     Directions   on  manna.  >•    ^"  '      „'.,  1°, 

See  John  6:31,  49;  Rev.  2:17, )  J 

Dophkah.        Eighth  journey, - Num.  33:12. 

Alush.          Ninth  journey, - Num.  33:13. 

Rephidim.       Tenth  journey.     Water  given  from  the  rock  in  )  ,-,      .,_  -.   1 

Horeb,  (1  Cor.  10:4.)     Joshua  defeats  Ama-  \  £x'      «o~i 

lek,  while  Moses  prays,--  --)  J 

3  mon.,  15  day.  Eleventh  journey.     Preparation  for  giving  of  j  Ex.  19:1-25 

Sinai.  the  law,  - -- |    Num.  33:15. 

1491.  Moral  law  given.     Divers  laws  (chiefly  judicial) 

3  mon.,  15  day.       enjoined.     The  angel  promised  as  a  guide  to 

Sinai.  the  Israelites,  - - Ex.  20:23. 

The  people  promise  obedience ;  the  blood  of  the 
covenant  sprinkled  on  them.  Moses  and  others 
have  a  vision  of  God's  glory.  Moses  remains 

forty  days  and  forty  nights  in  the  mount, Ex.  24. 

Ceremonial  law  given.  The  tabernacle  and  its 
furniture,  the  priests  and  their  garments,  etc. 
The  Sabbath  again  enjoined.  Daily  saciifice 
and  incense.  Rom.  8:3;  Rev.  8  : 3,  4.  Tables 

of  the  law  given  to  Moses, Ex.  25-31. 

Idolatry  of  the  calf;  the  tables  broken  ;  the  peo 
ple  punished ;  the  tabernacle  removed  out  of 
the  camp.  Moses  intercedes  for  the  people, 

and  asks  to  see  God' 8  glory, Ex.  32:33. 

Eccl.  year  1.  The  tables  renewed ;  the  name  of  the  Lord  pro- 
6  mon.,  Sinai.  claimed;  God  makes  a  covenant  with  Israel. 
Moses  stays  on  the  mount  forty  days  and  forty 

nights;  his  face  shines, Ex.  34. 

503 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Ex.  12:21-30. 

Ex.  12:31-36, 

and  40-42. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD   III. —CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


EVENT   OR   NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE   REFERENCE. 


B.  C. 

1491. 


Offerings  of  the  people  for  the  tabernacle.  Beza- 
leel  and  others  prepare  the  tabernacle  and  its 
furniture, ' 


Ex.  35-39. 
{    Ex.  40:1-16; 

1490.  Moses  commanded  to  rear  the  tabernacle  and  to  1    (John  1 :  14 ; 

Eccl.  year  2.         anoint  it,  and  to  sanctify  Aaron  and  his  sons,  1  2: 19-21. 

1  mon.,  1  day.  [    Col.  2:9.) 

1490.  The  tabernacle  set  up.     The  glory  of  the  Lord 

Eccl.  year  2.          fills  it.     The  Israelites  directed  by  the  cloud,--  Ex.  40:17-38. 

1  mon.,  1  day.    Laws  on  various  sacrifices  and  offerings, Lev.  1-7. 

Consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  as  priests,  —  Lev.  8. 
1  mon.,  8  day.   The  offerings  of  Aaron.     Fire  consumes  the  sacri 
fice, - - Lev.  9. 

The  offerings  of  the  princes  accepted, Num.  7. 

Destruction  of  Nadab  and  Abihu, Lev.  10. 

Of  the  great  day  of  atonement,  and  of  the  scape-  j    Lev.    16  ;    see 
goat, - - ]    Heb.9;  5:1. 

1  mon.,  14  day.  The  second  Passover  celebrated.     Some  allowed 

to  observe  it  in  the  secon^  month, Num.  9: 1-14. 

Laws  on  meats  and  purifications,  -- Lev.  11-15. 

Miscellaneous  laws,  moral,  ceremonial,  and  judi 
cial.  Shelomith's  son  stoned  for  blasphemy,--  Lev.  17-22  ;  24. 

Laws  concerning  festivals,  etc.,- —  Lev.  23;  24. 

Prophetic  promises  and  threatenings, -  Lev.  26. 

Laws  of  vows,  devotions,  and  tithes, Lev.  27. 

2  mon.,  1  day.   The  tribes  numbered  ;  their  order, -  Num.  1 ;  2. 

The  Lcvitcs  appointed  to  the  service  of  the  tab 
ernacle  instead  of  the  firstborn  ;  their  duties,-  -  Num.  3  ;  4. 

Institution  of  various  ceremonies.  The  law  of 

the  Nazarites.  The  form  of  blessing, Num.  5  ;  6. 

Consecration  of  the  Levites  ;  their  age  and  period 

of  service, Num.  8. 

Use  of  the  silver  trumpets, Num.  10:1-10. 

Manner  in  which  the  cloud  guided  the  people,  --  Num.  9:15-23. 

Arrival  of  Jcthro  with  Moses'  wife  and  sons'.  He 
..  ,^1  advises  Moses  to  appoint  judges  to  assist, Ex.  18: 1-26. 

2  mon.,  20  day.  Twelfth  journey.     Order  of  the  march, 

Wilderness  of    Moses  entreats   Hobab   to  accompany  Israel;  I    Num.  10:29-32; 

Paran,  El  Tyh.       Jethro  returns  to  Midian, (    Ex.  18 : 27. 

The  form  of  blessing  on  the  removal  and  resting 

of  the  ark, Num.  10:33-36. 

The  burning  at  Taberah.  People  murmur  for 
flesh  ;  Moses  complains  of  his  charge  ;  seventy 
elders  appointed  as  a  council  to  assist  him ; 

quails  given  in  wrath, Num.  11 :1  -34. 

Hazeroth.        Thirteenth  journey.     Miriam  smitten  with  lep-  j    Num.    11  :  35  ; 

rosy  for  sedition, "j    (33:17,)  12:15. 

5 mon.  to 7 mon.  Fourteenth  journey.     Spies  sent  to  search  the  \    -^          19  •  ifi- 
Kadesh  Barnea,       land  ;  ten  of  them  bring  an  evil  report;  Ca-  >        *«q  ioV  -10  ' 

or  En  Mishpat.      leb  and  Joshua  faithful, )        ^ 

604 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 
PERIOD   III.  —  CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE  REFERENCE, 


B.  C. 

1-490.  Israel  murmurs  at  the  report  of  the  spies  ;  God)    -^         14  i   QQ 

Eccl.  year  2.         threatens  ;  Moses  intercedes  ;  condemned  to  [•   psa  90 

7  mon. ,  6  day.        wander  forty  years, ) 

The  people,  going  up  against  the  will  of  God,  are 

discomfited, Num.  14:40-45. 

Laws  of  offerings  ;  the  sabbath-breaker  stoned,--  Num.  15. 
The  rebellion  of  Korah,  etc. ;  earthquake,  fire, 
and  plague  inflicted ;  Aaron  approved  as  high- 
priest  by  the  budding  of  his  rod, Num.  16  ;  17. 

The  charge  and  portion  of  the  priests  and  Le- 

vites, Num.  18. 

Water  of   purification ;    how  to   be   made  anc 

used, -  Num.  19. 

1490-1452.      The  next  seventeen  journeys  (15th  to  31st)  of  the 
Eccl.  year  2-40.       Israelites,  being  their  wandering  in  the  wilder 
ness  nearly  thirty-eight  years, Num.  33 : 1 9-35. 

1452.  Thirty-second  journey  ;  Death  of  Miriam, j    N  3™.'3g0: 1 ' 

Eccl.  year  40.    The  people  murmur  for  water  ;  Moses  and  Aaron 

1  mon.  transgressing,  not  to  enter  Canaan, Num.  20: 2-13. 

1490,  Kadesh.    Edom  refuses  a  passage  to  the  Israelites, Num.  20: 14-21. 

Mount  Hor.      Thirty-third  journey  ;  Aaron  dies ;  Arad  attacks      Num.  20  :  22  to 

Israel,  and  is  defeated, 21:3;  33:37 -40. 

Zalmonah.      Thirty-fourth  journey;    the  people  murmur;      (See John 3: 14;) 
fiery  serpents  are  sent;  the  brazen  serpent         Num.  21:4-9"; 

setup, (33:41.) 

Punon,  Oboth,   Thirty-fifth,    thirty-sixth,   and   thirty-seventh  j    Num.  21:10, 11; 

lim.  journeys, (       33:42-44. 

Dibon-gad.      Thirty-eighth  journey, Num.  33:45. 

The  Israelites  stop  at  Zared,  Arnon,  and  Beer,---  Num.  21:12-18. 
Sihon  the  Amorite  opposes   their  passage ;  de 
feated, Num.  21:21-32. 

Og  of  Bashan  attacks  them  ;  defeated, Num.  21 : 33-35. 

Almon-         Thirty-ninth  journey, Num.  33:46. 

diblathaim. 

Abarim.         Fortieth  journey, Nugm. '$ :  18-20» 

(Luke  l':  78; 

Rev.  22:16; 
Plains  of  Moab  Forty -first  journey;    account  of  Balaam  and         1  Cor.  15:25  ;) 

by  Jordan.  Balak, Num.   22:1- 

41 ;  (33  :  48  ;) 
23;  24. 
Forty-second  journey;  idolatry  of  Baal-Peor;  j    Num.  25:1-18; 

zeal  of  Phinehas, ]      (33:49.) 

Third  numbering  of  the  people, - Num.  26. 

The  daughters  of  Zelophehad  ;  laws  of  inherit-  j    Num.  27:1-11 ; 

ance, "j        36. 

Laws  of  offerings,  vows,  etc. , Num.  28-30. 

1451.  The  slaughter  of  Midian  ;  Balaam  slain, Num.  31. 

Eccl.  year  40.    Territories  given  to  Reuben,  Gad,  and  part  of 

Manasseh,  on  the  east  of  Jordan, Num.  22. 

22  505 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  TEE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD  III.— CONTINUED, 


DATE  AND  PLACE.     ) 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


B.  C. 

1451. 


Directions  for  the  Israelites  on  their  entering") 
Canaan ;  borders  of  the  land  described  ;  forty- 
eight  cities  for  the  Levites,  of  which  six  are 
to  be  cities  of  refuge  ;  the  laws  on  murder,  -  - 

III.  THE  REVIEW  AND  CLOSING  CHAEGE 
OF  MOSES. 


Eccl.  year  40.     Moses  reviews  the  history  of  the  Israelites,  intro 
ducing  some  new  particulars, Deut.  1:4. 

Deut.  5:9; 
11  mon.,  1  day.  The  moral  law  repeated  and  enforced, -J       10  :  1-5,    10- 

The  ceremonial  law  repeated,  with  injunctions  j    Deut.  12-16  ; 

against  idolatry  etc., - (        17:1. 

Plains  of  Moab  The  judicial  law  repeated  and  explained.   Christ  |    rjeut 
by  Jordan.          foretold  as  the  Prophet  to  whom  they  are  to  >•       i  «-°G 
hearken, ) 

Moses  directs  Israel,  after  entering  Canaan,  to 
write  the  law  on  stones,  and  to  recite  its  bless 
ings  and  curses  upon  mount  Gerizim  and  mount 
Ebal, - Deut.  27. 

Prophetic  promises  and  curses, Deut.  28. 

Concluding  appeal  to  the  Israelites, Deut.  29 ;  30. 

IV.  JOSHUA'S  APPOINTMENT— DEATH  OF 
MOSES. 

Eccl.  year  40.     Joshua  appointed  to  succeed  Moses, Num.  27 : 12-23. 

11  mon.  Moses  encourages  the  people  and  Joshua ;  charges 
the  priests  to  read  the  law  publicly  every  sev 
enth  year,  Deut.  31:1-13. 

God's  charge  to  Joshua;  Moses  writes  a  song  of 
witness  ;  completes  the  writing  of  the  law,  and 
delivers  it  to  the  Levites,  with  a  prediction  of 
the  disobedience  of  Israel, -- Deut.  31:14-29. 

Moses  recites  his  song,  and  exhorts  Israel  to  set  j    Deut.  31 :30 ; 
their  hearts  upon  it, - "j       32: 1-47. 

Moses  ascends  mount  Nebo  to  view  the  land  of 

Canaan,  and  to  die,  -  - - -  Deut.  32:48-52. 

Moses  prophetically  blesses  the  tribes, Deut.  33. 

1451.  Moses  views  the  promised  land ;  his  death,  burial, 

and  character, ••--  Deut.  34. 


BIBLE   REFERENCE 


Num.  33: 50-56; 
34;  35. 


506 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD  IV. 

FROM  THE  ENTRANCE  INTO  CANAAN  TO  THE  DEATH  OF 
SOLOMON,  475  YEARS. 


DATE    i>'D   PLACE. 


EVE>T   OR   XARRATIVB 


BIBLE   REFERENCE. 


L  CONQUEST  OF  CANAAN,  7  YEARS. 

(TO  THE  JUDGES,  2o  YEARS.) 
B.  c. 

1451.  God's  charge  to  Joshua, - Josh.  1 : 1-9. 

Eccl.  year  41.    Spies  sent  to  Jericho  ;  Rahah  receives  them, Josh.  2. 

1  mon.t  1  day.    Joshua  reminds  Reuben,  etc.,  of  their  engage-  f 

ment,  (cf.  Num.  22;)  they  promise  obedi-       T    ,     ,  -la  10 
ence.    The  Israelites  directed  concerning  the  \        o  j_Vo 
passage   of   the    Jordan.      God   encourages 

Joshua, -- [ 

10  day.          Passage  of  the  Jordan,  (A.  M.  2551;)  a  memo-  I    Josh.  3:14-17; 

rial  erected  ;  the  Canaanites  alarmed, (        4  ;  5: 1. 

1451,  Gilgal.     Circumcision    renewed;    the    Passover;    manna 

ceases, - - Josh.  6:2-12. 

The  Captain  of  the   Lord's  host  appears  to  (   Josh.  6:1; 
Joshua ;   miraculous  capture  of  Jericho  ;  a  -|        5 : 13-15  ; 

curse  on  the  rehuilder  of  it, (       6:2-27. 

The  Israelites  discomfited  through  Achan's  sin ; 

he  is  destroyed, •• Josh.  7. 

Capture  of  Ai  by  stratagem , Josh.  8 : 1-29. 

Gilgal.          The  Gibeonites  obtain  a  league  with  Joshua, Josh.  9. 

Conquest  of  several  kings  in  succession, Josh.  10. 

1450-1445.      The  rest  of  the  conquests, Josh.  11. 

1444,  Ebal  and  The  law  written  on  a  stone  altar,  (cf.  Dcut.  27,) 

Gerizim.  and  proclaimed  to  all  the  people,  - Josh.  8:30-35. 

Reuben,  etc. ,  return  to  their  land  on  the  eastern 
side  of  Jordan ;  they  erect  an  altar  <  i  memo 
rial;  Israel  offended,  ask  an  explanation, Josh.  22. 

II.  GENERAL  DIVISION  OF  THE  LAND. 

1444.  Enumeration  of  conquests, Josh.  12. 

Land  not  yet  .conquered, Josh.  13 : 1-6. 

Joshua  divides  the  land  ;  the  nine  tribes  and  a )     T    ,     10.714. 
half  receive  their  portions  by  lot ;  the  Levitcs  V    J0°"-.  £V  ' " 
not  to  receive  land, - :  ) 

Inheritance  of  Reuben,  etc.,  on  the  eastern  side 
of  Jordan, •• Josh.  13:15-33. 

Hebron,  Kir-     Inheritance  of  Caleb, - j        16*  18-19 

jath  Arba,  T    ,  '  ir  .  -,'_••  9 

Josh.  21:11.     LotofJudah, - 9(3-63 

Lots  of  Ephraim  and  half  of  Manasseh,  -  -   Josh.  16  ;  17. 

1444,  Shiloh.    The  tabernacle  set  up, Josh.  18 . 1  - 

Lots   of  the  other  tribes;    Joshua's   inherit- j  iJosh.  18:2-28; 

ance,  --- - ---(        19. 

Cities  of  refuge  appointed, - -  Josh.  20. 

Levitical  cities, Josh.  21. 

507 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBL£ 


PERIOD  IY. — CONTINUED. 


DATK  AND  PLACE, 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


III.  LAST  ACTS  OF  JOSHUA,  ETC. 

1 427,  Shechern,  Joshua's  charge  to  the  elders  of  Israel,  - Josh.  23. 

fcychar  N.  T.     Joshua  addresses  the  tribes  and  renews  the  cove 
nant,  - - Josh.  24:1-28. 

1426,  Shechem.  Death  and  burial  of  Joshua, Josh.  24 : 29-31. 

Burial  of  Joseph's  bones,  etc., Josh.  24:32,  33. 

IV.  INTERREGNUM  AND  GOVERNMENT 
OF  JUDGES,  330  YEARS. 

Conquests  after  Joshua's  death, Judg.  1:1-26. 

iNations  not  subdued  by  Israel, Judg.  1 : 27-36. 

1425,  Bochim.    The  angel  of  the  Lord  rebukes  the  Israelites  for 

not  driving  out  the  Canaanites, - Judg.  2 : 1-5. 

Commencement  of  idolatry  in  Israel, Judg.  2 : 6-13 

1413.  Account  of  Micah  and  his  image, Judg.  17. 

A  party  of  Danites,  having  robbed  Micah  of  his 
image,  establish  themselves  in  Laish,  (after 
wards  Dan.)  and  set  up  idolatry, Judg:  18. 

1406,  Gibeah,    History  of  the  Levite  and  his  concubine  ;  slaugh- 

Jeba.  ter  of  the  Bcnjamites,  etc., Judg.  19;  20;  21. 

The  captivities  of  Israel  for  idolatry,  and  their  (   Judg.  2:14-23  ; 

deliverances  by  judges, - ")       3:1-4. 

1402-1394.      Captivity  of  the  eastern  Israelites  for  eight  years 

to  Mesopotamia ;  Othniel  judge, Judg.  3 : 5-11. 

1354-1336.      Captivity  of  the  eastern  Israelites  for  eighteen 

years  to  Moab  ;  Ehud  judge, - Judg.  3 : 12-30. 

Captivity  of  the  western  Israelites  to  the  Philis 
tines;  Shamgar  judge, Judg.  3:31. 

1316-1296.       Captivity  of  the  northern  Israelites  for  twenty 
years  to  the  Canaanites  ;  Deborah  judge  ;  song 

of  Deborah  and  Barak, Judg.  4  ;  5. 

1256.  Captivity  of  the  eastern  and  northern  Israelites 

for  seven  years  to  Midian,  - Judg.  6 : 1-6. 

Bethlehem.      The  history  of  Ruth,  an  ancestress  of  the  Messiah,  Ruth  1-4. 
1249,  Shechem.  Gideon  judge;  is  visited  by  the  Angel  of  the )    T    ,      „  „  An 
covenant,  and  delivers  Israel  from  Midian ;  V  Juag-  b-'-4", 

refuses  to  be  made  king, )        /;  °' 

1235-1232.      Usurpation  of  Abimelech ;  Jotham's  fable, -  Judg.  9. 

1232-1188.      Tola  and  Jair  judges, Judg.  10:1-5. 

1206-1188.      The  Philistines  and  Ammonites  oppress  Israel]   Judg.  10:6-18; 

for  eighteen  years ;  Jephthah  ;  his  vow, }       11. 

1187.  Slaughter  of  Ephraim  by  the  Gileadites,  - Judg.  12: 1-6. 

182-1157.       Ibzan,  Elon,  and  Abdon  judges, -  Judg.  12:7-15. 

1156-1116.       The  Philistines  oppress  Israel  forty  years, Judg.  13: 1. 

1156.  Birth  of  Samson,--- Judg.  13:2-25. 

1155,  Shiloh.    Birth  of  Samuel ;  Hannah's  song, j    1  Syn.  1 ;  2:1- 

The  wickedness  of  Eli's  sons, 1  Sam.  2 : 12-21. 

1143.  Call  of  Samuel, 1  Sam.  3. 

508 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD     IV.  — CONTINUED. 


DATE   AND    PLACE, 


EVKXT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE   REFERKXCK. 


B.   C. 

1136-1117. 


Marriage  of  Samson  ;  his  exploits, 
Judgment  on  Eli's  house, 


Judg.  14;  15:1- 
19;  16:1-3. 

ISam.  2:22-36, 
22-25. 

1116,  Gaza.      Capture  and  death  of  Samson, —  '    iQ-4_gi 

1116,  Ebenezer.  Israel  twice  defeated  by  the  Philistines ;   ark  j    1  Sam.  4 ;    19- 

taken  and  Eli's  sons  slain  ;  death  of  Eli, (       22. 

Ashdod,Azotus,  The  ark  placed  in  the  house  of  Dagon;    re- 
Acts  8: 40:          moved  to  Ekron,  (Akir,)   then  to  ^Bethshe-       ISam,  5;  6; 
Esdud,  mesh,  (Ain  Shans,)  thence  to  Kirjath-jearim, '         7:1,  2. 

where  it  remains  till  removed  by  David, 

1112,  Mizpeh.    Samuel  judge  ;  he  moves  the  Israelites  to  repent 
ance  ;  the  Philistines  discomfited, -  -- 1  Sam.  7:3-17. 

1095,  Ramah,    Samuel  appoints  his  sons  judges ;    their  corrupt 
in  Ephraim.          government ;    the  Israelites  ask  for  a  king  ; 

God  bids  Samuel  hearken  to  them, 1  Sam.  8. 

V.  THE  REIGN  OF  SAUL,  40  YEARS. 

1096,  Ramah.    Samuel  privately  anoints  Saul  as  king,  and]    ISam.  9;  10:1- 

gives  him  three  signs, {        16. 

Mizpeh.         Saul  chosen  and  proclaimed  king, ISam.  10: 17-27. 

Gilgal,  s.  E.  of  Saul  rescues  Jabesh-Gilead ;    is  inaugurated  as 

Jericho.  king;  Samuel's  address  to  Israel, 1  Sam.  11 ;  12. 

1094.  Saul  gathers  an  army  against  the  Philistines ;  he 

disobeys  Samuel,  and  is  warned  of  his  rejection 

from  the  kingdom, 1  Sam.  13:1-15. 

The  Philistines  discomfited ;  Saul's  rash  oath  )    ^  gam    j«  .  -, ~ 
endangers  Jonathan  ;  the  people  rescue  him  ;  >•       OQ  .  14 

Saul's  victories ;  his  family, - ) 

1080.  Saul  smites  the  Amalekites;  spares  Agag  and 
the  best  of  the  spoil ;  denounced  by  Sam 
uel,  --- 1  Sam.  15. 

1064.           Samuel  secretly  anoints  David,  at  Bethlehem,  as 
Bethlehem.          future  lung, ISam.  16:1-13. 

(1  Sam.  17 : 1-40, 
55,  56,  41-54, 
57,  58;  18:1- 
4 ;  Psa.  9. 

1063.           David's  victories;  Saul's  melancholy;   he  at- j       10^1^-23  ~   ' 
tempts  to  kill  David T       ^g! \Q_IQ  ' 

f   1  Sam.  18  :  17- 

1062,  Gibeah,    David  marries  Saul's  daughter;   Saul  makes          30;  19:1-3; 
Naioth.  various  attempts  to  kill  him  ;  David  flees  to  \    Psa.  11 ; 

Samuel ;  Saul  sends  after  him, 1  Sam .  19 : 4-24 ; 

{  Psa.  59. 

1062.  David's  covenant  with  Jonathan, 1  Sam.  20. 

1061,  Nob  and   David  flees  to  Ahimelech,  (where  his  lie  costs  )    ^  „         2i  • 
Gath.  the  lives  of  the  priests  of  the  house  of  Eli,)  >•   p       ^  ,  Q\ 

then  to  Achish  ;  feigns  madness, )    rs 

509 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 
PERIOD  IV.— CONTINUED. 


BATE   AND   PLACE. 


EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


jl  Sam.  22:1; 
Psa.  142 ; 

B'  2  Sam  22 -1  2  • 

10G2,  Adullam.  i  David  flees  again,  joined  by  several  followers,-       |  Q.      l^-S-ls'' 

2Sam.2S:  13-13; 
IChr.ll :  15-19. 

Nob.            David  goes  to  Mizpeh,  then  to  Harcth ;  slaugh-  p^^lOsT  17*' 

ter  of  the  priests  by  Saul, 140^35   64    ' 

f  1  Sam.  23:1;' 

Keilah.          Abiathar  joins  David;  David  defeats  the  Phi- j  22:20-23; 

listines, 1  23:6,2-5,7-12; 

I  Psa.  31. 

TAPA   TT  T,  -r,     •  i  •         •         IT        1-      (    1  Sam. 23:13-23; 

1060,  Zipn.       Saul  pursues  David  ;  an  invasion  obliges  him  J    pga   ^  . 

to  return,--  1    1  Sam. 23: 24-28. 

1059,  Engedi,    Saul  pursues  David;  David  spares  Saul's  life;  j    1  Sam. 23: 29; 24; 

HazezonTamar,       Saul  confesses  his  fault,  - (    Psa.  57,  58,  63. 

1058,  Ziph.       Death  of  Samuel ;  David  and  Nabal, - 1 1  Sam.  25. 

David  again  spares  Saul's  life, -1  Sam.  26. 

1057.  David  flees  to  Achish,  1  Sam.  27:1-7 ;  Psa.  141  ; 

several  resort  to  him, - jl  Chr.  12:1-7. 

David  makes  an  excursion  on  the  Amalekites, 

and  repairs  to  Gath  with  the  booty, 1  Sam.  27 : 8-12. 

1056.  The  Philistines  prepare  for  war,  and  advance  toi 

Shunem  ;  David  accompanies  them  ;  Saul  con- 

suits  the  witch  of  Endor, 1  Sam.  28. 

David  dismissed  from  the  army  of  the  Philis-  f   1  Sam.  29. 
tines  ;  on  his  way  back  to  Ziklag  he  is  joined  4    1  Chr,    12  :  19- 

by  several, - - — (       22. 

On  his  return  to  Ziklag,  David  finds  that  it  had 
been  sacked  by  Amalek,  and  his  family  taken  ; 

he  pursues  Amalek,  and  smites  them, 1  Sam.  SO. 

Gilboa,  Djebal    Saul,  defeated  in  battle  and  his  sons  slain,  kills  j    1  Sam.  31 ; 

Gilbo.  himself, j    1  Chr.  10:1-14. 

Ziklag,  (16  m.    An  Amalckite  pretends  to  have  slain  Saul,  and  is 

of  Gath  ?)      put  to  death  by  David, 2  Sam.  1 : 1-16. 

David's  lament  over  Saul  and  Jonathan, 2  Sam.  1: 17-27. 

VI.  THE  REIGN  OF  DAVID,  40  YEARS. 

1056,  Hebron.    David  acknowledged  as  king  of  Judah, 2  Sam.  2:1-7. 

Acts  13 : 21.       Ishbosheth  proclaimed  king  of  Israel, 2  Sam.  2 : 8-1 1. 

1054.  Civil  war  ensues;  David  waxes  stronger;  Ab- j    2  Sam.  12:32; 

ner  and  Ishbosheth  treacherously  slain, 1       3  ;  4. 

'   2  Sam.  5:1-3; 
23 : 8-12,  18- 
39;    5:4,  5, 

1049,  Hebron,    David  made  king  over  all  Israel ;  his  troops  ;  I        6-10 ; 
Jerusalem.          he  dispossesses  the  Jebtisites  of  the  hill  of"    1  Chr.  11:1-3; 

Zion.  and  dwells  there, » 12:23-40; 

11:10-14,  20 
26-47,  4-9. 

510 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD  IV.— CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 

1048. 


EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 


Biram  of  Tyre  congratulates  David  ;  David's  j        -/^ 
family;  he  twice  defeats  the  Philistines, 1    ^  ™  ~   i       _YT 

2  Sam.  6:1-11; 

6:12-23; 

1046,  from  Kir-  David  removes  the  ark ;   Uzzah,  not  being  a  j    Psa.    68,    132, 
jath  Jearim  to      Levite,  smitten  for  touching  the  ark,  (see  \        105,  96, "  100  ; 

boose  of  Obed-      Num.4:15,) |    1  Chr.  13:1-4, 

edom,    thence  5-14  ;   15  :  1- 

to    Zion,   Psa.  [       16:43,  5-24. 

David  forbidden  to  build  the  temple  ;   great      |  ^m'  Jj. 
blessings    promised    him ;    his    prayer    and  -j    pga    £     45    22 
thanksgiving, -j        qg   |lg  ^Q"' 

j   2  Sam.  8 ; 
1041.  Victories  over  Philistia,  Moab,  Syria,  and  Edom,  1    1  Chr.  18  ; 

(    Psa.  60.  108. 

David's  kindness  to  Mephibosheth,  - 2  Sam.  9. 

(   2  Sam.  10 ; 

1038-1037,      David  defeats  Ammon  and  Syria, 1    1  Chr.  19 ; 

Medeba.  (   Psa.  20,  21." 

f   2  Sam.  11:1; 

11:2-12,23; 
1036  and  1034,   Siege  of  Kabbah ;  David's  adultery  and  mur-  j        26-31 ; 

Jerusalem.          der, 1    1  Chr.  20:1,  3; 

Psa.  51,  82,  33, 
I       103. 

1033.  Birth  of  Solomon  ;  Amnon,  David's  eldest  son,  (   9  gam    ^    94 

forceth  his  sister  Tamar,  David's  only  daugh-  -!    "*  OK  .  iq.  i'_o9  * 

ter  ;  David  fails  to  punish  this  injury, ( 

1031.  Absalom  kills  Amnon,  and  flees, 2Sam.  13:23-39. 

1028.           Absalom  brought  back,   and  restored  to  his]       15^17     8-14 
father's  presence, 1        l»-33' 

1025.  Absalom  raises  a  revolt  against  David,  — - 2  Sam.  15: 1-12. 

1024.  David  and  his  followers  flee  ;  Zadok  and  Abia-  f 

thar  sent  back  with  the  ark  ;  Hushai  desired  J    2 Sam.  15:13-27; 
by  David  to  join  himself  to  Absalom  to  cir-  j    Psa.  3. 

cum  vent  Ahithophel's  counsels, •  —  [ 

1024,  Bahurim.  Ziba's    treachery    to    Mephibosheth;    Shimei  j    2  Sam.  16:1-14; 

curses  David, - - 1    Psa.  7. 

Jerusalem.      Hushai  defeats  Ahithophel's  counsel ;  Ahitho-  j    2  Sam.  16  : 15- 

phel  hangs  himself, }       23;  17:1-26. 

f   2  Sam.  17: 27-29; 
Mahanaim,  65   David  furnished  with  provisions,   chiefly  by  j    Psa.  42,  43,  55, 

miles  N.  E.  of       Barzillai, - 1        4,5,62,  143, 

Ephraim.  [       144,  70,  71. 

Absalom  defeated  and  slain  by  Joab, 2  Sam.  18. 

Jerusalem.       David  returns ;  Shimei  pardoned  ;  Mephibosheth 
exposes  Ziba's  treachery  ;  David's  gratitude  to 

Barzillai, -  2Sam.  19;  20:3. 

511 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


L-25, 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD  IV.  — CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND  PLACE. 


B.  C. 

1023. 
1021. 

1019. 


1018. 


1016, 
Jerusalem. 


1016,  Gibeon, 

Jib,  17  m.  N.  w. 

of  Gilgal. 

1015, 
Jerusalem. 


Tyre,  Tsur. 


1012, 
Jerusalem. 


EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 


Revolt  of  Sheba,  (at  Abel,) 
The  three  years'  famine, — 


Last  wars  with  the  Philistines  ;  David's  praise 
for  victories,  his  enemies  subdued, 


David,  in  pride,  numbers  Israel ;  the  plague,  -  - 


David  prepares  materials,  and  instructs  Solomon 
as  to  the  building  of  the  temple, 

Adoni jah's  rebellion  ;  Solomon  anointed  and 
proclaimed  David's  successor ;  Adonijah  sub 
mits,  

David  arranges  the  courses  of  the  priests,  etc.,  -  - 


Arrangement  of  the  state  officers, 

David  calls  a  solemn  assembly,  and  exhorts  f 
both  them  and  Solomon  to  the  work  of  the 
temple  ;  the  offerings  of  the  princes  and  peo 
ple  ;    David's   thanksgiving ;    Solomon    ac 
knowledged  as  king, 

David's  final  charge  to  Solomon  ;  directs  Joab 
and  Shimei  to  be  put  to  death  ;  David's  last  < 
words  ;  his  death, • 


Psalms  of  David,  of  which  the  date  and  occa 
sion  are  not  known, 


VII.  THE  REIGN  OF  SOLOMON,  40  YEARS. 

Solomon's  burnt-offering ;  God  giving  him  a 
choice,  he  asks  for  wisdom ;  wealth  and  honor 
added  to  him, - 

Solomon's  wise  judgment, - 

Adonijah  and  Joab  put  to  death ;  Abiathar  de 
posed ;  Shjmei  not  to  leave  Jerusalem, 

Solomon  obtains  materials  and  men  for  the  j 
building  of  the  templcj - | 

Shimei  put  to  death  for  going  to  Gath, 

Solomon  marries  Pharaoh's  daughter, 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


2  Sam.  20:1,  2, 

4-26. 

2  Sam.  21:1^14. 
2  Sam.  21: 15-22; 

22:2-51; 
IChr.  20:4-8; 
Psa.  18. 
2  Sam.  24:1-9; 

10-25 ; 
IChr.  21:1-5; 

27:23,24; 

21:6,  7,8-CO. 

1  Chr.  22. 


IKin.  1:1-4. 
1  Chr.  23-26. 
IChr.  27:1-22, 
25-34. 

1  Chr.  28:11- 
21  ;  29:1-25: 

Psa.  72,  91,  145. 

IKin.  2:1-9; 

2  Sam.  23:1-7; 
IChr.  29: 26-30; 
IKin.  2:10,  11. 
Psa.  6,  8, 12, 19, 

23,  24,  28,  29, 
88-41,  61,  65, 
69,  78,  86,  95, 
101,104,120- 
122,124,131, 
133,  139. 


1  Kin.  2:12; 
3:4-15; 

2  Chr.  1:1-5,6- 
12. 

IKin.  3:15-28; 
2  Chr.  1013. 

IKin.  2:13-38. 
IKin.  5:1-18; 
2  Chr.  2:1-18. 
1  Kin.  2:39-46. 
IKin.  3:1-3. 


512 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 
PERIOD   IV.— CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND  PLACE. 

EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 

BIBLE  REFERENCE. 

1012-1005, 
IKin.  6:1-37. 

1005, 
Jerusalem. 

1002. 

1001, 
Jerusalem. 

993,  Jerusalem. 

980-977. 
977. 

976,  Jerusalem. 
2 

The  buildins?  of  tlie  temple  --------- 

i  Kin.    6  :  1-8, 
15-36;  7:  I8 
60;    6:9-14, 
37,38;  7:51; 
2Chr.  3:1-9,  3, 
4,  22,  10-14; 
3:15  to  4:22; 
6:1. 
1  Kin.  8  :  1-11, 
62-64,  12-61, 
65,  66  ; 
2  Chr.  5  :  2-14  ; 
7:4-7;  6;  7:3, 
8,  10; 
Psa.  47,  97-100, 
135,  136. 
1  Kin.  7  :  1-12  ; 
9:1-9; 
2  Chr.  7:11-22. 
1  Kin.  9:10-14, 
15-25; 
2  Chr.  8  :  1-10, 
12-16. 
1  Kin.  9:24; 
2  Chr.  8:11. 
Song  1-8. 
1  Kin.  4  :  1-28, 
2-19;  10:26; 
9:26-28; 
10:14-25,27- 
29. 
2  Chr.  9:  26,  25; 
1  :  14  ;  8  :  17, 
18;   9:13-21, 
24;  1:15-17; 
9:27,  28. 
IKin.  4:29-33; 
2  Chr.  9:22; 
Prov.    1-31;  5; 
6:24-35;  7. 
IKin.  4:34; 
10:1-13; 
2  Chr.  9:23,  1- 
12. 

IKin.  11:1  26. 

IKin.  11:26-40. 
Eccl.   1-12;   3~ 
11:8. 
IKin.  11:41-43; 
2  Chr.  9:29-31. 
13 

Other  buildings  of  Solomon  ;  God  makes  a  cov-  j 

Acquisitions  of  Solomon  ;   he  carries  out  Da 
vid's  arrangements  for  the  temple  services,  - 

Pharaoh's  daughter  brought  by  Solomon  to  his 

Solomon's  fame  ;  visit  of  the  queen  of  Sheba,  — 
Solomon's  wives  seduce  him  into  idolatry  ;  Hadac 

Ahijah  predicts  to  Jeroboam  the  division  of  the 
kingdom  ;    Solomon  seeks  to  kill  Jeroboam 

Solomon  writes  Ecclesiastes,  or  the  Preacher, 
probably  as  an  expression  of  repentance,  
Death   of  Solomon  ;   Kehoboam  his   son  sue- 

2*                                                                           5 

CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 
PERIOD   IY.  —  CONTINUED. 


PATE   AND   PLACE. 


EVENT  OK  NARRATIVE. 


EIBLK   KEFERENCE. 


B.  C. 

976,  Shechem. 


YIII.  DIVISION  OF  THE  KINGDOM. 
On  the  accession  of  Rehoboam,   the  people, } 
headed  by  Jeroboam,  demand  a  relaxation  > 
of  burdens, — ) 

Acting  upon  the  advice  of  the  young  men  in-  ) 
stead  of  the  old  men,  Ilehoboam  refuses  the  >• 
request  of  the  people, — ) 

Ten  tribes  revolt ;  Judah  and  Benjamin  ad-  j 
here  to  Ilehoboam,  and  form  the  kingdom  /- 
of  Judah,  -- ) 

The  ten  tribes  make  Jeroboam  their  king,  and 
form  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  - 


1  Kin.  12  :  1-5 ; 
2Chr.  10:1-5. 

IKin.  12:6-15; 

2  Chr.  10:6-15. 

IKin.  12: 16-10; 
2  Chr.  10:10-10. 


1  Kin.  12-20. 


PERIOD  Y. 

FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  SOLOMON  TO  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  OLD 
TESTAMENT  CANON* 

I.  HISTORY  OF  THE  TWO  KINGDOMS. 


JUDAII.  B.   C. 

EEHOBOAM  king  17  years,  1  Kings   976 
14: 21, /.p.,  (Judah;)  2  Chr.  12:13, 
f.p.,  (reigned.) 

Rehoboarn,  preparing  to  attack  the  ten 
tribes,  is  forbidden  by  Shemaiah, 
1  Kin.  12:21-24;  2  Chr.  11:1-4. 

Eehoboam  fortifies  his  kingdom ;  the    974 
priests  and  Levites  of  Israel  resort 
to  him  ;  Kehoboam's  family,  2  Chr. 
11:5-23. 


Ilehoboam  and  Judah's  idolatry,  1  Kin. 

14:22-24;  2  Chr.  12:1. 
Shishak  plunders  Jerusalem,   1  Kin. 

14:25-28;  2  Chr.  12:2-12. 


Character  and  death  of  Ilehoboam, 
1  Kin.  14:21,  1.  p.  29-31 ;  2  Chron. 
12:13,  1.  p.  14-16. 

ABLJAH,  or  ABIJAM,  king  3  years,    953 

1  Kin.  15:1,  2,  6  ;  2  Chr.  13:1,  2. 
Abijah    defeats  Jeroboam  in   battle, 

2  Chr.  13:3-21. 
His  heart  not  perfect. 


*  The  names  of  new  kings  are  here  printed  1n  capitals  ;  and  if  founders  of  new  dynasties, 
in  italic  capitals. 

514 


ISRAEL. 

2  years;  lie  estab 
lishes  himself  at  Shechem.  1  Kings 
12:25. 


Jeroboam,  having  set  up  golden  calves 
at  Dan  and  Bethel,  is  reproved  by  a 
man  of  God,  1  Kin.  12:26-33  ;  13:1- 
10. 

Seduced  by  an  old  prophet  of  Bethel, 

the  man  of  God  disobeys  the  word 

of  the  Lord,  and  is  slain  by  a  lion, 

IKin.  13:11-32. 

These   calves  borrowed  from  Egypt, 

where  Jeroboam  had  resided. 
Twice  warned  by  the  man  of  God  and 
by  Ahijah,  yet  persisting  in  his  idol 
atry. 

The  step  seemed  politic.  It  seemed  a  form 
of  worship  something  like  that  establish 
ed  at  Jerusalem,  and  attracted  the  tribes, 
but  in  the  end  it  proved  the  ruin  of  the 
kingdom. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD    V. CONTINUED. 


JUDAII. 


Character  and  death  of  Abijah.  ASA 
king  41  years,  1  Kin.  15 : 3-10 ;  2  Chr. 
13:22;  14:1. 


Asa  puts  away  idolatry,  and  strength 
ens  his  kingdom,  1  Kin.  15:11-15; 
2  Chr.  14:2-8;  15:10-18. 

Asa's  victory  over  the  Ethiopians, 
2  Chr.  14:9-15. 

Moved  by  Azariah,  Asa  makes  a  sol 
emn  covenant  with  God,  2  Chr 
15:1-15,  19. 

Asa  bribes  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria  to 
attack  Baasha,  1  Kin.  15:16-22. 

Asa,  reproved  by  Hanani  for  applying 
to  Ben-hadad,  puts  him  ia  prison, 
2  Chr.  16:7-10. 

His  idolatrous  alliance  with  Syria,  and  his 
imprisonment  of  the  prophet,  after  all 
bis  reformations,  prove  his  ruin. 


Asa's  death.  JEHOSHAPHAT  king 
25  years ;  his  piety  and  prosperity, 
1  Kin.  15:23,  24;  22:41-47;  2  Chr. 
16:11-14;  17:1;  20:31-33;  17.2- 
19 ;  compare  ver.  6  and  20:33. 
His  great  error  is  his  alliance  with  Ahab, 
whose  daughter  Athaliah  his  son  Jeho 
ram  marries.  Ilence  his  expedition  to 
liamoth,  which  nearly  cost  him  his  life. 


Jehoshaphat  visits  Ahab,  and  joins 
with  him  in  battle  against  the  Syr 
ians,  2  Chr.  18. 

Jehoshaphat  reproved  by  Jehu  for 
joining  with  Ahab.  He  visits  his 
kingdom,  and  exhorts  the  judges, 
etc.,  to  be  faithful,  2  Chr.  19 ;  Psa. 
82. 


B.  C. 

957 
956 


955 
953 
951 

944 
942 

941 


931 
930 

926 


917 
914 


910 
to 
906 

902 
and 
901 
900 


ISRAEL. 

Ahijah  denounces  Jeroboam,   1  Kin. 
13:33,  34;  14:1-18. 


Jeroboam's  death.  NADAB  king  2 
years,  1  Kin.  14:19,  20;  15:25,  26. 

Nadab  slain  at  Gibbethon.  BAASHA 
king  24  years,  1  Kin.  15:27-34. 


Baasha,  attempting  to  build  Ramah, 
is  attacked  by  the  king  of  Syria, 
2  Chr.  16:1-6. 


Baasha  denounced  by  Jehu ;  his  death. 
ELAH  king  2  years,  1  Km.  16:1-8. 

Elah  slain.  ZIMRI  king  7  days  ;  de 
stroys  Baasha' s  house.  Omri  elect- 
ed  king.  Zimri  destroys  himself, 
IKin  16:9-20. 

OMRI  king  12  years,  including  6  years' 
civil  war  with  Tibni.  Samaria  built, 
1  Kin.  16:21-26. 

Omri  dies.   AHAB  king  22  years.   Jer 
icho  rebuilt  by  Hiel,  who  reaps  Josh 
ua's  curse,  IKin,  16:27-34. 
Kin.  16  :25     Compare  Mic.  6  :26  ;  1  Kin. 
16:34;  Josh.  6:26. 

Elijah  prophesies  a  famine  ;  raises  the 
widow's  son ;  his  trial  with  the 

?rophets  of  Baal.  Elisha  a  prophet, 
Kin  17-19. 

Ben-hadad  besieges  Samaria.  The  Syr 
ians  twice  defeated.  Ahab  denounc 
ed,  1  Kin.  20. 

Ahab  seizes  Naboth's  vineyard.  Eli 
jah  denounces  him,  1  Kin.  21. 

[Ahab  makes  war  on  Syria,  and  is  slain, 
as  Micaiah  predicted.  AHAZIAH 
king,  1  Kin.  22:1-35,  36-40,  51-53. 

Ver.  39.    See  Amos  3: 15. 


Psa.  82  placed  here  from  internal  evidence, 
(Towns.) 

515 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 
PERIOD  V.— CONTINUED 


JUDAH. 

Overthrow  of  Moab,  etc.  Jehoram 
regent,  2  Chr.  20  : 1-30 ;  Psa.  115 ; 
46. 

Jehoshaphat  joins  Ahaziah.  Being 
reproved,  and  his  ships  wrecked,  he 
refuses  to  join  in  a  subsequent  ex 
pedition,  1  Kin.  22  :  48,  49  ;  2  Chr. 
20:35,  37. 

Afterwards  joins  Joram  against  Moab, 
and  is  saved  only  by  a  miracle, 
2  Kin.  3. 
On  2  Chr.  20  :13  ;  see  Joel  2 :16. 


2  Kin.  9:2, 13.  "Read,  therefore,  in  1  Kin. 
19  : 16,  grandson  ;  and  by  Elijah  anoint 
ing  Jehu,  understand  ordering  Elisha  to 
do  it.  Jehu  was  anointed  to  exterminate 
the  house  of  Ahab. 

Jehoram  begins  to  reign  in  concert 
with  Jehoshaphat,  2  Kin.  8:16. 

2  Chr.  21 : 5.  Three  dates  are  given  for  the 
beginning  of  Jehoram's  reign  :  B.  c.  897, 
when  he  was  regent  during  his  father's 
absence,  2  Kin.  1 :17  ;  3:1:  891,  2  Kin. 
8:16-,  and  889. 

Death  of  Jehoshaphat.  JEHORAM, 
or  JORAM,  king  8  years  ;  his  wick 
ed  and  troubled  reign.  Elijah's  let 
ter,  written  before  his  translation, 
brought  to  him,  1  Kin.  22  :  45,  50 ; 
2  Kin.  8 : 17-22  ;  2  Chr.  20 : 34 ;  21 : 1- 
18. 

Ahaziah  begins  to  reign  as  viceroy  to 
his  father,  2  Kin.  9:29. 

Death  of  Jehoram.     AHAZIAH  king 

.  one  year ;  his  evil  reign,  2  Kin.  8 : 23- 
27;  2  Chr.  21:19,  20;  22:1-4. 

Ahaziah  joins  Joram  against  Hazael, 
and  afterwards  visits  him  at  Jezreel, 
2  Kin.  8:28,  29. 

Ahaziah  slain  by  Jehu,  2  Chr.  22:7-9. 

ATIIALIAII  usurps  the  throne  6  years. 
Joash  the  son  of  Ahaziah  rescued, 
2  Kin.  11:1-3  ;  2  Chr.  22:10-12. 

516 


B.   C 

897 


894 


893 

892 


891 


890 


to 

887 


886 
885 

884 

883 


ISRAEL. 

Psa.  115  and  46.  The  schools  of  the  proph 
ets,  (Naioth,)  1  Sam.  10  :10  ;  19  :20  ;  2Kin. 
2 : 2,  seem  to  hare  trained  at  this  time  a 
large  number  of  religious  teachers. 


Ahaziah  falling  sick  and  sending  to  in 
quire  of  Baalzebub,  is  denounced  by 
Elijah.  JEHORAM,  or  JORAM,  his 
brother,  king  12  years,  2  Kin.  1 ; 
3:1-3. 

Elijah  translated.  Elisha  acknow 
ledged  as  his  successor ;  his  mira 
cles,  2  Kin.  2. 

Joram,  joined  by  Jehoshaphat  and  the 
king  of  Edom,  defeats  Moab,  2  Kin. 
3:4-27. 

Elisha  multiplies  the  widow's  oil; 
promises  a  son  to  the  Shunammite, 
2  Kin.  4:1-17. 

Naaman  healed,  2  Kin.  5. 

Elisha  causes  iron  to  swim ;  discloses 
the  Syrian  king's  purpose,  and  smites 
his  army  with  blindness,  2  Kin.  6 : 1- 
23. 

Ben-hadad  besieges  Samaria ;  severe 
famine  ensues ;  plenty  restored  by 
the  sudden  flight  of  the  Syrians, 
2  Kin.  6:24-33;  7. 

Elisha  raises  to  life  the  widow's  son ; 
other  miracles,  2  Kings  4  :  18-44 ; 
8:1,2. 

2  Kin.  4  :44.  This  is  Elisha's  twelfth  mir 
acle,  Elijah  having  wrought  six.  Town- 
send  places  4  : 18  after  4:17;  but  there  is 
clearly  an  interval  of  two  years  or  so  be 
tween  them. 


Return  of  the  Shunammite.  Hazael 
kills  Ben-hadad,  and  becomes,  as 
Elisha  predicted,  king  of  Syria, 
2  Kin.  8:3-15. 

Joram  being  wounded  in  battle  by  the 
Syrians,  retires  to  Jezreel,  2  Chron. 
22:5,  6. 

Jehu  anointed,  2  Kin.  9:1-13.  | 

Joram  slain  by  Jehu,  2  Kin.  9:14-28. 

TEIW  king  28  years ;  slays  Jezebel, 
Ahab's  sons,  Ahaziah' s  brethren, 
and  Baal's  worshippers,  2  Kings 
9:30-37;  10:1-31. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD     V. CONTINUED. 


JUDAH. 

JEHOASH,  or  JOASH,  king  40  years. 
Athaliah  slain,  2  Kings  11  :  4-12 ; 
2  Chr.  23-24:3. 


Joash  repairs  the  temple,  2  Kin.  12:4- 

16;  2  Chr.  24:4-14. 
Death  of  Jehoiada,  2  Chr.  24:15,  16. 


Joash  and  the  people  fall  into  idola 
try  ;  Zechariah,  reproving  them,  is 
slain  in  the  temple-court,  (cf.  Matt. 
23:35.)  The  Syrians  invade  Judah, 
2  Chr.  24:17-24  ;  2  Kin.  12:17,  18. 

Joash  slain  by  his  servants.  AMA- 
ZIAH  king  29  years,  2  Kin.  12:19- 
21 ;  14  :  1-6  ;  2  Chron.  24  :  25-27  ; 
25:1-4. 


Amaziah  hires  an  army  of  Israelites  to 
assist  him  against  Edom,  but  at  a 
prophet's  command  he  sends  them 
back,  2  Chr.  25:5-10. 

Amaziah  smites  the  Edomites  and  wor 
ships  their  gods,  2  Chron.  25  :  11 ; 
2  Kin.  14:7  ;  2  Chr.  25:12,  14-16. 

Arnaziah  provokes  the  king  of  Israel 
to  battle,  and  is  taken  prisoner  by 
him,  2  Kin.  14:8-14. 


Amaziah  slain.  UZZIAH,  or  AZA- 
RIAH,  king  52  years.  During  the 
days  of  Zechariah  he  reigns  well, 
2  Kin.  14  :  17-22  ;  15  :  1-4  ;  2  Chr. 
25:25;  26:15. 


Amos  7  : 10-19,  Lightfoot  and  others  place 
after  2  Kin.  14:28. 


B.  C. 

877 


860 
855 

850 
849 
842 

841 

840 


838 

836 
827 


826 
823 
822 


to 
800 


801 
793 


Hazael  oppresses  Israel,  2  Kin.  10:32, 

33. 
Death  of  Jehu.     JEHOAHAZ  king  17 

years.  2  Kin.  10:34-36  ;  13:1,  2. 
History  of  Jonah.     Jon.  1-4. 
Israel  given  over  by  God  to  Hazael 

and  Ben-hadad,  and  delivered,  2  Kin. 

13:1-7. 
Jehoash  begins  to  reign  in  concert  with 

Jehoahaz,  2  Kin.  13:10. 


Death  of  Jehoahaz.  JEHOASH,  or 
JOASH,  king  16  years.  He  visits 
Elisha,  who  promises  three  victo 
ries.  Hazael  dies,  2  Kin.  13  :  8,  9, 
11,  14-19,  22-24. 

Elisha  dies.  A  corpse  thrown  into 
Elisha' s  sepulchre  revives,  2  Kin. 
13:20,  21. 

Jehoash  thrice  beats  the  Syrians,  2  Kin. 
13:25. 


The  Israelites,  who  had  been  dismissed 
by  Amaziah,  plunder  the  cities  of 
Judah  as  they  return,  2  Chr.  25:13. 


Jehoash  defeats  the  king  of  Judah, 
and  plunders  the  temple,  2  Chron. 
25:17-24. 

Death  of  Jehoash.  JEROBOAM  II. 
king  41  years ;  he  reigns  wickedly, 
2  Kin.  13:12,  13 ;  14:15,  16,  23,  24. 

Jeroboam  restores  the  coast  of  Israel, 
according  to  the  word  of  Jonah, 
2  Kin.  14:25-27. 


Hosea  makes  his  first  appeal  to  the  ten 
tribes,  Hos.  1-3. 

Amos  denounces  judgment  against  the 
surrounding    nations,    and    against 
Israel  and  Judah,  Amos  1-9. 
517 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE, 


PERIOD  V. — CONTINUED. 


JUDAII. 

On  the  increase  of  Uzziah's  army,  Joel 
foretells  the  overthrow  of  Judah, 
Joel  1-3. 


The  three  children  have  names  given  to 
them,  indicating  the  place  of  the  wicked 
ness  of  the  house  of  Ahab,  (ver.  4  ;  see 
1  Kin.  21 :1 ;)  their  punishment,  not  find 
ing  mercy  in  calamity  ;  and  their  rejec 
tion,  no  longer  the  people  of  God.  They 
are,  however,  to  be  gathered  again  un 
der  the  Messiah,  their  one  Head,  ver.  11 ; 
ver.  7,  see  2  Kin.  19  :C5. 


Uzziah  struck  with  leprosy  for  invad 
ing  the  priest's  office.  Jotham  re 
gent,  2  Kin.  15  :  5  ;  2  Chr.  26  :  16- 
20,  21. 

2  Kin.  15  : 5,  several,  that  is,  lone  or  sepa 
rate. 

Isaiah  designated  in  a  vision  to  the 
prophetic  office.  He  prophesies  of 
Christ's  kingdom,  and  of  judgment 
on  the  people  for  their  sins,  Isa. 
1:1;  6:2-5. 

Death  of  Uzziah.  JOTHAM  king  16 
years  ;  his  prosperity,  2  Kin.  15  :  6, 
7,  32-35;  2  Chr.  26:22,  23;  27:1-6. 

Micah  reproves  the  wickedness  of  Ju 
dah,  Mic.  1,  2. 


Judah  begins  to  be  afflicted  by  Syria 
and  Israel.  Death  of  Jotham, 
2  Kin.  15:36-38  ;  2  Chr.  27:7-9. 

AHAZ  king  16  years,  2  Kin.  16:1-4; 
2  Chr.  28:1-4. 

Invasion  of  Pekah  and  Eczin.  Isaiah 
prophesies  on  the  occasion,  denounc 
ing  Ahaz's  intended  alliance  with 
Assyria,  2  Kings  16  :  5  ;  Isa.  7-9  ; 
10:1-4. 

Isaiah  prophesies  the  ruin  of  Damas 
cus  and  of  the  ten  tribes,  Isa.  17. 

Judah  devastated  by  Syria  and  Israel ; 
the  latter  restore  their  captives,  by 
advice  of  Oded,  2  Chr.  28:5-15. 

Ahaz,  being  assailed  by  enemies,  hires 
Tiglath-pileser  the  king  of  Assyria 
518 


IB.  c. 

787 

783 

771 

770 

769 

765 

761 
759 

757 

756 
753 

742 


740 


ISRAEL. 

1 :3,  see  2 Kin.  16:9;  ver.  6, see  2Kin.l8  :8; 
1:8,  see  2  Chron.  26:  6 ;  ver.  11,  see  Num. 
20 : 14  ;  5  :27,  see  2  Kin.  10  :32 :  17  :6. 

Death  of  Jeroboam,  2  Kin.  14:28,  29. 

An  interregnum  for  eleven  years. 
State  of  Israel   during  the  interreg 
num.     Hosea  denounces  judgment, 

Hos.  4. 
ZECHARIAH,  fourth  from  Jehu,  king 

six  months.      Shalluin  slays  him, 

2  Kin.  15:8-12. 
SIIALLUM  king  one  month.     Mena- 

hem  slays  him,  2  Kin.  15:13-15. 
MENAIIEM  king  10  years,  2  Kings 

15:16-18. 
Pul  of  Assyria,  coming  against  Israel, 

is  bribed  to  return,  2  Kin.  15  : 19, 

20. 


Death  of  Menahcm.  PEKAIIIAH  king 
2  years,  2  Kin.  15:21-24. 

Pekahiah  slain  by  Pekah.     PEKAI1 
king  20  years,  15:25-28. 

Isa.  1:1. 

Isa.  7-10:4.     On  the  order,  compare  7:5 
with  2  Kin.  16:5. 

Isa.  1 :2-31.    On  order,  see  ver.  7,  8,  com 
pared  with  2  Chr.  28  :6-9. 

Isa.  6:1,  see  John  12:41. 

Isa.  6  :13,  see  2  Kin.  25  :12. 

Isa.  2:19,  see  Rev.  6:15. 

2  Chr.  27  :2,  see  chap  26  :19. 

Isa.  7  : 8,  see  2  Kin.  17  :24. 

Reign  of  Ahaz, 15  years. 

"        Hezekiah, 29      " 

"       Manasseh  II.,---21      " 

65      " 

Tsa.  7: 16,  see  2  Kin.  15:29. 
Isa.  8  :1,  a  man's  pen,  that  is,  common  writ 
ing  ;  see  Rev.  13:18;  21:17. 
Mic.  1:5,  seel  Kin.  16:32. 
Mic.  1:13,  see  Jer.  34:7. 


Isa.  17  see  2  Kin.  16:9:  18:11. 


740  Tiglath-pileser  ravages  Gilead,   Gali- 
I     lee,  and  Naphtali,  and  carries  cap- 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PEHIOD    V. CONTINUED. 


JUDAII.  IB.  c. 

against  them.     Obadiali  and  Isaiah,  j 
2  Kin.  16:6-9;  2  Chr.  28:16,  21, 17-' 
20;  Obad.  ;"  Isa.  1:2-31 ;  28. 
Sacrilege  and  idolatry  of  Ahaz,  2  Chr.    738 


28:22-25;  2  Kin.  16:10-18;  Hosea 
5,  6. 


Death  of  Ahaz,  2  Kings  16  :  19,  20 ; 
2  Chr.  28:26,  27  ;  Isa.  14:28-32. 

IIEZEKIAH  king  29  years,  2  Kings 
18:1,  2;  2  Chr.  29:1. 

Eeformation  by  Hezekiah,  2  Kings 
18:3-6;  2  Chr.  29:2-36;  80,  31. 

Moab  denounced,  Isa.  15,  16. 

Micah  supports  Hezekiah' s  reforma 
tion,  Mic.  3-7. 

See  Jer.  26:18;  Mic.  3:9. 


Hezekiah' s  prosperity,  2  Kin.  18:7,  8. 


Prophecy  of  the  restoration  of  the  ten 
tribes,  of  the  punishment  of  Egypt, 
and  conversion  of  Egypt  and  As 
syria,  Isa.  18,  19. 


730 
726 


723 
721 


ISRAEL. 

tive   their  inhabitants  to   Assyria, 
2  Kin.  15:29. 
Isa.  5  : 21,  see  2  Sam.  5  :20. 

Pekah  slain  by  Hoshea,  2  Kin.  15:  CO, 
31. 

Anarchy  for  nine  years. 

HOSHEA  king  9  years.  Shalmaneser 
king  of  Assyria  invades  his  territory 
and  makes  him  a  tributary,  2  Kin. 
17:1-3. 

Isa.  14:28-32,  against  Thilistia,  see  2  Chr. 
26:6.  Ahab,  who  subdued  them,  was 
dead  ;  but  a  cockatrice  out  of  that  nest, 
Hezekiah,  was  still  to  bite  them,  2  Kin. 
18:8. 

Isa.  15.  The  destruction  of  Moab  by  Shal 
maneser  foretold.  They  are  exhorted  to 
renew  their  tribute,  16  :1.  See  2  liincs 
3:4. 

Hoshea  attacked  and  imprisoned  by 
Shalmaneser  for  not  giving  the  trib 
ute.  Hosea  predicts  the  captivity 
of  the  ten  tribes,  and  exhorts  to  re 
pentance,  2  Kin.  17:4;  Hos.  7-14. 

Shalmaneser  besieges  Samaria,  2  Kin. 

17:5;  18:9. 
The  ten  tribes  carried  into  captivity 

unto    Assyria,   2  Kings   17  :  6-23 ; 

18:10-12. 


.  HISTORY  OF  JUDAII  TO  THE  CAPTIVITY,  114  YEARS. 


DATE  AND  PLACE. 

EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 

BIBLE  REFERENCB. 

B.    C. 

»        715. 
714. 

713,  Judea. 

Tyre  denounced,  Isa.  23.    Prophecy  concerning 

-.1 

Isa.  10:5; 
14:27. 
Isa.  24;    26:17, 
18;  27. 
Isa.    22  :  1-14  ; 
21; 
2Kin.  18:13-16; 
2  Chr.  32:1-8; 
Isa.  36  :  1  ;   20  ; 
29-31. 
9 

The  desolation  and  recovery  of  Judea  predicted, 
ptr 

Isaiah  predicts  the  invasion  by  Assyria  and  the 
destruction  of  liabylon.     Sennacherib  comes 
up  against  Judah,  but  being  pacified  by  a  trib-  - 
ute,  retires.      Isaiah  denounces  Egypt,  and 

i 

CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD      V.— CONTINUED. 


DATE   AND    PLACE. 


Jerusalem. 


712. 
'12,  Jerusalem. 


711,  Judea. 


.  710-G99. 
697,  Jerusalem. 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


Sickness  of  Hezekiah ;  his  song  of  thanksgiv 
ing.  Isaiah  predicts  the  blessings  of  Christ's 
kingdom,  and  judgments  of  the  enemies  of 
Zion,  - 


Nineveh  denounced  by  Nahum, -• 

Hezekiah  showing  in  pride  to  the  ambassadors  ( 
from  Babylon  his  treasures,  Isaiah  predicts  - 
the  Babylonian  captivity, • 


Second  invasion  of  Sennacherib  ;  destruction  of 
his  army, - -- | 


Various  prophecies  of  Isaiah, 

Hezekiah' s  wealth  ;  his  death.    MAN ASSEII  king 
fifty-five  years  ;  his  awful  impiety  ;  judgment  j 
denounced  by  God' s  prophets, 


2  Kin.  20  :  1-0, 

8,  9-11,  7  ; 
Isa.  38:1-6,  22, 
7,8,21,9-20; 
2  Chr.  32:24; 
Isa.  32-35. 
Nah.  1-3. 
2  Kin.  20: 12- 19; 
Isa.  39 ; 

2  Chr.  32: 25, 26. 
2  Kin. 18: 17-37, 
26-28;  19:1- 
37. 
Psa.  44,  73,  75, 

76; 
Isa.  36: 2, 11-22; 

37:.l-38; 
2  Chr.  32:9-21- 

23. 
Isa.  40-66 ; 

57:3-9. 
2  Kin.  20: 20, 21; 

21:1-16; 
2  Chr.  32: 27-33; 
33:1-10. 

Isaiah  predicts  the  captivity  of  Shcbna, Isa.  22 : 15-25. 

678,  Samaria.    The  heathen  nations,  who  had  been  transplanted 
to  Samaria  in  place  of  the  Israelites,  being 
plagued  by  lions,  make  a  mixture  of  religions,  -  2  Kin.  17:24-41. 
677,  Babylon.    Manasseh  taken  captive  by  the  king  of  Assyria  ; 
his  conversion  and  restoration  ;  he  puts  down 

idolatry, - 2  Chr.  33: 11-1 7. 

642,  Jerusalem.  Death  of  Manasseh.    AMOX  king  two  years  ;  his  j    2 Kin.  21: 17-22 ; 

impiety,  - j    2  Chr.  33: 18-23. 

'  2  Kin.  21: 23-26; 
640.  Amon  slain  by  his  servants.     JOSIAII  king  thir-  j        22:1,  2  ; 

ty-one  years, ]    2  Chr.  33: 24, 25; 

34:1,  2. 

634.  Josiah  vigorously  puts  down  idolatry, 2  Chr.  34 : 3-7. 

G28.  Jeremiah  called  ;  he  expostulates  with  the  Jews, 

on  account  of  their  sins, - Jer.  1:2;  3 : 1-5. 

623,  Jerusalem.  Josiah  provides  for  the  repair  of  the  temple,  f  2  Kin.  22:3-20; 
The  Book  of  the  Law  having  been  found,  !  23:1-3,4-20; 
Josiah  consults  Huldah ;  he  causes  it  to  be  1  2  Chr.  34:8,28* 

read  publicly,  and  renews  the  covenant, [       33. 

623.  Zephaniah  exhorts  to  repentance, Zeph.  1,  2,  3. 

622,  Jerusalem.  A  most  solemn  celebration  of  the  Passover  by      2  Kin.  23: 2 1-27; 

Josiah, 2Chr,  35:1-19. 

612.  Jeremiah  reproves  the  backsliding  of  the  peo-      Jer.  3:6-11,  12- 

ple,  and  bewails  the  coming  captivity, 25  ;  4-6, 

612.  Habakkuk  predicts  judgment, -  Hab.  1-3. 

611.  Jeremiah  exhorts  the  people  to  repentance,  and 

laments  their  approaching  calamities, Jer.  7-10. 

520 


BIBLE    REFERENCE. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE, 
PERIOD  V. — CONTINUED. 


DATK  AND   PLACE. 


KVEXT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE   REFERENCE. 


B.  C. 

G10. 


609,  Megiddo 
and  Jerusalem. 


Eiblah. 


608. 
606. 


Jerusalem. 
606. 


Jeremiah  reminds  the  people  of  the  covenant  of 
Jotdah, 


Josiah  slain  in  battle  with  the  king  of  Egypt. 
Jeremiah  and  the  people  lament  him.  JEIIO- 
AHAZ  king  three  months, 

Jehoahaz  deposed  and  imprisoned  by  Pharaoh- 
Necho,  and  subsequently  taken  to  Egypt. 
JEHOIAKIM  king  eleven  years, 

Jeremiah  delivers  various  predictions,  and  appeals 
to  the  Jews  respecting  the  captivity  and  destruc 
tion  of  Jerusalem, 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  fate  of  Pashur,  Jer.  20 :  of 
Shallum,  that  is,  Jehoahaz,  and  Jehoiakim, — 

Apprehension  and  arraignment  of  Jeremiah, 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  overthrow  of  the  army  of 
Pharaoh-Necho  king  of  Egypt,  by  Nebuchad 
nezzar,  - 

The  obedience  of  the  Rcchabitcs  to  their  father 
contrasted  with  the  disobedience  of  the  Jews,  -  - 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  captivity  of  the  Jews  for 
seventy  years,  and  the  subsequent  judgment 
on  Babylon, - 

Jeremiah  desires  Baruch  to  write  his  prophecies 
on  a  roll,  and  then  to  read  it  publicly  in  the 
temple , - - 

Nebuchadnezzar  takes  Jerusalem,  and  puts  Je-  ~| 
hoiakim  in  fetters,  intending  to  take  him  to  1 
Babylon,  but  afterwards  releasing  him,  makes  f 
him  a  tributary,  and  spoils  the  temple, J 

Nebuchadnezzar  orders  the  master  of  his  eunuchs 
to  select  and  send  to  Babylon  some  of  the  royal 
family  and  nobility,  to  stand  in  the  king's  pal 
ace.  Daniel,  Hananiah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah, 
(otherwise  called  Belteshazzar,  Shadrach,  Me- 
shach,  and  Abednego,)  are  taken  there, 


Jer.  11 ;  15,  12. 
2  Kin.  23: 29, 80, 

28,  30  L  p., 

81,  32; 
2Chr.35:20-27; 

36:1,  2. 
2  Kin.  23  :  33- 

37; 
2  Chr.  36:3-5. 


Jer.  13-19. 

Jer.  22:1-23. 
Jer.  26. 


Jer.  46:1-12. 
Jer.  35. 

Jer.  25. 

Jer.  36: 1-8;  45. 

2  Kin.  24:1; 

2  Chr.  36:6,7; 
Dan.  1:1,  2. 


Dan.  1,3,4,6,7. 


III.  FROM  THE  FIRST  CAPTURE  OF  JERUSALEM,  B.  C.  606,  TO  THE  DECREE 
OF  CYRUS,  FOR  THE  RESTORATION  OF  THE  JEWS,  B.  C.  536—70  YEARS. 


DATE  AND  PLACE. 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE  REFERENCE 


B.  C. 

Babylon. 
605. 


603. 


EVENTS  AT  JERUSALEM,  WITH  CONTEM 
PORANEOUS  EVENTS  AT  BABYLON. 

Daniel  meets  with  kindly  treatment, Dan.  1:5,  8-17. 

Baruch  again  reads  the  prophetic  roll ;  Jehoiakim 

Jer.  36:9-32. 
2  Kin. 
24. 
521 


burns  it, 
Jehoiakim  rebels  against  Nebuchadnezzar,- 


•< 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD    V.  —  CONTINUED.' 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 

Babylon. 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE   REFERENCE. 


Dan.  1:18-21. 


Daniel  before  Nebuchadnezzar, 

Interprets  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream,  Dan.  2  ;  de 
scribing  the  Babylonian,  32,  Medo- Persian,  32- 
39,  Macedo-Grecian,  32-39,  and  Roman  em 
pires,  33,  40-43,  with  Messiah's  kingdom,  34, 
35,  44,  45. 

2  Kin.  24:5-9 
599.  Death  of  Jchoiakim.    JEIIOIACIIIN  or  JECIIONIAH  J    2  Chr.  36:8,  9; 

king  three  months, 1    Jer.  22:24-30' 

[       23. 
699.  Second  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnez-  ] 

zar.     Jchoiachin  is  carried  to  Babylon,  with  I    op™  in  10 
many  of  his  subjects.     ZEDEKIAH  or  MATTA-  [    T      £9.1  9.~; 

NIAII  king  eleven  years, j  x'  ~; 

Jer.  29  : 1-14, 

697.  Predictions  of  the  duration  of  the  captivity,  -  -  -  1       16-20, 15, 21- 

32. 

Of  the  restoration  of  the  Jews, --  - "-  Jer.  30,  31. 

695.  Predictions  against  the  surrounding  nations,  j  ,Jer.  27,  28,  48, 

Hananiah  the  false  prophet  denounced, )       49. 

Prophecies  against  Babylon, Jer.  50,  51. 

Babylon.          Ezekiel's  vision  in  Babylon  ;   his  commission,  (-,-••     o 

Ezek.  1-3:1-21.     He  prophesies  of  the  mis- 4    l  zr^  6:*--^  > 

eries  of  Jerusalem, - ( 

694.  Visions  of  the  idolatries  which   occasioned  the 

captivity, - Ezek.  8,  10,  11. 

Babylon.          Various  predictions  against  the  false  prophets,  \   Ezek.  12-19  ; 

Jerusalem,  and  the  Jewish  nation, \        16  ;  18: 5-18. 

693.  Prophecies  addressed  to  the  elders  of  the  Jews,  -  -  Ezek.  21-23. 

Jer.  37: 1,2; 

Jerusalem.       Zedekiah's  rebellion  and  wickedness, --j   ?  S?"  ?,: :  ?? ; 

A  Lnr.  ou:Io  ; 

Jer.  52:3. 

The  wickedness  of  priests  and  people,  (the  cause 
of  the  captivity,  ver.  15,  16,)  with  a  summary 
account  of  the  judgments  that  followed, 2Chr.  36: 14-21. 

690.  Nebuchadnezzar  lays  siege  to  Jerusalem  for  the  \    T     ^  t°'KO'  t 

third  time,-  .-|  Je^93;\;62 

Babylon.         Ezekiel  foretells  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, —  Ezek.  24. 

Jerusalem.       Capture  of  the  city  foretold.    The  people,  at  Jere 
miah's  word,  release  their  Hebrew  bond-servants,  Jer.  34 : 1-10. 
589.  Jeremiah  shut  up  in  prison ;  his  predictions  there,  Jer.  32,  33. 

Babylon.         Ezekiel  in  Babylon,  prophesies  against  Egypt,  )    Ezek.  26. 
Ezek.  29: 1-16,  and  against  Tyre, j    See  Isa.  23. 

Terusalem.       The  Chaldeans  raise  the  siege  to  march  against 
the   approaching   Egyptian    army.      Jeremiah 

predicts  the  destruction  of  the  Philistines, Jer.  87:5;  47. 

On  the  departure  of  the  Chaldean  army,  the] 

people  recall  their  bond-servants,  for  which  i    Jer.  34:11-22; 
Jeremiah  denounces  them,  and  predicts  the  f        37:6-10 
speedy  return  of  the  Chaldeans, j 

522 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 
PERIOD  V. — CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


B.  C. 

688. 


Babylon 

667. 


673. 
672. 

670. 

569. 
668-563. 

661. 

658. 
656. 

638. 
637. 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


Jeremiah  reimprisoncd  ;  continues  to  denounce 
Zedekiah  ;  he  is  put  into  the  dungeon  of 
Malchiah, 

Ezekiel,  in  Babylon,  again  prophesies  against 
Egypt  and  Nineveh, 

Jerusalem  finally  taken.  Zedekiah  carried  to 
Babylon.  Jeremiah  delivered, 


Nebuzaradan  burns  the  temple,  and  carries 
away  the  people,  leaving  a  few  poor  persons 
to  till  the  land, 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


Jeremiah  bewails  the  desolation  of  his  country,  - 

Gedaliah  appointed  governor.      Jeremiah  and  j 
many  others  attach  themselves  to  him, | 

Ishmael  slays  Gedaliah,  and  attempts  to  carry 
away  the  people  to  the  Ammonites  ;  Johanan 
intercepts  him  ;  the  people,  fearing  the  Chal 
deans,  flee  into  Egypt,  contrary  to  the  com 
mand  of  God, - J 

Jeremiah    prophesies  against  Egypt   and    the  j 
idolatrous  Jews,-- - j 

Brief  summary  of  the  captivities  by  Nebuchad 
nezzar, 


REMAINDER   OF   THE  HISTORY  OF  THE 
JEWS  IN  CAPTIVITY— BABYLON. 

Ezekiel  predicts  the  utter  desolation  of  Judca, — 
?redietions  against  Ammon,  Moab,  Edom,  Plii- 

listia,  Tyre,  and  Egypt, 

Ezekiel  appeals  to  the  captives, 

Svil  rulers  denounced  ;  restoration  of  the  Jews  j 
promised  ;  predictions  of  Messiah's  kingdom,  j 

'rophesies  of  the  church  and  its  enemies,  and  of 
the  conversion  of  the  Jews, 

Szekiel's  vision  of  the  future  temple, - 

jast  prediction  against  Egypt, 


Jer.  37  :  11-21 ; 
21 ;  38;  39:15- 
18. 
Ezek.  80:20-26  j 

31. 

2Kin.  25:2, 4-7; 
Jcr.  52:5-7; 

39:2-7,11-14. 
2  Kin.  25:8-21: 
Jer.  52:12-30; 

39:8-10. 
Psa.  74,  79,  83, 

94. 

Lam.  1-5. 
2  Kin.  25: 22-24; 
Jer.  40:1-16. 

2  Kin.    25  :  25, 

26; 
Jer.  41-43:1-7. 

Jer.  43:8-13; 
46: 13-28;  44. 

Jer.  52:28-30. 


Ezek.  33:21-33. 
Ezek.  25,  27,  28-, 

32. 

Ezek.  33:1-20. 
Ezek.  34-37, 17, 

last  clause. 

5zek.  38,  39. 
Ezek.  40-48. 
Ezek.  29:17-21; 

30:1-19. 
Dan.  3. 
Dan.  4:1-27. 


STebuchadnezzar  sets  up  an  image, - 

Daniel  interprets  Nebuchadnezzar's  second  dream, 
Che  fulfilment  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream,  in  his 

madness,  and  subsequent  recovery, Dan.  4:28-37. 

Evil-Merodach  king  of  Babylon  releases  Jehoia-  j    2  Kin.  25 : 27-30 ; 

chin, ]   Jer.  52:31-34. 

Daniel's  first  vision  of  the  living  creatures, Dan.  7. 

Belshazzar's  feast.     Babylon  taken, Dan.  5. 

Daniel's  vision  of  the  ram  and  he-goat, Dan.  8. 

Daniel's  prayer  for  the  restoration  of  Jerusalem,  j    Dan.  9 

Prophecy  of  the  seventy  weeks, --  — j    Psa.  102. 

|  Daniel  cast  into  the  den  of  lions, I  Dan.  6. 

523 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  131BLE. 
PERIOD    V.— CONTINUED. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


B.  C. 

636. 


Jerusalem  and 
Babylon. 


Decree  of  Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  tem 
ple,  and  restoration  of  the  Jews  to  their  own 
country, 


Psalms  conjectured  to  have  been  written  during 
the  distresses  and  afflictions  of  the  church, 
chiefly  in  the  Babylonish  captivity, 


2Chr.  36:22, 23; 

Ezra  ]  :  1-4  ; 

Psa.  126,  85. 

Psa.  10,  13-15, 
25-27,  36,  37, 
49,  50,  53,  67, 
77,  80,  89,  92, 
93,  123,  130, 
137. 


IV.  FROM  THE   DECREE   OF   CYRUS,  B.  C.  536,  TO  THE   FINAL  PROPHECY  OF 
THE  OLD  TESTAMENT,  B.  C.  397,  ABOUT  139  YEARS. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


EVENT   OR   NARRATIVE 


BIBLE   REFERENCE. 


B.  0. 

FROM  THE  RETURN  OF  THE  JEWS  TO  THE 
DEDICATION  OF  THE  SECOND  TEMPLE. 

Ezra  1:5-11;  2; 

3:1-7 
536,  Jerusalem.  Return  of  the  Jews.     Cyras  restores  the  vessels  I    Psa.  87,  107, 

of  the  temple.     An  altar  set  up, 1        111-114,  116, 

117,  125, 127, 
128,  134. 
535,  Jerusalem.  Foundation  of  the  second  temple,  under  the      Ezra  3: 8-13; 

direction  of  Zerubbabel, Psa.  84,  66. 

534.  The  building  of  the  temple  interrupted  by  the      Ezra  4 : 1-5,  24 ; 

'Samaritans,  - - Psa.  129. 

Babylon.        The  last  vision  of  Daniel, Dan.  10-12. 

Ezra  4: 24;  5:1; 
Hag.  1:1-11; 
Ezra  5:2; 

620,  Jerusalem.  Building  of  the  temple  resumed.     Haggai  and      Hag.  1  : 12-15 ; 
Zechariah  incite  the  people  to  the  work,  and  -  '       2 : 1-9 ; 

exhort  them  to  repentance,  - Zech.  l:l-( 

Hag.  2:10-23: 
Zech.  1:7-21: 
2;  6;  2:5. 
Ezra  5: 3-17; 
519  The  building  of  the  temple  again  interrupted,  I        6 : 1-13  ; 

and  resumed, - |    Psa.  138  ; 

Zech.  7,  8. 
Ezra  6: 14-22; 

616.  Dedication  of  the  second  temple, 1    Psa.  48,  81, 146- 

150. 


524 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


PERIOD  Y. — CONTINUED. 


DATS  AND  PLACE. 


EVENT  OR  NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


FROM  THE  OPPOSITION  TO  THE  JEWS  IN 
THE  REIGN  OF  XERXES  TO  THE  DEATH 
OF  HAMAN. 


486.  Opposition  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes, Ezra  4:6. 

464.  Opposition  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longima- 

nus,  - - Ezra  4:7-23. 

462,  Susa.        Artaxerxes,   or  Ahasuerus,   divorces   Vashti   his 

queen, Esth.  1. 

458.  Ezra  commissioned  to  visit  Jerusalem, Ezra  7 : 2-14. 

457.  Artaxerxes  makes  Esther  queen, Esth.  2:1-20. 

Jerusalem.       Ezra  comes  to  Jerusalem ;  causes  the  people  to 

put  away  their  heathen  wives, Ez.  8  10,18-44. 

Concluding  prophecies  of  Zechariah, Zech.  9-14. 

Susa.            Mordecai  discovers  the  conspiracy  against  Ahasu 
erus,  Esth.  2:21-23. 

453,  452.        Plot  of  Haman  to  destroy  the  Jews,  and  its  de 
feat.     The  feast  of  Purim, Esth.  3-10. 

FROM  THE  FIRST  COMMISSION  OF  NEHE 
MIAH  TO  THE  CLOSING  OF  THE  OLD  TES 
TAMENT  CANON. 

445,  Susa.       Nehemiah  receives  a  commission  from  Artaxerxes 

to  visit  Jerusalem,  and  rebuild  the  wall, -  Neh.  1  ;  2:1-8. 

Jerusalem.       Nehemiah    arrives    at  Jerusalem.      Sanballat ) 

strives  to  hinder  the  work;    the    builders  [•   JNe/1;  '£ 

work  under  arms,-- - ) 

Nehemiah  relieves  the  Jews  oppressed  by  usury  ; 

his  own  generosity, !Neh.  5. 

The  wall  completed  by  the  Jews,  and  dedi- j    Neh.  6;  12:27- 

cated, |        43. 

Susa.  Nehemiah  returns  to  Persia,  - Neh.  7:1-4. 

f   Neh.    7  :  6-73  ; 

Jerusalem.      Second  commission  of  Nehemiah,  and  reforma-  J        ?'  9j  ^  '  |* ' 
tion, |        y.\ :  i3;i_3 

I  Psa.  1,  119. 

Malachi  prophesies  against  the  corruptions  intro-  j    Mai.  1,  2,  3  :  1- 
duced  during  the  second  absence  of  Nehemiah,  |        15. 

428.  Further  reformation  by  Nehemiah, Neh.  13:4-31. 

397.  Final  prophecy  of  the  Old  Testament, Mai.  3 : 16-18 ;  4, 

Detached  genealogies,  etc. ,  inserted  probably  at  j    1  Chr.  1-9  ; 
the  completion  of  the  canon, 1    Neh.  12: 10-26. 


525 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


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528 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX  TO  THE  BIBLE. 

PERIOD  VII. 

FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  JESUS  CHRIST  TO  THE  END  OF  THE  FIRST 

CENTURY. 


DATE  AND   PLACE. 


EVENT  OR   NARRATIVE. 


BIBLE  REFERENCE. 


A.  D 

1.  Nativity  of  Jesus  Christ,  (four  years  before  the 

common  era,) - Luke  2:1-16. 

12.  Jesus  visits  Jerusalem,  - Luke  2:41-52. 

18.  Augustus  Ca>sar  followed  by  Tiberius. 

26.  Pilate  sent  from  Rome  as  governor  of  Judea, Luke  3:1. 

29.  John  the  Baptist  begins  his  ministry, Matt.  3:1. 

30.  Jesus  baptized  by  John,  - ---  Matt.  3:1. 

33.  Jesus  Christ  was  crucilied,  and  rose  from  the  dead,  Matt.  27  ;  28. 

34.  Ananias  and  Sapphira  struck  dead, •--  Acts  5. 

35.  Stephen  stoned,  and  the  church  persecuted, Acts  6;  7. 

36.  Saul  converted, ----  Acts  9;  13:9. 

37.  Tiberius  dies,  and  is  followed  by  Caligula. 

38.  Conversion  of  the  Gentiles, «*-    Acts  10. 

41.  Caius  Caligula  succeeded  by  Claudius. 

42.  Herod  Agrippa  made  king  of  Judea. 

44.  James  beheaded  by  Herod  ;  Peter  liberated  b*  an 

angel, ----  Acts  12:1-10. 

54.  Claudius  CiEsar  followed  by  Nero. 

63.  Paul  sent  a  prisoner  to  Rome, »>-  Acts  2G ;  23. 

65.  The  Jewish  war  begins. 

67.  •      The  Roman  general  raises  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 

by  which  an  opportunity  is  afforded  for  the 
Christians  to  retire  to  Pella  beyond  Jordan,  as 
admonished  by  Christ, - Matt.  24 :  1G-21 

68.  Paul  suffers  martyrdom  at  Rome  by  order  of 

Nero, 2Tim.  4:6,  7. 

69.  Vespasian  made  emperor  by  his  army. 

70.  Jerusalem  besieged  and  taken  by  Titus  Vespa 

sian,  according  to  the  predictions  of  Christ ; 
when  1,100,000  Jews  perished,  by  famine, 
sword,  fire,  and  crucifixion;  besides  97,000 
who  were  sold  as  slaves,  and  vast  multitudes 
who  perished  in  other  parts  of  Judea, Luke  13:41-44. 

71.  Jerusalem  and  its  temple  razed  to  their  founda 

tions, Matt.  24:2. 

79.  Vespasian  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Titus.  Her- 

culaneum  and  Pompeii  destroyed  by  an  erup 
tion  of  Vesuvius. 

81.  Titus  dies,  and  is  succeeded,  by  Domitian. 

95.  John  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos,  by  Domi 

tian,  Rev.  1:9. 

96.  John  writes  the  Revelation. 

96.  Domitian  succeeded  by  Nerva. 

97.  John    liberated    from    exile.      New    Testament 

canon  closed. 

98.  Nerva  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Trajan. 

100.  John,  the  last  surviving  apostle,  dies,  about  one 

hundred  years  old. 

23 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  PROPHETS. 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  PROPHETS, 

SHOWING-   THE   PERIODS   DURING   WHICH  IT  IS   SUPPOSED  THEIR 
PROPHECIES   WERE   DELIVERED. 


r— 

KINGS   OF 
JUDAH 
CROW.VED. 

B.C. 

sdn 

9 
5 

JEREMIAII.  I 

EZEIUEL. 

DANIEL. 

-ti 

M 

J 

| 

7, 

< 

OKADIAH. 

JONAH. 

~, 
u 

£ 

NAHUM. 

HABAKKUK.  1 

ZEPHANIAH.  | 

HAGGAI. 

ZECHARIAH.  j 

MALACHI.  j 

KINGS    OF 
ISRAEL 
CROWNED. 

Amaziah,  831. 

1 

Jeroboam  II.,  £25 

C|  f\ 

1 

Uzziah,  8K 
Sill) 

I 

1 

j 

1 

nterregnum,  78 

Menahem,  772 

Tekahiah,  761 

760  

Jotham,  75: 

yso 

Pekah,  759  | 

i 

Ahaz,  74-. 

•yjji 

Anarchy,  739 

Hezekiah,  7i(- 
720  

-%  |  |h 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

I 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Hrsea,  730 
0 

700  

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— 

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Gj°Amo:llti,:i 

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630  
no  /| 

— 

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— 

— 

- 

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1 

— 

— 

— 

L 

S- 

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5' 

0? 

w  o' 

Jehoahaz,  OH 
610  

— 

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— 

— 

— 

— 

1 

— 

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o  3 

g? 

600  

Jeconiah,  591 
*5Oil 

— 

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- 

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— 

- 

— 

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TABLES 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  MONEY,  MENTIONED 
IN  THE  BIBLE. 


1.  JEWISH  WEIGHTS,  REDUCED  TO  ENGLISH  TROY  WEIGHTS. 

Ibs.    oz.  pen.  gr. 

The  gerah,  one  twentieth  of  a  shekel, 0    0      0     12 

Bekah,  half  a  shekel, - 0050 

The  shekel, - - 0    0     10      0 

The  maneh,  60  shekels, - 2600 

The  talent,  50  manehs,  or  3,000  shekels, 125     000 


2.  SCRIPTURE  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH,  REDUCED  TO  ENGLISH 

MEASURE. 

Eng.  ft.  Inches. 

A  digit, - - 0      0.912 

4  =  A  palm, ---    0      3.648 

12=      3=Aspan, -- 0  10.944 

24=      6=      2  =  Acubit, ---     1      9.888 

96=    24=      8=    4  =  A  fathom,  -  -  -  ---     7      3.552 

144=    36=    12=    6  =  1.5  =  Ezekiel'sreed, 10  11.328 

192=    48=    16=    8=     2=    1.3  =  An  Arabian  pole, 14      7.104 

1920  =  480  =  100  =  80  =  20  =  13.3  =  10  =  A  measuring  line,  -  -  -145  11.04 


3.  THE  LONG  SCRIPTURE  MEASURES. 

Ens.  miles,  races.  Feet. 

A  ciibit, - ---.-  0  0  1.824 

400  —  A  stadium,  or  furlong, ---0  145  4.6 

2000  =      5  -    A  sabbath-day's  journey, -  -  -  0  729  3 

4000=    10=    2  =  An  eastern  mile,  --- --           ---1  403  1 

12000=    30=    6=    3  =  Aparasang, - 4  153  3 

96000  =  240  =  48  =  24  =  8  =  A  day's  journey, - 33  172  4 

NOTE.— 5  feet  =-  1  pace  ;  1,05^  paces  =  1  mile. 
532 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

4.  SCRIPTURE  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY  FOR  LIQUIDS,  REDUCED 
TO  ENGLISH  WINE  MEASURE. 

Gal.  pints. 

Acaph, --  0  0.625 

1.3  =  A  log,  --  .-0  0.833 

5.3  =      4  =  A  cab,--  .-  0  8.333 

1G     =    12  =      3  =  Ahin,--'  --c-  ---1  2 

32     =    24  =      6  =    2  =  A  scah,  -  -  -  2  4 

DG     =    72=    18=    6=    3  =  A  bath,  ephah,  or  firkin,--  -7  4.50 

900     =  720  =  180  =  GO  =  30  =  10  =  A  kor,  chores,  cr  homer, -75  5.25 


5.  SCRIPTURE   MEASURES   OF  CAPACITY  FOR  THINGS  DRY, 
REDUCED  TO  ENGLISH  CORN  MEASURE. 

Eu.  Tks.  Gal.  Tints. 

Agachal, -  0      0     0      0.1-11 

20  =  Acab, - -- --  0      0     0     2.833 

30  =      1.8  =  An  omcr,  or  gomer, '0      0      0      5.1 

120=      6     =      3.3  =  Aseah,  --  -0      1      0      1 

300=    18     =    10     =    3  =  Ancphah,  --  -0     3     0     3 

1800=    90     =    50     =15=    5  =  Alctcch, -4001- 

3000  =  180     =100     =  SO  =  10  =  2  =  A  homer,  or  Lor,----  8     001 


6.  JEWISH  MONEY,  REDUCED  TO  THE  ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN 

STANDARDS. 

£  s.         d.  $     cts. 

Agcrah, --- 0  0    1.3087          002.5 

10  =  Abckah, ---       0  1     1.CS75          025.09 

20=       2  =  A  shekel,  -  -  0  2     3.375  050.187 

1200=    120=      50  =  A  manch,  or  minaHebr.,       5  14    0.75  2509.35 

00000  =  0000  =  3000  =  00  —  A  talent,- -  -  342  3     9  1505  62.5 

A  solidus  aurcus,  or  sextula,  was  worth --       0  12     0.5  204.09 

A  siclus  aureus,  or  gold  shekel,  was  worth 1  16     0  8  03 

A  talent  of  gold  was  worth -  -5475  00  24309  00 

In  the  preceding  table,  silver  is  valued  at  5s.  and  gold  at  £4  per  ounce. 


7.  ROMAN  MONEY,   MENTIONED   IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT,   RE 
DUCED  TO  THE  ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  STANDARDS. 

£     s.     d.      far.  $      cts. 

A  mite, -000    0.75  000.343 

A  farthing,  about --  --  0    0    0     1.50  000.087 

A  penny,  or  denarius,--  •-  0    0    7    2  013.75 

A  pound,  or  mina, -- - -  3260  13  75 

533 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 

OF 

TOPICS  TO  BE  NOTICED  IN  HEADING  THE  BIBLE. 


The  inspired  writing's  are  infinitely  rich  in  truth,  and  each  verse  is  so  con 
nected  with  the  rest  that  an  intelligent  inquirer  may  easily  extend  his  investiga 
tions  from  one  passage  over  the  whole  of  Scripture.  Without  attempting  to 
exhaust  topics  of  inquiry,  we  mention  the  following.  The  letters  may  be  prefixed 
to  each  verse,  or  not,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  reader. 


B. 


What  analogies  between  sensible  and 
spiritual  things  may  be  here  traced  ? 

What  prophecy  is  here  accomplished? 
where  found  ?  when  written  ?  what 
rule  of  interpretation  is  illustrat 
ed? 

What  blessing  is  here  sought  or  ac 
knowledged,  or  promised,  and 
\vhy  ? 

What  custom  is  here  referred  to  ? 

What  trait  of  character  is  here  given  ? 
good  or  bad  ?  belonging  to  our  nat 
ural  or  our  renewed  state  ?  what 
advantages  are  connected  with  it  ? 

What  doctrine  is  here  taught?  how 
illustrated  ?  what  its  practical  in 
fluence  ? 

What  difficulty  is  here  found  in  his 
tory  or  in  doctrine  ?  how  explain 
ed? 

What  evangelical  or  other  experience  is 
here  recorded  ? 

What  example  is  here  placed  before 
us?  of  sin  or  of  holiness?  les 
sons  ? 

What  facts  arc  here  related?  what 
doctrine  or  duty  do  they  illustrate  ? 
do  you  commend  or  blame  them, 
and  why? 

What  is  here  forUdden  ?  in  thought, 
word,  or  deed  ? 

What  is  the  geographical  position  of 
tints  country,  or  place?  and  what 
its  history  ? 

What  facts  of  natural  history  or  of 
general  history  are  here  referred  to 
or  illustrated  ? 

What  institution  or  ordinance  is  here 
mentioned  ?  on  whom  binding  ? 
what  its  design?  what  its  connec 
tion  with  other  institutions? 

What   instructions   may   be    gathered 


from  this  fact,  or  parable,  or  mir 
acle? 

K.  What  knoidcdge  of  human  nature,  or 
want  of  knowledge,  is  here  dis 
played  ? 

L.  What  Levitical  institute  is  here  men 
tioned?  why  appointed? 

M.  What  miracle  is  here   recorded?   by 
whom  wrought?  in  whose  name? 
what   were   its   results  ?     -what   is 
hereby  taught? 
What   is   worthy   of  notice   in   this 

name  ? 

What  obligation  or  duty  is  here  en 
forced  ?  how  ?  and  from  what  mo 
tives  ? 

P.  What  promise  is  here  given?  to 
whom  ? 

p.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  parable 
here  given?  what  truth  as  to  God, 
Christ,  man,  "the  kingdom,"  is 
taught? 

Q.  What  important  question  is  here  pro 
posed?  what  is  the  true  answer? 

R.  What  prophecy  is  here  recorded?  is  it 
fulfilled?  how?  when? 

S.   What  sin  is  here  exposed  ? 

s.  What  sect  is  here  introduced?  men 
tion  its  tenets. 

T.   What  type  is  here  traced  ? 

t.    What  threatening ?  when  inflicted? 

U.  What  unjustifiable  action  of  a  good 
man  ?  what  unusual  excellence  in 
one  not  pious  ? 

IF.  What  woe  is  here  denounced  ;  what 
warning  given  ?  against  whom,  and 
why  ? 

JL.  What  is  here  taught  of  the  work, 
character,  person  of  Christ  ? 

x,  Wbat  sublimity  of  thought  or  of  lan- 
'     gtiage  id  here  ?  what  inference  fol 
lows  ? 


534 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 

Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  date  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 

PEB10197259 

BEtTDCD    JUNU73-5PM      f 


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